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JAHN'S 


BIBLICAL  ARCHAEOLOGY, 


TRANSLATED  FROM  THE  LATIN, 


WITH  ADDITIONS  AND  CORRECTIONS, 


BY  THOMAS  C.  UPHAM, 

Professor  of  Moral  and  Intellectual  Philosophy,  and  of  the  Hebrew  Language 
in  Bowdoin  College. 


THIRD  EDITION. 


ANDOVER : 

PUBLISHED  AND  FOR  SALE  BY  MARK  NEWMAN. 
FLAGG  AND  GOULD. ...PRINTERS 

1832. 


DISTRICT  OF  MASSACHUSETTS,  to  wit : 


District  Clerk's  Office. 

Be  it  remembered,  that  on  the  4th  ilay  of  January,  A.  D.  1823,  and  in  the  forty-seventh  year 
of  the  Independence  of  the  United  States  of  America,  Thomas  C.  Upham,  of  the  said  dis- 
trict, has  deposited  in  this  office  the  title  of  a  book,  the  right  whereof  he  claims  as  Propri- 
etor, in  the  words  following,  to  wit:  "  Jahn's  Biblical  Archaeology,  translated  from  the  Latin, 
with  additions  and  corrections,  By  Thomas  C.  Upham,  A.  M.  Assistant  Teacher  of  Hebrew  and 
Greek  in  the  Theological  Seminary,  Andover."  In  conformity  to  the  Act  of  the  Congress  of  the 
United  States,  entitled,  "  An  Act  for  the  Encouragement  of  Learning,  by  securing  the  copies 
of  maps,  charts  and  books,  to  the  authors  and  proprietors  of  such  copies,  during  the  times 
therein  mentioned :"  and  also  to  an  Act  entitled,  "  An  Act  supplementary  to  an  Aet,  en- 
titled, An  Act  for  the  Encouragement  of  Learning,  by  securing  the  copies  of  maps,  charts 
and  books,  to  the  authors  and  proprietors  of  such  copies,  during  the  times  therein  mentioned; 
and  extending  the  benefits  thereof  to  the  arts  of  designing,  engraving  and  etching  historical  and 
other  prints."  Tnmv  w  n*  vies  S  Clerk  of  the  District 

jumi\  w.uavis  I  of  Massachusetts. 


PREFACE. 


PREFACE  TO  THE  SECOND  EDITION. 

This  Translation,  of  which  a  second  edition  is  now  offered 
to  the  public,  was  undertaken  at  the  suggestion  and  desire  of 
Professor  Stuart  of  the  Theological  Seminary  at  Andover  ; 
and  was  first  published  at  that  place  in  February  of  1823.  For 
the  encouragement  and  aid,  which  Professor  Stuart  afforded 
him  in  this  undertaking,  and  for  the  assistance,  which  he  receiv- 
ed in  various  ways  from  other  gentlemen  of  the  Theological  Sem- 
inary, with  which  the  Translator  was  at  that  time  connected  as 
an  assistant  instructer,  he  embraces  this  opportunity  to  repeat  his 
grateful  acknowledgements. 

The  author  of  the  original  work  is  Dr.  John  Jahn,  who  was 
formerly  Professor  of  Oriental  Languages  in  the  University  of  Vi- 
enna. It  was  at  first  written  in  the  German  Language,  and  ex- 
tended through  five  octavo  volumes.  Being  of  such  extent,  and 
accompanied  with  numerous  plates,  it  was  found  too  expensive 
for  common  use,  and  after  numerous  solicitations  to  that  effect, 
was  abridged  by  the  author  himself,  translated  into  Latin,  and 
printed  in  a  single  octavo  volume.  The  Translation  into  En- 
glish, which  is  now  presented  to  the  public,  is  made  from  the  se- 
cond edition  of  the  Latin  Abridgment,  printed  at  Vienna  in  1814. 

The  Translator,  in  fulfilling  his  task,  has  constantly  had  be- 
fore him  the  original  German  Edition,  and  it  is  proper  for  him 
to  remark,  that  where  he  noticed  an  observation  in  the  German 
which  seemed  to  be  important,  and  which  promised  to  instruct 
and  interest  the  English  reader,  but  which,  nevertheless,  was  not 
in  the  Latin,  he  has  ventured  in  a  considerable  number  of  instan- 


IV 


PREFACE. 


ces,  to  translate  and  insert  it.  In  doing  this,  he  has  considerably 
increased  the  labour  and  responsibility,  which  devolved  upon  him, 
but  it  is  believed  the  work  has  thereby  been  rendered  more  valua- 
ble. It  is  hardly  necessary  to  remark  that,  in  order  to  learn  the 
additions  and  alterations,  and  the  grounds  on  which  they  have  been 
made,  it  will  be  found  important  to  compare  the  translation  with  the 
German,  as  well  as  with  the  Latin. 

The  notes,  which  have  been  occasionally  inserted,  and  the 
extracts,  which,  in  order  to  render  some  articles  more  complete, 
than  they  would  otherwise  have  been,  it  has  been  thought,  proper 
to  insert,  are  distinguished  from  the  text  of  Jahn,  by  being  enclos- 
ed with  brackets.  Many  errors  in  the  references  have  been  correc- 
ted ;  and  in  the  present  edition  the  reader  will  find  a  full  and  valua- 
ble Index  of  the  passages  referred  to. 

For  this  Index  the  translator  here  acknowledges  his  obliga- 
tions to  the  interest  taken  in  this  work  by  Mr.  Smith  Travers 
of  the  City  of  Washington.  It  was  made  out  with  much  care 
and  labour  by  Mr.  Travers  soon  after  the  publication  of  the 
first  edition,  and  is  now  with  pleasure  presented  to  the  reader 
with  only  a  few  alterations  from  his  copy.  Other  minor  improve- 
ments will  be  found  in  this  edition ;  and  it  is  confidently  hoped  that 
the  work  will  be  found  in  all  respects  a  valuable  assistant  to  the 
biblical  student  in  acquiring  a  knowledge  of  the  Holy  Scriptures. 

THOMAS  C.  UPHAM. 

Bowdoin  College,  Brunswick,  Me. 
November  30, 1827. 


CONTENTS. 


Section. 

1.  Biblical  Archaeology. 

2.  Its  importance  to  a  Theologian. 

3.  The  sources  of  Biblical  Archaeology. 

PART  I, 

CHAP.  I. 
ON  DOMESTIC  ANTIQUITIES. 

4.  Biblical  Geography. 

5.  Aramea. 

6.  Phenicia. 

7.  Media. 

8.  Persia,  Susiana,  Elymais. 

9.  Babylonia,  Chaldea. 

10.  Arabia. 

11.  Egypt. 

12.  Gessen  or  Goshen,  and  the  river  of  Egypt. 

13.  Extent  and  boundaries  of  the  Hebrew  terri- 

tories. 

14.  Face  of  the  country,  Mountains. 

15.  Plains. 

16.  Forests. 

17.  Deserts. 

18.  The  Jordan,  Lake  Merom,  and  Gennesareth. 

19.  The  Dead  Sea. 

20.  Other  Rivers. 

21.  On  the  climate  of  Palestine. 

22.  Fertility  of  the  soil. 

23.  Calamities  to  which  Palestine  is  subject. 

24.  Division  of  Palestine  among  the  Israelites. 

25.  Division  of  Palestine  in  the  time  of  Christ. 

CHAP.  II. 
OF  DWELLINGS. 

26.  The  earliest  shelters  were  shady  trees  and 

caves. 

27.  The  more  recent  Troglodytes  or  dwellers  in 

C3.VGS» 

28.  Tabernacles. 

29.  On  Tents. 

30.  Formation  of  Tents. 

31.  Internal  structure  of  Tents. 

32.  Houses. 

33.  Size  of  Houses. 

34.  Form  and  roof  of  Houses. 

35.  The  Gate,  Porch,  Area  or  open  court,  female 

apartments. 

36.  Chambers  and  other  Apartments. 

37.  Doors,  and  methods  of  securing  them. 

38.  Windows. 

39.  Materials  for  building. 

40.  Household  furniture  and  utensils. 

41.  Villages,  Towns,  Cities. 

chap.  nr. 

OF  THE  NOMADES. 

42.  Antiquity  &c  of  the  Nomades. 

43.  Of  Pastures. 

44.  Emigrations  of  the  Nomades. 

45.  Fountains  and  cisterns. 

46.  Flocks  of  the  Nomades. 

47.  Animals  of  the  Ox  kind. 

48.  Of  Asses  and  Mules. 


Section. 

49.  Camels. 

50.  Horses. 

51.  Dogs. 

52.  Of  Hunting. 

53.  Of  robberies  committed  on  Travellers. 

CHAP.  IV. 
ON  AGRICULTURE. 

54.  Its  value  and  importance. 

55.  Laws  of  Moses  in  regard  to  Agriculture. 

56.  Estimation  in  which  Agriculture  was  held. 

57.  Means  of  increasing  Fertility. 

58.  Different  kinds  of  Grain. 

59.  Instruments  of  Agriculture. 

60.  Animals  used  in  Agriculture. 

61.  Preparation  of  the  Land. 

62.  Harvest. 

63.  Threshing  Floor. 

64.  Threshing. 

65.  Ventilation. 

66.  Of  Vines  and  Vineyards. 

67.  Situation  and  arrangement  of  Vineyards. 

68.  Culture  of  Vineyards. 

69.  Vintage  and  Winepress. 

70.  Gardens. 

71.  Of  Olive-Trees 

72.  The  Fig-Tree. 

73.  The  Pomegranate. 

74.  The  Balsam. 

75.  The  Palm. 

76.  Terebinths  and  Pistacias. 

77.  Bees  and  Honey. 

78.  Fishing. 

79.  The  fallow  Year. 

CHAP.  V. 
OF  THE  ARTS. 

80.  On  the  Origin  of  the  Arts. 

81.  State  of  the  Arts  from  the  Deluge  till  Moses. 

82.  The  Arts  among  the  Hebrews  in  the  time  of 

Moses. 

83.  Arts  among  the  Hebrews  in  Palestine. 

84.  State  of  the  Arts  after  the  Captivity. 

85.  Antiquity  of  the  Art  of  Writing. 

86.  The  extension  of  Alphabetical  Writing. 

87.  Materials  and  Instruments  of  Writing. 

88.  Respecting  Books. 

89.  Of  Epistles. 

90.  On  Poetry. 

91.  Character  of  the  Hebrew  Poetry. 

92.  On  Music. 

93.  Uses  of  Music  among  the  Hebrews. 

94.  Stringed  Instruments. 

95.  Wind  Instruments. 

96.  Different  sorts  of  Drums. 

97.  On  Dancing. 

CHAP.  VI. 
ON  THE  SCIENCES. 

98.  The  origin  of  the  Sciences. 

I  99.  History,  Genealogy,  and  Chronology. 
;  100.  Arithmetic,  Mathematics,  Astronomy,  and 
Astrology. 


VI 


CONTENTS. 


Section. 

101.  Division  of  Day  and  Night. 

102.  Of  Weeks. 

J 03.  Of  the  Months  and  the  Year. 

104.  Surveying,  Mechanic  Arts,  and  Geography. 

105.  Medicine. 

106.  Physics,  Natural  History  and  Philosophy. 

Note.   Academical  Degree. 

CHAP.  VII. 
OF  COMMERCE. 

107.  Antiquity  of  Commerce. 

108.  Commerce  of  the  Phenicians,  Arabians,  and 

Egyptians. 

109.  Mercantile  Routes. 

110.  Method  of  carrying  goods  by  land. 

111.  Commerce  of  the  Hebrews. 

112.  Weights  and  Measures. 

113.  Measures  of  length. 

114.  Hollow  Measures. 

115.  Weights  and  Money. 

116.  Weights  and  Money  before  the  Captivity. 

117.  Weights  and  Money  after  the  Captivity. 

CHAP.  VIII. 
ON  CLOTHING. 
T18.  Materials  of  which  clothes  were  made. 

119.  Colours  of  Cloths. 

120.  The  Tunic. 

121.  The  Girdle. 

122.  Of  Upper  Garments. 

123.  Sandals  and  Shoes. 

124.  Of  the  Beard. 

125.  Of  the  Hair. 

126.  Coverings  for  the  Head. 

127.  Of  the  Veil. 

128.  Staff,  Seal,  and  Rings. 

129.  Ladies'  Rings  and  Pendants. 

130.  Necklaces,  Bracelets,  &c. 

131.  Amulets. 

132.  Mirrors. 

133.  Purse  and  Napkins. 

134.  Painting  and  Branding  or  Sealing. 

135.  Dress  at  Festivals  and    on  occasions  of 

Mourning. 

CHAP.  IX. 
CONCERNING  FOOD  AND  FEASTS. 

136.  Of  Food  in  general. 

137.  Preparation  of  Food  by  Fire. 

138.  Of  Mills. 

139.  Grinding. 

140.  Baking  bread  in  an  oven. 

141.  On  the  different  kinds  of  Food. 

142.  Of  Roasting. 

143.  Inlerdicted  Food. 

144.  Beverage. 

145.  Time  and  circumstances  of  taking  Refresh- 

ment. 

146.  Table  and  method  of  Sitting. 

147.  Mode  of  Eating. 

148.  Of  Feasts. 

149.  Hospitality  of  the  Orientals. 

CHAP.  X. 

ON  THE  STATE  OF  DOMESTIC  SOCIETY. 

150.  Precautions  against  Fornication. 

151.  Polygamy. 

152.  The  choice  of  a  Wife. 

153.  The  Marriage  Vow  and  Dowry. 

154.  Celebration  of  Nuptials. 

155.  Concubines. 

156.  Fruitfulness  in  the  Marriage  State. 

157.  Marriage  of  a  Childless  Brother's  Widow. 


Section. 

lo*.  Concerning  Adultery. 

159.  The  Suspected  Wife. 

160.  Bill  of  Divorce. 

161.  Child-Birth. 

162.  Circumcision. 

163.  Antiquity  of  Circumcision. 

164.  On  the  Naming  of  Children. 

165.  Concerning  the  First-Born. 

166.  The  Nurture  of  Children. 

167.  The  power  of  the  Father. 

168.  Of  the  Testament  or  Will. 

169.  Respecting  Slaves. 

170.  Ways  in  which  men  became  Slaves. 

171.  Condition  of  slaves  among  the  Hebrews. 

172.  Condition  of  slaves  among  other  Nations. 

CHAP.  XI. 

CHARACTER  AND  SOCIAL  INTERCOURSE 
OF  THE  HEBREWS. 

173.  Character  of  the  Hebrews. 

174.  Propriety  and  refinement  of  Manners. 

175.  Mode  of  Salutation. 

176.  On  Visiting. 

177.  Of  Gifts. 

178.  Kinds  of  presents  and  methods  of  bringing 

them. 

179.  Public  Honours. 

180.  Conversation  and  Bathing. 

181.  Treatment  of  the  Jews  to  Strangers. 

182.  The  Poor  and  Beggars. 

183.  Levitical  Defilements. 

CHAP.  XII. 
OF  DISEASES. 

184.  Of  Diseases  generally. 

185.  Disease  of  the  Philistines  mentioned  in  1 

Sam.  5—6. 

186.  Disease  of  King  Jehoram. 

187.  False  Conceptions. 

188.  Countries  where  the  Leprosy  prevails. 

189.  Beginnings  and  progress  of  Leprosy. 

Note.  I.  On  Bohak  as  distinct  from  infec- 
tious Leprosy. 
II.  On  the  Leprosy  of  Guadaloupe. 

190.  On  the  Pestilence 

191.  The  disease  of  Saul  and  Nebuchadnezzar. 

192.  Respecting  Demoniacs. 

193.  Demoniacs  were  possessed  with  a  devil. 

194.  General  view  of  the  opposite  argument. 

195.  Symptoms  in  Demoniacs,  the  same  with 

those  in  diseased  persons. 

196.  The  Apostles,  Evangelists,  and  Christ  re- 

garded Demoniacs  as  diseased  persons. 

197.  Real  possessions  inconsistent  with  the  doc- 

trine of  Jesus  and  his  Apostles. 

198.  Pool  near  the  Sheep  Market  at  Jerusalem. 

199.  Concerning  Paralytics. 

200.  The  death  of  Judas  Iscariot. 

201.  Blindness  of  the  sorcerer  Bar-Jesus. 

202.  Disease  of  Herod  Agrippa. 

CHAP.  XIII. 
CONCERNING    DEATH,    BURIALS,  AND 
MOURNING. 

203.  On  Death. 

204.  Treatment  of  tho  Corpse,  Embalming, 

205.  Of  Funerals. 

206.  Situation  of  Sepulchres. 

207.  Sepulchres. 

Note.  I.  Maundrellon  the  Sepulchres  of  tho 
Kings. 

II.  Harmer  on  the  White-washing  of 
Sepulchres. 

208.  Articles,  which  were  buried  with  the  dead. 

209.  Sepulchral  Monuments. 


CONTENTS. 


VI! 


Section. 

210.  Burning  of  the  Corpse. 

211.  Of  Mourning. 

212.  Other  causes  of  Mourning.  \ 

PART  II. 

ON  POLITICAL  ANTIQUITIES. 
CHAP.  I. 

ON  THE  HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH. 

213.  Patriarchal  Government. 

214.  The  Fundamental  Law  of  the  Mosaic  Insti- 

tutions. 

215.  Condition  of  the  Hebrews,  as  respected  oth- 

er Nations. 

216.  Principal  Officers  in  the  Hebrew  State. 

217.  Connexion  of  the  Tribes  with  each  other. 

218.  The  Comitia  or  Legislative  Assemblies. 

219.  Form  of  Government  a  mixed  one. 

220.  The  Ruler  of  the  Israelitish  Community. 

221.  The  Theocracy. 

222.  Historical  Tables. 

CHAP.  II. 

OF  KINGS,  OFFICERS  OF  STATE,  AND 
OTHER  MAGISTRATES. 

223.  The  Anointing  of  Kings. 

224.  Royal  Robe,  Diadem,  and  Crown. 

225.  The  Throne. 

226.  The  Sceptre. 

227.  The  Royal  Table. 

228.  Seclusion  of  Kings,  Journeys,  etc. 

229.  Royal  Palace  and  Gardens. 

230.  Veneration   paid  to  Kings,  and  Titles, 

which  were  bestowed  upon  them. 

231.  The  duties  of  the  Hebrew  Monarchs. 

232.  Extent  of  the  Royal  power  and  preroga- 

tives. 

233.  Methods  of  promulgating  Laws,  etc. 

234.  On  the  Royal  Revenues. 

235.  Magistrates  under  the  Monarchy. 

236.  Officers  of  the  Palace. 

237.  The  King's  Harem. 

238.  The  method,  in  which  the  Officers  and  oth- 

ers held  intercourse  with  the  King. 

239.  Magistrates  during  and  after  the  Captivi- 

ty. 

240.  Tetrarchs. 

241.  Roman  Procurators. 

242.  Of  the  Tribute  and  Half  Shekel  of  the  Tem- 

ple. 

CHAP.  III. 
OF  TRIALS  AND  PUNISHMENTS. 

243.  Of  Judges. 

244.  The  Sanhedrim. 

Note.  Of  the  Sanhedrim  instituted  by  Moses. 

245.  Other  Tribunals  in  the  time  of  Christ. 

246.  The  time  of  Trials. 

247.  The  Forum  or  place  of  Trials. 

248.  Form  of  Trial. 

249.  Prisons  and  Tortures. 

250.  Regulations,  etc.  in  respect  to  Debtors. 

251.  On  Usury. 

252.  The  smallest  Punishment. 

253.  Fines  and  Indemnifications. 

254.  Punishment  of  Theft. 

255.  Corporal  Punishments. 

256.  On  Retaliation. 

257.  Mosaic  Punishments. 

258.  Excision  from  the  people.  Excommunica- 

tion. 

259.  Of  punishments,  which  consist  of  Posthu- 

mous insults. 

260.  Punishments,  introduced   from  other  Na- 

tions. 


Section. 

26).  Crucifixion,  as  practised   among  the  Ro- 
mans. 

262.  The  cruelties  of  Crucifixion. 

263.  The  Public  Executioner. 

264.  Of  the  Blood-Avenger,  and  Cities  of  Refuge. 

265.  Of  the  unknown  Murderer. 

CHAP.  IV. 
ON  MILITARY  AFFAIRS. 

266.  General  View  of  Military  Science. 

267.  General  Military  Enrolment. 

268.  Of  the  Levy  for  Actual  Service. 

269.  Divisions,  etc.  introduced  into  Armies. 

270.  Military  Reviews  and  Inspections. 

271.  Of  Shields. 

272.  The  Helmet. 

273.  Cuirass,  Breastplate,  or  Coat  of  Mail. 

274.  Greaves  and  Military  Frock. 

275.  On  Fortifications. 

276.  Arm3,  with  which  the  Soldiers  fought  hand 

to  hand. 

277.  Of  Javelins. 

278.  Of  the  Bow,  Arrow,  and  Quiver. 

279.  Of  the  Sling. 

280.  Of  Engines,  used  in  war. 

281.  Battering  Rams. 

282.  Respecting  the  Cavalry. 

283.  Of  Chariots  of  War. 

284.  Sports  and  Exercises  preparatory  to  War. 

285.  Gymnastic  Sports. 

286.  Of  Encampments. 

287.  On  Military  Marches. 

288.  Military  Standards. 

289.  Respecting  War. 

290.  Preparations  for  Battle. 

291.  Of  the  Battle. 

292.  On  Sieges. 

29.3.  Circumvallation. 

294.  The  Besieger's  Mound. 

295.  Consequences  of  Victory. 

296.  Severities  of  ancient  warfare. 

297.  Justice  of  the  war  against  the  Canaanites. 
Note.  Right  of  the  Israelites  to  Palestine. 

298.  On  the  division  of  the  Spoils. 

299.  Respecting  the  Spoils,  which  the  Hebrews 

took  away  from  the  Egyptians. 

300.  Periods,  when  there  was  a  cessation  from 

hostilities. 

PART  III. 

ON  SACRED  ANTIQUITIES. 
CHAP.  I. 

HISTORICAL  VIEW  OF  THE  RELIGION 
OF  THE  BIBLE. 

301.  Religion  down  to  the  Deluge. 

302.  from  the  Deluge  to  Abraham. 

303.  Abraham,  Isaac',  and  Jacob. 

304.  Respecting  the  religion  of  the  Patriarchs. 

305.  Respecting  Moses. 

306.  On  the  question,  "  Whether  Moses  taught 

the  existence  of  a  merely  national  God  ?" 

307.  On  the  question,  "  Whether  the  character 

of  Jehovah,  as  represented  by  Moses,  is 
merely  that  of  a  being  inexorably  just  ."' 

308.  Respecting    the  regulations,   which  were 

made  in  order  to  preserve  the  true  Reli- 
gion. 

309.  On  the  moral  tendency  of  the  instruetions 

and  institutions  of  Moses. 

310.  On  the  question,  "  Whether  there  arc  Types 

in  the  Laws  of  Moses  !" 

311.  Sketch  of  Religion  from  Moses  till  after  the 

Babylonish  Captivity. 

312.  Perseverance  of  the  Hebrews  in  their  Reli- 

gion after  the  Captivity. 


Vill 


CONTENTS. 


Section. 

313.  Respecting  the  knowledge  of  God  before  the 

time  of  Christ,  as  developed  by  Philosophy. 

314.  On  the  condition  of  Man  after  Death. 

315.  Respecting  the  Propagation  of  Judaism. 

316.  General  state  of  Jewish  affairs. 

317.  On  the  Antiquity  of  the  Jewish  Religious 

sects. 

318.  On  the  doctrine  of  the  Pharisees. 

319.  Defects  in  the  moral  principles  and  practice 

of  the  Pharisees. 

320.  On  the  traditions  of  the  Pharisees. 

321.  Galileans  and  Zealots. 

322.  Respecting  the  Sadducees. 
3:23.  Essene3  and  Therapeutae. 

324.  Concerning  the  Hellenists. 

325.  Concerning  Proselytes. 
32G.  Concerning  the  Samaritans. 

CHAP.  It 
OF  SACRED  PLACES. 

327.  Of  Sacred  Places  in  general. 

328.  Of  the  Tabernacle. 

3-29.  The  Altar  and  the  Brazen  Laver. 

330.  The  Golden  Candlestick. 

331.  Of  the  Table  of  Shew-Bread. 

332.  The  Altar  of  Incense. 

333.  Ark  of  the  Covenant  in  the  Holy  of  Holies. 

334.  Respecting  the  Holy  Land. 

335.  Of  Jerusalem,  the  Holy  City. 

336.  Mount  Moriah. 

337.  Of  the  Temple  of  Solomon. 

338.  The  Sanctuary  of  Solomon's  Temple.  . 

339.  Of  the  Temple  of  Zerubbabel. 

340.  Of  the  Temple  of  Herod. 

341.  Of  the  gates  of  Herod's  Temple. 

342.  Porches  in  the  Temple  of  Herod. 

343.  Of  the  Sanctuary. 

344.  Origin  of  Synagogues. 

345.  Of  the  Structure,  otc.  of  Synagogues. 

CHAP.  HI. 
OF  SACRED  SEASONS. 

346.  On  the  Antiquity  of  the  Sabbath. 

347.  On  the  design  of  the  Sabbath. 

348.  Concerning  those  things,  which  were  to  be 

omitted  on  the  Sabbath. 

349.  Concerning  those  things,  which  were  per- 

mitted to  be  done  on  the  Sabbath. 

350.  Concerning  the  Sabbatic  Year. 

351.  Of  the  Year  of  Jubilee. 

352.  New  Moons  and  Feast  of  the  New  Year. 

353.  Of  the  great  Festivals  in  general. 

354.  Of  the  Passover. 

355.  Of  the  Pentecost. 

356.  Of  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles. 

357.  On  the  Day  of  Propitiation. 

358.  Of  other  Fasts. 

359.  Of  the  Feast,  of  Purim. 

360.  On  the  Festival  Encaenia,  otherwise  called 

the  Festival  of  the  purification  of  the 
Temple. 

CHAP.  IV. 
OF  SACRED  PERSONS. 

361.  Of  the  Jews,  considered  as  a  holy  people. 

362.  Of  persons  officially  employed  in  discharg- 

ing religious  duties. 

363.  Of  the  servants,  who  were  allotted  to  the 

sanctuary. 


Section. 

364.  Of  the  Consecration  of  the  Levites. 

365.  Of  the  Duties  of  the  Levites. 

366.  Of  the  Priests. 

367.  The  consecration  of  the  Priests  and  of  the 

High-Priest. 

368.  Concerning  the  Dress  of  the  Priests. 

369.  Of  the  Duties  of  the  Priests. 

370.  Dress  of  the  High-Priest. 

Some  account  of  Urim  and  Tkummim. 
Note.    Remarks  of  Michaelis  on  Urim  and 
Thummim. 

371.  On  the  Question,  Whether  Priests  and  Le- 

vites were  Public  Teachers  \ 

372.  Officers  in  the  Synagogues. 

CHAP.  V. 
OF  SACRED  THINGS. 

373.  On  the  question,  What  is  a  Sacrifice  ! 

374.  On  the  Origin  of  Sacrifices. 

375.  On  the  division  or  kinds  of  Sacrifices. 

376.  The  place  of  Sacrifices. 

377.  Of  Bloody  Sacrifices. 

378.  Ceremonies  at  the  offering  of  Sacrifices. 

379.  Of  Holocausts  or  whole  Burnt-Offerings. 

380.  Of  Sin-Offerings. 

381.  Of  Trespass-Offerings. 

382.  Peace  and  Thank-Offerings. 

383.  Of  Covenant-Sacrifices. 

384.  On  the  meaning  of  Sacrifices. 

385.  Of  Bloodless-Sacrifices. 

386.  Of  the  Purification  of  the  Unclean. 
Of  the  Red  Heifer. 

387.  Purification  of  Leprous  Persons. 

388.  Of  the  First-Born. 

389.  Of  the  First-Fruits. 

390.  OfTythes. 

391.  Of  the  Sacred  Oil. 

392.  Of  Oaths. 

393.  Of  Vows. 

394.  Of  Affirmative  Vows. 

Of  the  Vow  called  Chercm. 

395.  Of  Negative  Vows,  the  Nazarite,  etc. 

396.  Of  Prayers. 

397.  Of  the  Worship  in  the  Synagogues. 

398.  The  language  in  which  the  service  was 

performed  in  the  Synagogues. 

399.  Mode  of  Worship  practised  by  the  Apostles. 

CHAP.  VI. 
CONCERNING  IDOLATRY. 

400.  Of  Idol  Deities. 

401.  Altars,  Statues,  Temples,  Groves. 

402.  Sacrifices,  Prayers,  Festivals,  Purifications, 

Mysteries. 

403.  Of  Divinations,  &c. 

404.  State  of  Idolatry  in  the  time  of  Christ. 

405.  Of  Images  made  for  sacred  purposes. 

406.  Of  the  Host  or  Army  of  Heaven. 

407.  Of  the  Sun,  and  the  god  Baal. 

408.  Of  other  Baals,  or  Baalim. 

409.  Of  Astarte,  Ashtaroth,  or  the  Moon,  as  an 

object  of  worship. 

410.  Of  Tammuz  and  Adonis. 

411.  Moloc,  Molec,  Malcom,  Milcom. 

412.  Of  Chiun  and  Remphan. 

413.  OfTeraphim. 

414.  Of  Dagon. 

4J5.  Of  other  Deities. 


BIBLICAL  ARCHAEOLOGY 


PRELIMINARY  REMARKS. 


§  I.   BIBLICAL  ARCHAEOLOGY. 

Archaeology,  uQxaioloyia,  considered  subjectively  or  in  refer- 
ence to  the  mind,  is  the  knowledge  of  whatever  in  antiquity  is 
worthy  of  remembrance,  but  objectively  is  that  knowledge  reduced 
to  a  system.  In  its  widest  sense,  therefore,  it  embraces  achieve- 
ments of  a  historical  nature,  and  every  thing  else,  important  to  be 
transmitted  to  subsequent  ages  ;  but,  in  a  limited  sense,  has  special 
reference  to  religious  ami  civil  institutions  and  ceremonies,  to 
opinions,  manners  and  customs,  and  the  like.  As  there  are  cir- 
cumstances, worthy  of  being  noticed  and  remembered,  not  only  in 
the  religious  and  civil,  but  also  in  the  domestic  concerns  of  the 
ancients,  so  Archaeology  may  be  divided  into  sacred,  political,  and 
domestic. 

Biblical  Archaeology  embraces  every  thing  in  the  Bible  worthy 
of  notice  and  remembrance,  whether  it  be  merely  alluded  to,  or 
treated  as  something  well  known. 

§  2.  ITS  IMPORTANCE  TO  A  THEOLOGIAN. 

I.  It  enables  him  to  throw  himself  back  more  fully  into  the  age, 
the  country,  and  the  situation  of  the  sacred  writers  and  their  co- 
temporaries,  and  to  understand  and  estimate  the  nature  and  the 
tendencies  of  the  objects,  which  are  there  presented  to  him.  II. 
1 

$ 


9 


PRELIMINARY  REMARKS. 


It  puts  him  in  a  better  situation  to  detect  allusions  to  ceremonies, 
customs,  laws,  peculiarities  in  the  face  of  the  country,  &c,  and  to 
make  himself  sure  of  the  precise  import  of  the  passages,  where 
such  allusions  occur.  III.  It  proffers  him  new  ability  in  answer- 
ing the  objections  of  the  opposers  of  Revelation,  the  greater  part 
of  which  originate  in  ignorance  of  antiquity.  fc  IV.  It  presents  to 
his  view  distinctly  and  impressively  the  adaptation  of  the  different 
dispensations,  the  object  of  which  was  to  preserve  and,  transmit 
religion,  to  the  character  and  situation  of^the  age.  V.  It  shows 
him,  where  to  separate  moral  precept  and  religious  truth  from 
the  drapery  of  the  figurative  language,  in  which  they  are  clothed ; 
since  language,  considered  as  the  medium  of  thought,  takes  its 
character  in  a  measure  from  that  of  the  times.  Vl.^It  enables 
him  to  enter  into  the  nature  and  spirit  of  the  arguments  in  favor 
of  the  authenticity  of  the  sacred  books.  VII.  That  an  acquaintance 
with  Biblical  Archaeology  is  of  great  importance  is  evident  from 
this  also,  that  all,  who  have  undertaken  to  explain  the  Scriptures, 
while  ignorant  of  it,  have  committed  very  great  and  very  numerous 
mistakes. 


§  3.   THE  SOURCES  OF  BIBLICAL  ARCHAEOLOGY. 

It  is  necessary,  in  order  that  the  student  may  derive  real  profit 
from  a  book  of  sacred  antiquities,  not  only  that  he  should  make 
a  right  use  of  it  by  studying  it  in  a  proper  manner,  but  that  the 
book  or  system  itself  should  be  drawn  from  genuine  and  undoubted 
sources.    These  sources  are 

I.  The  Scriptures  ;  which  are  very  weighty,  because  they  are 
in  fact  the  testimony  of  the  people  themselves  in  regard  to  events 
and  customs,  in  which  they  wrere  the  agents. 

II.  Ancient  Monuments.  These  are  in  a  manner  living  testi- 
monies. Such  are  the  triumphal  arch  of  Titus,  a  representation  of 
w7hich  has  been  given  by  Reland  in  his  Da  spoliis  templi  Jerosoly- 
mitani  in  arcu  Titiano  Romae  conspicuis ;  the  ruins  of  Persepolis  ; 
the  subterranean  vaults  or  sepulchres  in  Syria,  Palestine,  and 
Egypt,  countries,  where  pyramids  also,  obelisks,  and  the  ruins  of 
various  edifices  bear  testimony  both  to  the  perfection  and  the  anti- 
quity of  the  arts  ;  and  the  ruins  of  Baalbec  and  Palmyra,  engravings 
of  which  in  copper  have  been  furnished  by  Wood.    They  are  of 


PRELIMINARY  R E M ARKS. 


3 


a  more  recent  age,  but  they  illustrate  what  occurs  in  the  Bible, 
relative  to  the  edifices  of  Herod,  and  the  temple  of  Jerusalem  in 
the  time  of  our  Saviour. 

III.  Ancient  Greek,  Phenician,  Egyptian,  and  Roman  coins. 
Jewish  coins  with  inscriptions  in  the  old  Samaritan  character,  and 
those  of  a  few  other  nations. 

IV".  The  works  of  Philo  the  Jew  and  of  Josephus,  the  former 
of  whom  resided  in  Egypt,  the  latter  at  first  in  Judea  and  subse- 
quently at  Rome  ;  both  were  cotemporaries  with  the  Apostles. 

V.  Ancient  Greek  and  Latin  authors,  who  sometimes  give  a 
more  full  account  of  events  and  customs,  which  are  merely  men- 
tioned or  alluded  to  in  the  Bible,  particularly  Herodotus,  also 
Xenophon,  Arrian,  Strabo,  Plutarch,  Diodorus  Siculus,  and  almost 
all  the  others.  But  it  is  the  dictate  of  sound  criticism,  that  the 
authority  of  the  Biblical  writers,  who  were  indigenous,  and  for  the 
most  part  cotemporary  with  the  events  they  relate,  should  super- 
sede, when  there  is  any  disagreement,  that  of  these  profane  writ- 
ers, who  were  of  another  country  and  a  lata*  age. 

VI.  The  Mishna  or  the  text  of  the  Talmud,  which  is  a  collection 
of  traditions,  made  very  nearly  between  the  year  190  and  220,  and 
was  accompanied  after  a  time  by  the  explanations  of  the  two  Ge- 
maras  ;  the  one  of  which,  called  the  Jerusalem,  was  written  about  the 
year  280;  the  other,  called  the  Babylonian,  was  begun  in  427  and 
completed  about  the  year  500.  In  making  use  of  the  information, 
which  this  work  supplies,  there  is  need  of  much  caution,  as  there  are 
many  modern  interpolations  in  it. 

VII.  Certain  ecclesiastical  writers,  who  lived  in  Syria  or  other 
oriental  countries,  particularly  Jerome  and  Ephraem  Syrus  ;  also 
some  Syriac  and  Arabian  books,  especially  the  most  ancient.  Final- 
ly, the  Journals  of  modern  travellers,  who  have  visited  the  East, 
marked  the  appearances  of  the  country,  and  given  an  account  of  the 
manners  and  customs  of  the  inhabitants.  In  making  use  of  the  last 
mentioned  works,  there  is  need  of  caution,  lest  we  assign  to  antiquity 
what  belongs  to  a  more  recent  period,  although  it  ought  at  the  same 
time  to  be  kept  in  mind,  that  the  inhabitants  of  the  East  are  not 
fond  of  innovations,  and  retain  to  this  day  customs,  which  throw 
light  on  many  things  mentioned  in  the  Bible.  The  people  who  have 
retained  with  the  most  constancy  and  exactness  their  ancient  habits, 
are  the  wandering  Arabs,  who  live  in  the  Arabian  deserts,  next  to 


4 


PRELIMINARY  REMARKS. 


these  are  the  itinerant  shepherds  of  Palestine,  Syria,  Mesopotamia, 
Babylonia  or  Erak,  Egypt  and  the  north  part  of  Africa.  Other  na- 
tions come  into  the  account,  on  the  subject  of  biblical  antiquities,  in 
proportion  to  the  nearness  of  their  situation  to  the  Hebrews.  Fur- 
thermore, we  should  make  a  distinction  between  what  these  writers 
have  seen  and  heard,  and  their  conjectures  and  opinions ;  for  in 
the  one  case  they  are  witnesses,  and  in  the  other  they  assume  the 
functions  of  a  judge,  a  part  which  may  be  sustained  by  any  person, 
provided  he  has  the  facts  in  the  first  place  upon  which  he  may  build 
his  judgment. 


BIBLICAL 


ARCHAEOLOGY. 


PART  FIRST. 

ON  DOMESTIC  ANTIQUITIES. 
CHAPTER  I. 

§4.  BIBLICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 

As  it  seems  necessary,  that  something  should  be  known  re- 
specting the  theatre  of  the  memorable  events  in  the  Bible,  be- 
fore proceeding  further  we  shall  give  a  concise  view  of  biblical 
or  sacred  "geography.  Lest  we  should  delay  too  long  in  the  thresh- 
old, we  shall  not  now  discuss  the  situation  of  the  countries,  men- 
tioned Gen.  10:  5 — 10,  &c.  shall  say  nothing  respecting  the  origin 
of  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates,  and  shall  omit  the  geography  of 
Asia  Minor  and  Greece.  We  proceed,  therefore,  to  state  in  a  few 
words  the  situation  of  those  countries,  which  occur  more  frequently 
in  the  Bible. 

§  5.  Aramea. 

The  region,  which  in4the  Bible  is  denominated  Aram,  E^N  ,  is 
a  vast  tract,  extending  from  mount  Taurus  south  a3  far  as  Da- 
mascus and  Babylonia,  and  from  the  Mediterranean  sea  in  an 


6 


§  5.  A.RAMEA. 


eastern  direction  beyond  the  Tigris  into  Assyria.  Different  parts 
of  it  are  called  by  different  names. 

L  Aram  beth  Rechob,  ST^n  tpa  D^N  ,  otherwise  called  Assyria ; 
in  the  most  limited  meaning  of  the  term,  it  was  a  small  province 
or  peninsula  surrounded  by  the  Tigris,  and  the  less  and  greater 
Zab.  Its  extent  was  increased  in  the  progress  of  time  by  the  ad- 
dition of  seven  other  provinces,  and  in  the  age  of  Isaiah  and  Ahaz, 
it  became,  by  the  accession  of  other  territories  still,  which  extend- 
ed into  Syria  and  Palestine,  the  very  large  empire  of  Assyria.  Its 
metropolis,  Nineveh,  was  situated  on  the  eastern  shore  of  the  Ti- 
gris, nearly  opposite  the  site  of  Mosul  at  the  present  day.  It  was 
laid  waste  in  the  year  877  before  Christ  by  Arbaces  and  Belesis, 
but  was  rebuilt ;  it  was  laid  waste  again  by  Cyaxares  I.  and  Na- 
bopolassar  in  the  year  625  before  Christ,  and  ever  afterwards  re- 
mained desolate.  II.  Aram  Naharaim,  Mesopotamia,  now  called 
by  the  Arabic  name  Al-Gezira  or  the  island,  for  it  is  almost  sur- 
rounded by  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates.  The  provinces  into  which 
it  was  divided  were  1.  the  Mesopotamian  plains,  EnN  ,  or  «"HiD 
tntf  ,  and  2.  the  province  of  Nesibene,  ilSTZw  D^tt .  III.  Aram  with- 
out any  epithet  attached  to  it,  is  Syria,  now  called  by  the  Arabic 
name,  Al-Sham  or  the  country  to  the  left,  because,  when  the 
Arab's  face  was  turned  towards  the  east,  Aram  or  Syria  lay  upon 
the  left,  i.  e.  to  the  north.  Its  most  celebrated  cities,  the  ruins  of 
which  still  remain,  were  Baalbec  or  Baal-Gad,  Til  ,  otherwise 
called  Heliopolis ;   Tadmor,  or  Palmyra;   Aleppo,  now 

called  Haleb,  'pabll ,  and  Antioch.  Its  minor  divisions  were  1.  the 
kingdom  of  Damascus,  pto79.1I ;  2.  the  kingdom  of  Maacha,  tlS^ti ; 
3.  the  kingdom  of  Tob,  SiuD;  4.  the  kingdom  of  Hamath,  nttft; 
and  5.  the  kingdom  of  Geshur,  ,  on  the  Orontes. 

Note.  The  orientals,  when  undertaking  to  designate  the  sever- 
al quarters  of  the  heavens,  turn  their  face  to  the  east.  Hence 
tHj?. ,  which  properly  means  in  front  or  before,  means  also  the  East ; 
btifty  ,  on  the  left  hand,  means  also  the  North  ;  'p'lfti*  ,  ^inN ,  behind, 
and  tP ,  the  sea,  because  it  is  in  that  direction,  mean  likewise  the 
West ;  and  "pXT  ,  the  right  hand,  means  the  South. 


§  6.  PHENICIA. 


7 


§  6.  Phenicia. 

It  is  that  part  of  Syria  and  Palestine,  which  borders  on  the 
shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  extending  from  the  river  Eleutherus, 
which  empties  between  Orthosia  and  Tripoli,  lat.  34°  26',  to 
Achzib  or  Ecdippa,  lat.  32°  50',  or,  as  some  say,  to  Acco  or 
Ptolemais  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Belus.  It  is  a  country 
small  in  extent,  though  once  celebrated  for  its  arts  and  its  com- 
merce. 

Its  principal  cities  were  the  celebrated  Sidon  and  Tyre,  the  last 
of  which  was  the  most  recent  in  point  of  origin,  but  eventually 
rose  to  the  greatest  distinction.  It  was  overthrown  by  Nebuchad- 
nezzar, and  afterwards  rebuilt  on  a  neighbouring  island.  It  was 
again  overthrown  by  Alexander  the  great,  and  was  rebuilt,  but 
never  recovered  its  ancient  greatness. 

§7.  Media. 

Media,  "^B ,  between  the  32d°  and  the  40th°  of  lat.  is  bound- 
ed on  the  west  by  Assyria  and  Armenia,  on  the  north  by  the 
Caspian  sea,  on  the  east  by  Hyrcania  and  Parthia,  and  on  the 
south  by  Persia.  The  metropolis  was  Ecbatana,  ttn^nsf,  now  call- 
ed Hamdan. 

§  8.  Persia,  Susiana,  Elymais. 

Persia,  0"}5> ,  is  a  tract  of  country,  which  extends  from  Media, 
lat.  34°,  to  the  Persian  gulf,  lat.  27°,  and  embraces  Susiana  and 
Elymais.  In  a  more  restricted  sense,  it  had  Susiana  on  the  west 
and  Caramania  on  the  east.  In  the  latter  sense,  Susiana,  whose 
metropolis  was  Shushan,  fujnttj ,  was  situated  between  Persia  and 
Babylonia,  and  was  bounded  on  the  south  by  the  Persian  gulf. 
It  is  now  called  Chuzistan.  Elymais,  Sb"1^ ,  occurs  in  ancient  books 
for  the  whole  of  Persia,  but  in  a  more  limited  signification  it  is 
that  district,  which  is  situated  to  the  north  of  Susiana  and  the 
north-east  of  Babylonia,  and  is  bounded  in  other  directions  by  Me- 
dia.   Its  limits,  however,  cannot  be  very  accurately  defined. 


8 


^  9.   BABYLONIA,  CHALDEA. 


§  9.  Babylonia,  Chaldea. 

Babylonia  was  so  denominated  from  its  celebrated  capital  Baby- 
lon. In  its  greatest  extent,  it  was  bounded  on  the  north  by  Arme- 
nia, and  was  then  anciently  called  Shinar  or  Singar ;  but  when  the 
limited  meaning  was  attached  to  the  word,  it  designated  the  tract 
bounded  on  the  north  by  Mesopotamia,  by  Arabia  Deserta  on  the 
west,  and  by  the  Persian  gulf  on  the  south.  A  section  of  the  south- 
ern division  of  this  country,  situated  on  the  western  shore  of  the  Eu- 
phrates, was  ceded  by  the  kings  of  Assyria  to  certain  tribes  of  Chal- 
deans. Their  original  residence  was  not,  as  Michaelis  supposes,  the 
south  eastern  shore  of  the  Euxine,  but,  as  we  learn  from  Xenophon, 
the  southern  and  eastern  part  of  Armenia.  Cyropaed.  Bk.  II.  III. 
Anabasis,  Bk.  II.  III. 

§  10.  Arabia. 

Arabia  was  called  by  the  inhabitants  of  Palestine  the  eastern, 
and  by  the  Babylonians  the  western  country ;  by  the  former  Y""i£< 
DID  uvoltoXt],  and  by  the  latter        or  '^Qufiia. 

Hence  the  Arabians  were  sometimes  denominated  fi'lj?  "^S  or 
orientals,  sometimes  C^nt"  or  the  people  of  the  west,  2  Chron.  9:  14. 
Jer.  3:  2.  The  Arabs  anciently  denominated  themselves,  and  do  to 
this  day,  by  either  of  these  names,  with  this  peculiarity,  however,  in 
regard  to  the  latter  word,  that  they  call  the  Bedouin  Arabs  or  the 
dwellers  in  tents  collectively  ,  but  the  inhabitants  of  cities,  ^"1?, 
comp.  Jer.  25:  24.  The  division  into  Arabia  the  happy,  the  stony, 
and  the  deserted,  which  was  made  by  Megasthenes  and  Ptolemy, 
was  unknown  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  East,  and  is  not  observed  in 
the  Bible. 

Arabia  Felix  is  the  name  of  that  peninsula,  which  is  so  border- 
ed by  the  Red  Sea,  more  properly  called  the  Arabian  gulf,  by  the 
southern  ocean,  which  was  formerly  in  this  part  called  the  Red 
Sea,  and  by  the  Persian  gulf,  that  it  would  be  perfectly  surround- 
ed, were  a  line  drawn  from  the  inland  extremity  of  the  Persian 
gulf  to  port  Ailan  or  Aelan,  situated  near  the  eastern  end  of  the  Red 
Sea. 

That  region,  which  is  bounded  on  the  east  by  Arabia  Deserta, 


§11.  EGYPT. 


9 


on  the  west  by  Egypt  and  the  Mediterranean,  on  the  south  by  the 
Red  Sea,  which  here  divides  and  runs  north  in  two  branches,  and 
on  the  north  by  Palestine,  is  called  Arabia  Petrea,  or  the  stony, 
from  the  city  Petrea,  $\ p. .  Idumea,  otherwise  called  Seir, 
is  the  northeastern  part  of  Arabia  Petrea.  Finally,  the  tract, 
which  has  Arabia  Felix  on  the  south,  Babylonia  and  the  Euphra- 
tes on  the  east,  the  Euphrates  and  Syria  on  the  north,  and  Gilead 
on  the  west,  is  called  Arabia  Deserta.  There  are  large  tracts  in 
these  regions,  especially  in  Arabia  Deserta,  covered  with  rolling 
sands;  barren  as  they  are,  they  neverthless,  occasionally  supply 
pasturage  to  the  wandering  shepherds. 

§  11.  Egypt. 

Egypt,  &?!2ij^  '"riSjQ,  bft  y-W,  extending  from  lat.  31°  27' 
to  23°  45',  is  bounded  on  the  east  by  Arabia  Petrea  and  the  Red 
Sea,  on  the  south  by  Ethiopia  or  rather  Nubia,  on  the  west  by  the 
deserts  of  Africa  or  Libya,  and  on  the  north  by  the  Mediterranean. 
It  has  been  divided  into  two  parts,  the  lower  or  northern, 
which  is  called  the  Delta,  and  the  upper  or  southern,  which  in  Ara- 
bic is  called  lXaXao  Zaid,  in  Greek  Qr^atg,  and  in  Hebrew 
Sinns,  unless,  which  may  be  the  case,  by  the  Hebrew  Pathros 
merely  a  district  or  canton  is  meant  to  be  designated.  It  is  some- 
times divided  into  three  parts,  in  which  case  the  lower  part  of 
Upper  Egypt  receives  the  name  of  Heptanomis,  because  it  con- 
sisted of  seven  districts.  The  celebrated  Nile,  which  is  commonly 
denominated  in  the  Bible,  by  way  of  eminence,  ISO  or  the  river, 
passes  through  Egypt.  Every  year  in  the  month  of  August  and  Sep- 
tember it  inundates  the  adjacent  country,  fertilizes  it  by  a  deposition 
of  black  mud,  and  empties  at  last  into  the  Mediterranean.  For- 
merly it  had  seven  mouths,  two  of  the  principal  of  which  remain. 
The  most  celebrated  cities  in  this  country  are  N;3  or  "pfttf  SO  i.  e. 
Thebes  or  Diospolis  magna,  the  metropolis  of  Upper  Egypt,  long 
ago  celebrated  by  Homer  for  its  hundred  gates,  and  still  memora- 
ble for  its  ruins  ;  SpD  or  p]ia  ,  Memphis,  almost  on  the  division  line 
between  lower  and  upper  Egypt,  on  the  western  shore  of  the 
Nile ;  "j^k  or  Tanis,  which  yet  remains  in  an  island  of  lake  Ten- 
nis or  Mensale ;  and  Alexandria,  built  by  Alexander  on  the  shore 
2 


10  §  12.     LAND  OF  GESSEN  OR  GOSHEN. 

of  the  Mediterranean  near  the  western  boundary  of  Egypt,  celebrat- 
ed for  its  harbour. 

<§  12.  Land  of  Gessen  or  Goshen  and  the  river  of  Egypt. 

The  region  of  Goshen,  fitta  ,  in  the  Vulgate  Gessen,  is  called 
Gen.  47:  6,  11,  y""}^!"]  SD^a  or  the  land  of  pasture,  and  was,  there- 
fore not  a  cultivated  part  of  Egypt.  From  1  Chron.  7:  21,  it  is 
clear  that  the  boundary  line  of  this  tract  was  not  far  from  the 
city  of  Gaza.  Hence  it  must  have  been  the  eastern  part  of  lower 
Egypt  which  extended  along  the  shore  of  the  Mediterranean,  as 
far  as  Arabia  Petrea.  This  accounts  for  the  circumstance,  that 
the  Alexandrine  interpreter,  who  must  have  been  acquainted  with 
the  geography  of  this  region,  renders  Gen.  45:  10,  Feotv  3^4ya(3Iug. 

From  these  particulars  it  appears,  that  Goshen  was  nearly  of  a  tri- 
angular form,  being  bounded  by  a  line  drawn  from  Heroopolis  to  the 
river  of  Egypt,  by  the  Mediterranean,  and  by  the  Pelusian  branch  of 
the  Nile.  But  an  inquiry  arises  here  in  respect  to  the  position  of 
the  river  of  Egypt,  which  occurs  so  often  in  the  Bible.  Most 
probably  it  is  the  torrent,  which  when  it  is  swollen  during  the  winter 
season,  empties  into  the  sea  at  Rhinocolura,  now  called  Al-Arish ; 
for  the  Septuagint  renders  d^2Za  btlZ  by  the  word  'PivoxoXovqu  ; 
and  Epiphanius,  who  was  not  less  acquainted  with  these  regions 
than  the  Alexandrine  interpreter,  asserts,  Haer.  66,  p.  703,  that 
Rhinocolura  was  called  by  the  inhabitants,  veal,  which  is  evident- 
ly the  word  bh: ,  uttered  with  different  vowels.  The  traveller 
Helferich  also,  p.  385,  says  he  came  in  1565  to  Al-Arish,  situated 
in  a  country  called  Nechile,  which  is  the  word  ^h:  again  with  a 
little  alteration.  Compare  Brochard's  Book  of  travels,  p.  466;  and 
Wansleb,  in  the  collection  of  Travels  made  by  Paulus  iii.  164. 
That  other  travellers  have  not  found  the  river  or  torrent  in  ques- 
tion, is  owing  to  the  circumstance  that  its  channel  or  valley  was 
dry  ;  as  might  have  been  expected  in  the  warm  season,  which  was 
the  time  when  they  approached  it. 


§  13.  Extent  and  boundaries  of  the  Hebrew  territories. 

Canaan,  ,  a  region  occupied  in  the  first  instance  partly  by 
the  Canaanites,  the  posterity  of  Canaan  the  son  of  Ham,  partly 


§  13.    HEBREW  TERRITORIES. 


by  Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob,  and  promised  by  God  to  the  posteri- 
ty of  these  patriarchs,  is  enclosed  by  the  river  Jordan,  the  Dead 
Sea,  Arabia  Petrea,  the  Mediterranean,  and  Syria.  The  divine 
promise,  however,  had  respect  at  the  same  time  to  those  territo- 
ries, which  the  Hebrews,  when  afterwards  provoked  to  arms,  should 
reduce  to  their  authority.  As  soon  as  they  were  in  a  condition  to 
penetrate  to  the  land,  which  had  been  occupied  by  the  Patriarchs 
before  them,  they  conquered  the  kings  of  Gilead,  who  had  taken 
up  arms  by  way  of  resistance,  and  occupied,  by  the  right  of  war, 
the  tract  which  stretches  from  the  river  Arnon  to  the  foot  of  mount 
Hermon  or  Antilibanus,  Num.  21:  21,  et  seq.  Afterwards  they 
subjected  the  neighbouring  territories.  The  boundaries  in  refer- 
ence to  this  increased  extent  are  defined,  Gen.  51:  18 — 21.  Num. 
34:  1,  2.  Deut.  11:  24.  Josh,  h  4.  11:  1G,  17.  12:  1—7.  15—33. 

On  the  south,  the  boundary  line  ran  with  some  irregularities  from 
the  end  of  the  Dead  Sea  along  Idumea  and  Arabia  Petrea,  as  far  as 
the  river  or  torrent  of  Egypt.  The  pastures  of  Arabia  Petrea,  par- 
ticularly of  the  desert,  which  extends  both  through  Petrea  and  De- 
serta  as  far  as  the  Persian  gulf  and  north  along  the  Euphrates, 
remained  free,  for  it  was  not  possible  to  fix  any  definite  limits  in 
those  regions.  In  the  time  of  David  the  whole  of  Idumea  as  far 
as  the  bay  of  Elana  submitted  to  the  Hebrews.  The  furthest  city, 
in  this  direction,  that  belonged  to  them,  is  often  mentioned  by  the 
name  of  Beersheba,  9313  *iSO  ,  which,  however,  was  not  situated  on 
the  boundary  line. 

On  the  west,  from  the  river  of  Egypt  to  the  city  Acco  or  Ptole- 
mais,  or  rather  as  far  as  Achzib,  Josh.  19:  28,  29,  the  boun- 
dary was  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  called  in  Hebrew,  ^iliJft 
•p-lt^r:  DVT.     The  Philistines,  who  were  conquered  by  David, 
dwelt  on  its  southern  shore,  within  the  limits  just  mentioned. 

They  often  threw  off  the  yoke.  From  Achzib,  the  boundary 
received  a  direction  north  into  the  main  land,  and  ran  contiguous 
to  Phenicia  78  English  miles  to  lat.  34°,  terminating  at  Apheca, 
which  is  situated  between  Biblum  or  Gible  and  Baal-Gad  or  Baal- 
bec.  Phenicia,  therefore,  was  not  included  in  the  territory  of 
the  Hebrews.  Josh.  13:  2 — 6.  Comp.  Numbers  34:  6,  and  Josh- 
ua 19:  24—31. 

The  northern  boundary  extended  with  many  deviations  from  Aph- 
eca to  the  east,  touched  in  Coelesyria  upon  the  kingdom  of  Ha- 
math,  and  enclosed  the  city  of  Baal-Gad,  lat.  34°,  near  which  ap- 


12 


§  14.  THE  HEBREW  TERRITORIES. 


pears  to  have  been  situated  the  city  of  Dan,  so  often  mentioned, 
as  being  on  the  northern  extremity  of  the  kingdom.  There  the 
line  ran  south-east  to  Arabia  Deserta,  so  as  to  exclude  the  king- 
dom of  Damascus ;  the  whole  of  which,  with  the  cities  of  Betack 
and  Bairuth  was  at  length  occupied  by  the  armies  of  David.  It 
recovered,  however,  its  freedom  under  his  successors,  and  created 
much  trouble  to  the  kingdom  of  Israel. 

On  the  east,  the  Euphrates  was  the  boundary  assigned,  Deut. 
11:  24.  It  cannot,  however,  be  accurately  determined,  on  account 
of  the  extensive  deserts,  which  exist  in  that  direction.  The 
mountains  of  Gilead,  which  were  subjected  by  Moses,  approach 
the  barren  waste,  which  girds  the  shore  of  the  Euphrates,  and  as 
we  learn  1  Chron.  5:  9,  16,  supplied  pasture  to  the  tribes  of  Gad 
and  Reuben.  The  tribes  beyond  Jordan,  under  Saul,  subdued  a 
large  extent  of  country,  1  Chron.  5:  19.  The  Ammonites  possess- 
ed the  territory  to  the  east  of  the  river  Arnon,  and  the  Moabites 
inhabited  the  region  to  the  south  of  the  same  river.  So  that  the 
Arnon  was  the  boundary,  which  separated  the  Hebrews  on  the  east 
from  the  Ammonites,  and  on  the  south  from  the  Moabites,  until 
they  were  subdued  by  David,  who  extended  the  lines  of  his  domin- 
ion, as  far  north  as  35°  15  of  lat.  where  the  city  Thipsach  or  Tapsa- 
cus  was  situated.  From  these  facts  it  is  clear,  that  the  kingdom  of 
David  and  Solomon  was  very  large,  extending  from  the  28  to  the  35 
of  lat.  and  from  the  52d  to  the  59th  of  longitude. 

§14.  Face  of  the  country;  Mountains. 

Palestine  is  a  mountainous  country.  Two  ranges,  the  one  on 
the  east,  the  other  on  the  west  side  of  the  Jordan,  extend  from 
Syria  into  Arabia,  interrupted,  however,  in  various  places,  by  val- 
lies  and  level  tracts  of  greater  or  less  extent.  The  principal  moun- 
tains are, 

1.  Mount  Lebanon.  It  is  formed  of  two  summits,  which  run 
north  almost  parallel  from  lat.  33°  12'  to  lat.  34°  32',  and  leave 
a  valley  in  the  middle,  which  is  called  Coelesyria,  xoiX?]  Zvgla, 
fi^rr  j^ri  and  ]i:sb  n*p2,  Gen.  10:  23.  Jos.  11:  17.  These 
mountains  begin  to  ascend  about  three  miles  north  of  ancient  Tyre, 
where  the  river  Leontes,  now  called  Kasmie,  which  flows  from 
Coelesyria  or  the  valley  between  the  mountains,  empties  into  the 
sea.    The  western  summit  is  denominated  Libanus,  by  the  Greeks, 


§  14.  FACE  OF  THE  COUNTRY,  MOUNTAINS. 


and  the  eastern,  Antilibanus ;  but  the  Hebrews  do  not  make  this 
distinction  of  names,  denominating  both  summits  by  the  common 
name  of  Lebanon  or  Libanus.  Libanus  runs  north  from  the  mouth 
of  the  Leontes,  bending  a  little  to  the  east,  it  leaves  on  the  bor- 
ders of  the  sea  a  plain  of  different  degrees  of  breadth.  Some  pro- 
montories, notwithstanding,  two  at  least,  project  into  the  sea,  the 
one  near  the  mouth  of  the  Lycus,  now  called  Nahr  el  Khalb,  lat. 
33°  16',  the  other,  lat.  34°  50',  called  \Tiov  npoownov.  Anciently 
on  these  mountains  there  grew  cedars,  of  which  there  remain  to 
this  day  from  twenty  to  forty,  though  according  to  Aryda  only 
fourteen,  of  great  size  and  antiquity,  together  with  many  smaller 
ones.  Antilibanus  runs  from  the  mouth  of  the  Leontes,  at  first,  in 
an  eastern  direction,  but  soon  alters  its  course  and  runs  north,  pa- 
rallel with  Libanus.  It  is  much  higher  than  Libanus,  and  is  crown- 
ed with  perpetual  snows,  Jer.  18:  13.  In  the  summer,  snow  is  also 
found  on  Libanus  in  the  clefts  and  fissures,  which  are  exposed 
to  the  north ;  it  is  often  brought  down  into  the  neighbouring  cities, 
and  mingled  with  the  drink  of  the  inhabitants,  in  order  to  render  it 
more  cool  and  refreshing,  Prov.  25:  12.  The  highest  peak  of  An- 
tilibanus was  called  by  the  Hebrews,  Hermon  ;  by  the  Sidonians, 
Sirion  ;  and  by  the  Amorites,  Senir,  Deut.  3:  9.  In  later  times 
these  three  names  were  given  to  three  separate  summits,  1  Chron. 
5:  23.  The  part  towards  Damascus  was  called  Amana,  n-JON  , 
from  which  flow  the  two  rivers  Amana  and  Pharphar,  2  Kgs.  5: 
12.  The  pine  and  the  fir  flourish  on  Antilibanus.  The  height  of 
these  mountains  is  about  9000  feet.  They  exhibit  a  grand  and 
imposing  appearance;  many  of  the  images,  which  occur  in  the 
Scriptures,  are  drawn  from  them.    Isa.  10:  34.  29:  17.  35:  2. 

II.  Carmel.  This  is  a  mountainous  ridge,  which  begins  to  rise 
about  thirteen  miles  south  of  Ptolemais,  in  the  vicinity  of  a  large 
bay  formed  by  the  sea.  It  stretches  south  11  h  miles,  and  is  40 
miles  in  circumference,  according  to  D'Arvieux  nearly  60.  The 
northern  and  eastern  summits  are  higher  than  the  southern  and 
western.  The  northern  summit  or  ridge  projects  into  the  sea,  the 
southern  recedes,  and  leaves  a  plain  on  the  shore  in  the  form  of  a 
half  circle.  The  name  itself  is  an  indication  of  the  fruitfulness  of 
these  ridges,  and  of  the  vallies,  which  they  form;  for  is  a 

contraction  for  G^S,  which  means  the  garden  of  God,  or  a 
very  pleasant  region.    The  tops  of  these  mountains  are  crowded 


14  $  14.  FACE  OF  THE  COUNTRY,  MOUNTAINS. 

with  oaks  and  firs,  the  vallies  with  laurels  and  olives ;  nor  is  there 
any  deficiency  of  fountains  and  rivulets,  so  grateful  to  the  inhabi- 
tants of  the  east.  Carmel  has  been  to  the  Hebrew  prophets  the 
source  of  many  poetical  images,  Isa.  29:  17.  32:  15.  35:  2.  Mich. 
7:  14.  Jer.  48:  33.  Its  many  caves  are  worthy  of  notice,  many 
of  which  existed  in  ancient  times ;  also  the  paths  leading  through 
continuous  clefts  in  the  rocks,  where  one  may  easily  and  effectual- 
ly hide  himself,  Amos  9:  3.  2  Kings  2:  25.  4:  25.  There  was 
another  Mount  Carmel,  with  a  city  of  the  same  name,  in  the  tribe 
of  Judah,  1  Sam.  25:  5.  27:  3.  2  Sam.  3:  3. 

III.  Tabor,  "Pin,  ]ttci(3vqiov,  a  singular  mountain  of  an  ob- 
long shape,  in  the  direction  from  north  to  south,  eleven  miles  east 
of  Carmel,  and  about  nine  west  of  the  Jordan,  on  the  northern  side 
of  the  plain  of  Jezreel  or  Ezdrelom.  It  is  estimated  to  be  nearly 
a  mile  high,  and  a  journey  of  three  hours  in  circumference  at  the 
bottom.  On  the  top  of  the  mountain  is  a  plain  of  an  oblong  figure, 
like  the  mountain  itself,  and  three  thousand  paces  in  circuit.  On 
this  plain  there  was  formerly  a  city,  probably  the  same  with  the 
city  Tabor  in  the  tribe  of  Zebulun,  mentioned  1  Chron.  5:  77,  and 
which,  in  Joshua  21:  34,  is  simply  called  nnn£  ,  a  city.  It  is  not 
the  same  with  the  Tabor,  mentioned  1  Sam.  10:  3,  which  was  two 
miles  distant  from  Jerusalem. 

IV.  The  Mountains  of  Israel,  also  called  the  Mountains  of  Eph~ 
raim,  occupied  nearly  the  centre  of  the  whole  country.  To  the 
south  of  them  were  the  Mountains  of  Judah.  Both  ridges  are 
fruitful,  excepting  those  parts  of  the  mountains  of  Israel,  which 
approach  the  district  of  the  Jordan,  and  those  also,  which  extend 
from  the  mount  of  Olives  to  the  plains  of  Jericho.  These  tracts 
are  rough  and  uneven,  and  abound  in  hiding  places  for  robbers, 
Luke  10:  30.  The  highest  peak  in  the  mountains  of  Israel  or  Eph- 
raim,  seems  to  be  what  was  formerly  called  the  Rock  Rimmon, 
Jud.  20:  45 — 47,  but  is  now  called  Quarantaria.  The  mountains 
Ebal  and  Gerizim  are  celebrated.  They  are  separated  from  each 
other  merely  by  an  intervening  valley,  the  former  being  to  the 
north,  the  latter  to  the  south  of  Shechem,  Josh.  8:  30 — 35.  Deut. 
xxvii.  In  the  mountains  of  Judah  are  numerous  and  large  caves,  of 
which  Adullam,  fcVjSJ,  is  the  most  celebrated,  1  Sam.  21:  I,  2. 
Comp.  also  Gen.  23:  9,  19.  Josh.  10:  16.  There  was  also  a  city 
of  the  name  of  Adullam,  Josh.  15:  35. 


§  15.  PLAINS. 


15 


V.  The  Mountains  of  Gilead,  l$b$  .  They  are  situated  east 
of  the  Jordan,  and  extend  from  Antilibanus  or  mount  Hermon  into 
Arabia  Petrea.  The  northern  part  is  called  Bashan,  and  was  cele- 
brated for  its  oaks  and  pastures.  The  middle  was  denominated 
Gilead  in  the  stricter  sense.  In  the  southern  part  were  the  moun- 
tains Abarim,  t^-D?  .  Among  these,  in  the  region  of  Jericho,  arose 
the  mountain  Pheor  or  Phegor,  also  Nebo,  from  the  summit  of 
which,  called  Pisgah,  the  whole  land  of  Canaan  is  visible.  Deut. 
3:  27-  32:  48—50.  34:  1,2.  comp.  Matt.  4:  8. 

i 

§  15.  Plains.    ^f>2  ,  r&Stp  ,  nan* ,  . 

The  most  celebrated  are,  I.  The  shore  of  the  Mediterranean 
from  the  river  of  Egypt  to  mount  Carmel.  The  tract  from  Gaza 
to  Joppa  is  simply  called  fi^S'«Z?n ,  the  plain.  In  this  plain  were 
the  five  principal  cities  of  the  Philistines,  viz.  Gaza,  Askelon,  Azo- 
tus,  Gath,  and  Ekron  or  Accaron.  The  region  reaching  from  Jop- 
pa to  Carmel,  which  is  somewhat  hilly,  was  called  Sharon.  This 
is  to  be  distinguished  from  a  place,  likewise  called  Sharon,  situated 
between  Tabor  and  lake  Gennesareth  ;  and  from  a  third  place  also 
of  the  same  name,  east  of  the  Jordan  in  the  tribe  of  Gad,  celebrat- 
ed for  its  pastures. 

II.  The  plain  of  Jezreel,  btt^T^  ,  E£dQr]\o)(.i,  ptya  nediov,  ex- 
tends from  west  to  east,  through  the  middle  of  Palestine,  beginning 
at  the  Mediterranean  and  the  mountain  Carmel,  and  terminating  at 
the  egress  of  the  Jordan  from  lake  Gennesareth.  Its  length  is  from 
twenty-three  to  twenty-eight,  and  its  breadth  from  nine  to  thirteen 
miles.  The  eastern  part  is  called  Sharon  ;  the  western,  the  plain 
of  Megiddo,  ii^TD  n?pa .  See  Judges  4:  1,  et  seq.  6:  33.  7:  8.  1 
Sam.  29:  1,  11.  2  Kings  23:  29.  2  Chron.  35:  22.  1  Macab.  4:  49. 

III.  The  region  or  district  of  Jordan,  "j  153  or  fta^J,  r\ 
TTtgiytogug  too  '/ogfiavov  or  fit'yct  Titdlov,  includes  the  shore  on  both 
sides  of  the  Jordan,  from  the  lake  Gennesareth  to  the  Dead  Sea. 
Its  breadth  from  west  to  east  is  thirteen  miles,  its  length  from 
north  to  south,  according  to  the  corrected  reading  of  Josephus, 
Bell.  Jud.  L.  IV.  c.  8.  §  2.  is  138  miles,  which  is  too  great  a  length 
to  correspond  with  the  distance  between  lake  Gennesareth  and 
the  Dead  Sea.  Modern  travellers  make  the  length  about  56  miles. 
This  region  may  be  divided  into,  I.  The  plain  of  Jericho,  ffi^  tlgpa, 


16  §  16.  FORESTS.  . 

which  is  watered  and  fertilized  by  a  small  river,  and  is  eight  miles 
in  length,  and  two  and  a  quarter  in  breadth.  II.  The  valley  of 
Salt,  reaching  to  the  Dead  Sea.  2  Kings  14:  7.  1  Chron.  18:  12. 
2Chron.  25:  11.  III.  The  plains  of  Mo  ah  beyond  Jordan,  ^t) 
nwNT73  ,  also,  SITlfi  nizn?  ,  in  which  the  Hebrews  pitched  their  tents, 
Num.  26:  3.  These  plains  are  called,  Num.  25:  1,  and  Josh.  2: 
1.  3:  1,  Shittim,  B\3i2)n  bfr: ,  or  the  valley  of  Acacia.  A  variety 
of  words  are  applied  to  level  places  or  vallies,  whose  different 
shades  of  meaning  cannot  now  be  accurately  determined.  bh2 1 
however,  is  a  valley,  which  has  a  torrent  flowing  through  it  in  the 
winter;  "va,"^.,  N"1-}.  is  a  valley  without  any  such  torrent;  p723?  is 
perhaps  a  deep  valley,  as  T^pz  is  a  broad  valley  or  plain.  Of  these 
vallies,  that  of  Hinnom  fcrisn  "\3  or  ID13FI  ]1  12,  near  the  southern 
wall  of  Jerusalem,  is  particularly  worthy  of  mention  for  two  reasons. 
The  one,  that  it  separated  Judah  from  the  tribe  of  Benjamin ;  the 
other,  because  in  a  certain  part  of  it  was  DBn  Topheth  2  Kings  23: 
10,  where  infants  were  burnt  to  the  idol  Moloch,  Jer.  7:  31. 


§  16.  Forests,  b*75? . 

Forests  are  mentioned  in  Joshua  17:  15,  and  in  many  other 
passages.  They  are  mentioned  so  frequently  as  to  convince  us, 
that  the  Hebrews  anciently  were  not  often  compelled,  like  the  mod- 
ern inhabitants  of  Palestine,  to  burn  the  excrements  of  animals  for 
fuel ;  although  it  may  have  sometimes  been  the  case,  as  is  probable 
from  Ezek.  4:  15.  The  forests  which  are  spoken  of  with  the  great- 
est praise  in  the  Bible  are,  I.  The  cedar  forest  on  mount  Lebanon, 
see  §  14.  I.  also  1  Kgs.  7:  2.  2  Kgs.  19:  23.  Hos.  14:  6—8.  II.  The 
forest  of  pines  and  firs  on  A  ntilibanus,  which  was  first  reduced  into 
the  possession  of  the  Hebrews  by  David.  2  Sam.  8:  5,  6.  1  Chron. 
18:  4.  III.  The  forest  of  oaks  on  mount  Bashan.  Zech.  11:  2. 
IV.  The  forest  of  Ephraim,  which  the  Ephraimites  began  to  cut 
down  so  early  as  the  time  of  Joshua,  see  ch.  17:  15,  but  of  which 
there  were  some  remains  as  late  as  the  time  of  David,  2  Sam.  18:  6, 
8,  17.  A  part  of  it  seems  to  have  been  the  wood  near  the  city  of 
Bethel,  mentioned  2  Kgs.  2:  24. 

V.  A  forest  on  the  boundary  line  between  Judah  and  Benjamin, 
near  the  city  Baalah,  which  was  thence  called  Kirjath  Jearim, 


§17.  DESERTS. 


17 


n^p ,  or  the  city  of  the  forest,  Jos.  15:  9,  10,  60.  Ezra  2: 
25.  Neh.  7:  29.  VI.  The  forest  Ckareth  rrfi ,  and  the  forest 
Chorsha  ir*nh.  The  latter  was  very  large,  in  the  tribe  of  Jud ah  and 
the  wilderness  of  Ziph,  1  Sam.  22:  5.  23:  14—16.  VII.  The  shrub 
fields  on  the  shores  of  lake  Merom  and  the  Jordan,  called  fi&% 
TVpS  tne  pride,  and,  sometimes  in  the  English  translation,  the  swell- 
ing of  the  Jordan.  Zech.  11:3.  Jerem.  12:  5.  49:  19.  50:  44.  VIII. 
The  forest  Joardes  east  of  the  Jordan,  mentioned  by  Josephus  as 
having  been  cut  down  by  the  Romans,  see  his  Jewish  War,  B.  vii. 
chap.  6.  §  5.  IX.  The  forests  on  the  top  of  Carmel,  and  on  the 
sides  of  mount  Tabor. 

If  at  the  present  period  forests  are  rarely  to  be  met  with  in  Palestine,  we 
must  remember  that  not  only  many  of  them  were  cut  down  by  the  Hebrews 
themselves,  but  that  they  were  often  destroyed  also  by  the  enemies,  who  at 
different  times  laid  waste  Judea.  We  should  not  be  surprised,  therefore,  if 
wood  should  be  wanting  for  fuel,  though  not  much  is  required  in  that  warm 
climate,  and  that  the  dried  excrements  of  quadrupeds  should  be  used  in  its 
stead. 

§  17.  Deserts. 

The  Deserts  tn-)2*7?3 ,  mentioned  in  the  Bible,  are  uncultivated 
tracts  of  earth  of  two  kinds ;  some  mountainous,  but  not  destitute 
of  water ;  others  are  plains,  covered  with  sterile  sands,  in  which 
fountains  are  very  rare,  and  still  fewer  are  those,  which  afford 
water  fit  to  drink.  They  scarcely  make  their  way  out  of  the 
thirsty  earth  and  are  soon  absorbed  again.  These  plains  produce, 
notwithstanding,  a  scanty  herbage,  upon  which  the  sheep,  goats, 
and  camels  feed.  The  sands,  which  are  scorched  by  the  heat  of 
the  sun,  are  very  light;  and  are  borne  about  by  heavy  winds, 
like  the  waves  of  the  sea.  One  whirlwind  piles  them  up  in  im- 
mense heaps  and  leaves  them  standing ;  the  succeeding  one  takes 
them  and  carries  them  to  another  place.  In  these  deserts  there 
were  formerly  villages  and  towns,  Josh.  15:  61,  62.  1  Sam.  23:  19. 
They  were  not  standing  in  the  days  of  Jerome,  (Prolog,  in  Com- 
ment. Amos.) 

The  mountain  deserts  are  not  of  so  dreary  and  unproductive  a 
character.    These  deserts  obtained  names  from  the  places,  near 
which  they  were  situated.    The  most  celebrated  is  the  Great  Desert, 
which  according  to  Jerome,  (Prolog,  in  Comment.  Amos,)  commen- 
3 


18      <§>  IS.   THE  JORDAN,  LAKE  MEROM,  AND  GENNESARETH. 

ces  at  the  city  of  Tecoa,  which  was  six  miles  south  of  Bethlehem. 
It  extends  through  Arabia  Deserta  as  far  as  the  Persian  gulf,  and 
north  along  the  Euphrates  beyond  the  city  of  Bir.  This  large  tract 
is  called  In  the  Bible  the  Desert  of  Judah,  because  it  commences 
within  the  limits  of  that  tribe,  Josh.  19:  34.  Ps.  63:  1.  2  Chron.  20: 
20.  Matt.  3:  1.  Mark  1:  4.  John  10:  40.  The  Desert  of  Engedi  is 
on  the  western  shore  of  the  Dead  Sea  and  connects  with  the  desert 
of  Ziph.  Both  have  lofty  mountains  and  many  caves.  More  to  the 
south  is  the  desert  of  Maon  piTO  ,  the  desert  of  Carmel  with  a  city 
of  the  same  name,  the  desert  of  Tecoa,  Sppn,  also  with  a  city  of  the 
same  name  ;  all  of  which  are  parts  of  the  desert  of  Judah.  The  De- 
sert of  Jericho  is  that  chain  of  mountains,  which  separates  the 
mount  of  Olives  from  the  city  of  Jericho.  The  Desert  of  Beth  Aven 
seems  to  be  part  of  mount  Ephraim,  which  exhibits,  as  Josephus 
himself  observes,  in  the  part  towards  the  Jordan,  a  bald  and  rough 
appearance.    Josh.  18:  12. 

§  18.  The  Jordan,  Lake  Merom  and  Gennesareth. 

The  only  river  in  Palestine  of  any  considerable  size  is  the  Jor- 
dan, which,  as  was  first  discovered  under  the  tetrarchate  of  Philip, 
has  its  source  from  lake  Phiala,  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Libanus.  Hav- 
ing first  measured  from  this  lake  a  subterranean  journey  of  thirteen 
miles,  and  three  quarters,  it  bursts  forth  from  the  earth  with  a  great 
noise  at  Paneas,  otherwise  called  Cesarea  Philippi,  see  Josephus'  Jew- 
ish War,  B.  I.  ch.  21.  B.  III.  ch.  10.  It  then  advances  about  thirteen 
miles  further,  and  discharges  its  waters  into  lake  Merom  or  Samo- 
chonitis. 

Lake  Merom  in  the  spring,  when  the  water  is  highest,  is  seven 
miles  long  and  three  and  a  half  broad,  but  the  marshes  extend  to 
Daphne,  where  the  Jordan  issues  from  it.  In  the  summer  it  is  no- 
thing but  a  marsh ;  in  some  parts  indeed  it  is  sowed  with  rice,  but 
commonly  it  is  covered  with  shrubs  and  rushes,  which  afford  a  hid- 
ing place  to  wild  beasts,  Jewish  War,  B.  IV.  ch.  1.  §  1. 

The  Jordan,  after  it  has  left  Lake  Merom,  flows  on  thirteen 
miles,  and  enters  Gennesareth,  which  is  also  called  the  sea  of  Gali- 
lee or  Tiberias.  The  waters  of  this  lake,  which  is  sixteen  miles 
long  and  five  broad,  are  pure  and  sweet,  and  it  abounds  in  fish, 
Strabo,  p.  714.  It  is  surrounded  with  fruitful  hills  and  mountains, 
from  which  many  rivulets  descend. 


§  19.   THE  DEAD  SEA. 


ig 


The  breadth  of  the  Jordan,  at  its  egress  from  the  lake  Gennesa- 
reth,  is  from  150  to  200  feet,  and  it  is  7  feet  in  depth.  With  many 
windings  it  runs  through  the  plain,  which  is  denominated,  from 
the  river  itself,  the  Region  of  the  Jordan.  From  the  west  it 
receives  five  tributaries,  which  are  not  much  known ;  from  the  east 
it  receives  the  Jabbok,  the  Jaezer,  the  Kerith,  and  the  Acacia  tor- 
rent, so  called  from  the  valley  of  the  same  name.  The  Jordan  owes 
its  origin  to  the  perpetual  snows  of  Antilibanus ;  consequently,  in  the 
time  of  harvest,  which  commences  in  the  latter  half  of  April,  when 
it  is  swollen  by  the  melted  snows  of  that  mountain,  it  dashes  on  rap- 
idly and  fills  the  whole  of  its  upper  channel,  Jos.  3:  15.  4:  18. 
1  Chron.  12:  15,  for  the  channel  of  the  river  in  the  vicinity  of  Jeri- 
cho, the  place,  of  which  we  are  speaking,  is  double.  The  lower  one 
is  ordinarily  from  70  to  80  feet  broad,  through  which  the  water  flows 
the  whole  year ;  it  is  10  or  12  feet  deep,  and  the  distance  from  the 
upper  edge  of  the  channel  bank  to  the  surface  of  the  water  is 
from  4  to  8  feet.  The  other  channel,  called  the  upper  one,  is 
broader  than  the  lower,  varying  from  2  to  600  paces  and  is  filled 
in  the  beginning  of  summer  by  the  swelling  of  the  waters,  as  just 
observed.  Travellers  have  commonly  visited  the  Jordan  either 
before  or  after  this  time ;  hence  they  say  nothing  of  its  rise. 
Mirike,  however,  Travels,  p.  119,  testifies,  that  he  found  the  up- 
per channel  still  wet  and  slippery.  Many  are  inclined  to  suppose, 
that  the  river  has  hollowed  the  first  channel  so  deep,  that  it  now 
never  passes  it. 


§  19.  The  Dead  Sea.  nS^rj  &\ 

The  Jordan  empties  its  waters  into  the  Dead  Sea,  sometimes  call- 
ed the  Eastern  sea,  sometimes  the  sea  of  Siddim,  sometimes  the  sea 
of  the  Plain  ;  because  it  occupies  the  plain  of  Siddim,  in  which  the 
cities  of  Sodom,  Gomorrah,  Admah,  Zeboim,  and  Zoar  were  situat- 
ed, Deut.  3:  17.  Gen.  18:  20.  19:  24.  et  seq.  Joel  2:  20.  Zech.  14:  8. 
As  the  Jordan,  before  the  celebrated  destruction  of  this  plain,  dis- 
charged itself  in  the  same  place,  that  it  now  does,  the  conclusion  is  a 
necessary  one,  that  the  lake,  which  then  existed,  was  subterranean, 
comp.  Gen.  14:  3.  It  was  covered  with  a  crust  of  earth,  which  was 
sustained  by  the  Asphaltus,  a  pitchy,  bituminous  substance,  which 
emerged  from  the  bottom  of  the  Lake,  and  collected  during  a  long 


20  §  19.   THE  DEAD  SEA. 

course  of  years  in  large  masses.  The  Asphaltus  arises  from  the 
lake  to  this  day,  floats  on  its  surface,  and  occasionally  explodes, 
Isa.  34:  9,  10.  Wisd.  10:  7.  Jude  7.  Hence  it  has  obtained  the 
name  of  the  lake  Asphaltites.  This  statement  is  confirmed  by 
Gen.  14:  10,  where  mention  is  made  of  slimepits,  through  which 
the  Asphaltus  or  bitumen  penetrated  from  the  subterranean  water. 
This  bitumen,  being  at  length  set  on  fire  by  the  lightning,  burnt, 
and  the  earth  by  which  it  was  covered,  being  deprived  of  its  sup- 
port, sunk  in  the  waters,  and  the  lake  made  its  appearance,  Gen. 
19:  24. 

The  lake  is  said  to  be  67  miles  from  north  to  south,  and  17  in  its 
greatest  breadth  from  west  to  east.  Its  waters  are  a  little  im- 
pregnated with  alum,  and  very  much  so  with  salt;  hence  it  is  called 
the  Salt  Sea,  Gen.  14:  4,  and  because  it  preserves  nothing  alive  in  it, 
it  is  also  called  the  Dead  Sea.  Whatever  is  immersed  in  its  wa- 
ters and  taken  out  again,  is  covered  with  a  crust  of  salt ;  which 
seems  to  have  been  the  destiny  of  Lot's  wife,  unless  indeed  the 
discourse  be  merely  of  a  monument  heaped  up  of  incrusted  salt, 
Gen.  19:  26.  The  shores,  excepting  the  north  western,  are  moun- 
tainous. On  the  northwest  is  a  plain,  impregnated  with  salt, 
barren,  scorched,  and  covered  with  cinders.  This  fact  explains  to 
us  the  origin  of  the  custom  of  sprinkling  salt  upon  desert  places, 
unless  reference  be  had  in  the  custom  to  other  salt  vallies,  of  which 
there  are  numbers  in  the  east,  Deut.  29:  23.  Judg.  9:  45.  In 
this  plain  grows  the  solarium  melangenae  p*ift,  also  called  the 
vine  of  Sodom,  which  bears  what  have  been  denominated  the  ap- 
ples and  also  the  grapes  and  clusters  of  Sodom,  otherwise  called 
the  bitter  and  poisonous  grapes  and  clusters.  They  are  said  to  be 
beautiful  outside,  but  within,  corruption  and  ashes,  Deut.  32:  32. 
In  the  spring,  when  the  Jordan  rises,  the  lake  itself  is  swollen. 
The  inhabitants,  therefore,  dig  pits  on  the  shore,  which  receive 
the  waters  of  the  lake ;  the  water  in  the  pits  stagnates  after  the 
fall  of  the  lake,  goes  off  gradually  in  vapour  and  leaves  a  bed  of 
salt,  which  sort  of  salt  is  used  by  the  whole  of  that  region,  Zeph. 
2:  9.  Ezech.  47:  11. 

The  other  rivers,  which  empty  into  the  Dead  Sea  are,  I.  from 
the  west,  Kidron,  itiftctQQOQ  kZv  Ktd(j(av,  John  18:  1,  which  arises 
in  a  valley  of  the  same  name  between  Jerusalem  and  the  mount  of 
Olives ;  its  channel  is  dry  except  in  the  winter.    Its  direction  is 


§  20.   OTHER  RIVERS. 


21 


first  south,  then  east,  through  the  steep  cliffs  of  the  desert  Enge- 
di,  where  it  receives  some  accession  by  means  of  the  torrents 
from  the  mountains,  and  then  descends  into  the  Dead  Sea.  II. 
Near  the  southern  extremity  flows  in  the  Saphia  or  Saphria,  a  con- 
siderable stream.  III.  On  the  eastern  shore,  nearly  in  the  centre, 
is  the  mouth  of  the  torrent  Zerea,  and  a  little  north  of  it,  IV.  is  the 
mouth  of  the  river  Arnon,  which  has  its  rise  in  the  vallies  of  mount 
Gilead,  from  the  torrents  of  that  mountain.  It  flows  first  in  a  south- 
ern direction  and  then  west,  so  as  to  form  with  the  Dead  Sea,  the 
Jordan,  and  the  Jobbak,  a  peninsula.  The  channel  of  this  river,  as 
we  have  already  said,  separated  on  the  east  the  Gadites  and  the  Reu- 
benites  from  the  Ammonites,  and  on  the  south  the  Reubenites  from 
the  Moabites. 

§  20.  Other  Rivers. 

Of  the  other  rivers  and  torrents,  which  are  somewhat  celebrat- 
ed, may  be  mentioned,  I.  The  Belus,  ^ih"1'^  nS^b ,  a  small  river, 
according  to  Pliny  only  4  miles  in  length ;  it  arises  in  the  mountains 
of  the  tribe  of  Asher  and  empties  into  the  Mediterranean  about  two 
furlongs  south  of  Ptolemais.  The  sand  of  its  banks  has  been  much 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  glass,  and  it  is  said,  "  that  the  making 
of  glass  first  originated  from  this  rjver." 

II.  The  Kishon.  It  arises  from  the  foot  of  mount  Tabor,  where 
the  Tabor  unites  with  the  mountain  called  little  Hermon ;  it  then 
divides  into  two  branches.  The  smaller  share  of  the  waters,  that  de- 
scend from  these  mountains,  flows  east  through  the  valley  of  Jezreel 
into  lake  Gennesareth.  The  remainder,  which  forms  the  larger  body 
of  the  two,  runs  west  through  the  valley  of  Jezreel,  and,  after  being 
increased  by  the  accession  of  many  small  streams,  enters  the  sea  near 
Carmel.  The  last  mentioned  branch  of  the  river  was  called  Megid- 
do,  and  anciently  divided  the  tribe  of  Issachar  from  the  tribe  of  Ze- 
bulun. 

III.  The  Brook  of  Reeds,  n:£  it  is  dry  except  in  the 
winter.  In  its  course  from  east  to  west,  it  formerly  separated  the 
tribe  of  Ephraim  from  that  of  Manasseh,  Jos.  17:  8,  9.  It  enters 
the  Mediterranean  south  of  Cesarea. 

IV.  The  Brook  Eshkol  ;  it  rises  in  the  mountains  of  Judah 
and  enters  the  Mediterranean  at  Askelon.  It  seems  to  be  the  same 
with  the  brook  Sorek,  Num.  13:  24.  Jud.  16:  4. 


22 


§21.   ON  THE  CLIMATE  OF  PALESTINE. 


V.  The  Brook  Besor  ;  it  enters  the  sea  at  Gaza. 

Note. — It  may  be  remarked  here,  that  signifies  a  river, 
brook,  or  torrent,  which  flows  in  the  winter,  though  it  may  be  per- 
fectly dry  in  the  summer ;  while  ^rr:  signifies  a  large  stream,  and 
if  it  have  the  article  prefixed,  almost  always  means  the  Euphrates. 

§  21.  On  the  Climate  of  Palestine. 

The  state  of  the  atmosphere  in  this  climate  is  different  in  differ- 
ent places,  but  it  is  not  so  changeable,  as  in  some  parts  of  Eu- 
rope. We  shall  state  its  variations  during  the  six  divisions  of 
the  oriental  year,  mentioned  Gen.  8:  22,  which  have  been  per- 
petuated to  this  day  among  the  Arabians,  see  Golii  Lex.  Arab.  p. 
934. 

During  the  first  part  of  the  year,  which  is  called  or  the 

harvest,  and  which  extends  from  the  middle  of  April  to  the  middle 
of  June,  the  sky  is  serene,  the  atmosphere  in  the  latter  part  of  April 
is  warm,  sometimes  oppressively  so,  excepting  in  the  vallies  and  on 
the  shores  of  the  sea,  where  it  is  temperate.  The  heat  continues  to 
increase,  and  to  become  more  unpleasant  towards  the  latter  part  of 
this  division  of  the  seasons. 

During  the  second  part  of  the  year,  which  is  called  ,  the 
time  of  fruits  or  summer,  extending  from  the  middle  of  June  to  the 
middle  of  August,  the  heat  is  so  severe,  that  the  effect  of  it  is 
felt  through  the  night,  and  the  inhabitants  sleep  under  the  open 
sky. 

The  third  season,  extending  from  the  middle  of  August  to  the 
middle  of  October,  is  called  Dn  or  the  hot  season;  because  in  the 
commencement  of  it  the  heat  continues  very  severe,  although  it  soon 
begins  to  abate. 

From  the  time  of  harvest  or  the  middle  of  April  to  the  middle 
of  September,  there  is  neither  rain  nor  thunder,  Prov.  26:  1.  1  Sam. 
12:  17.  Jerome  on  Amos  4:  7.  Sometimes  in  the  beginning  of  the 
harvest  or  the  latter  half  of  April,  a  cloud  is  perceived  in  the  morn- 
ing, which,  as  the  sun  rises,  gradually  disappears,  Hos.  6:  4.  But  in 
the  months  of  May,  June,  July,  and  August,  not  a  cloud  is  seen,  and 
the  earth  is  not  wet,  except  by  the  dew,  which  is,  therefore,  every 
where  used  as  a  symbol  of  the  divine  benevolence,  Gen.  27:  28.  49: 
25.  Deut  32:  2.  33:  13.  Job  29:  19.  Mic.  5:  7.  The  dew,  copious 


§21.  ON  THE  CLIMATE  OF  PALESTINE.  23 

as  it  is,  affords  no  support  in  the  severe  heat  of  summer,  except  to 
the  stronger  kind  of  herbs ;  the  smaller  and  less  vigorous,  unless 
watered  from  some  rivulet  or  by  human  art  and  labour,  wither  and 
die,  Ps.  32: 4.  If  at  this  season  of  the  year,  a  spark  or  brand  fall 
among  the  dry  herbs  and  grass,  a  wide  conflagration  commences, 
especially  if  brambles,  shrubs,  or  a  forest  be  near,  Ps.  83:  14.  Isa.  9: 
18:  Jer.  21:  14.  comp.  Exod.  22:  6.  Joel  1:  19.  Jer.  9:  12.  The 
country  generally  presents  a  squalid  appearance,  for  the  fountains 
and  brooks  are  dried,  and  the  ground  is  so  hard,  that  it  splits  open 
into  fissures.  These  effects  are  accelerated,  if  the  east  wind  hap- 
pens to  blow  a  few  days,  which  is  not  only  destructive  to  the  vines 
and  harvest  fields  on  land,  but  to  the  vessels  at  sea  on  the  Mediter- 
ranean, Hos  13:  15.  Jon.  4:  8.  Job  14:  2.  15:  2.  Isa.  40:  7.  Gen. 
41:  6,  23.  Ezech.  17:  10.  19:  12.  27:  26.  Ps.  48:  7.  103:  15.  Acts 
27:  14.  Every  wind  is  called  by  the  orientals  D"1^  ,  an  east  wind, 
which  blows  from  any  point  of  the  compass  between  the  east  and 
north,  and  between  the  east  and  south,  see  Shaw's  Travels,  p.  285, 
and  Prosper  Alpinus  de  Medicina  Egyptiaca,  near  the  beginning. 
The  breeze,  which  blows  a  few  hours  before  the  setting  of  the  sun  in 
that  climate,  is  called  among  the  Persians  to  this  time,  as  in  Gen.  3: 
7,  the  breeze  of  the  day,  i.  e.  the  cooling  or  refreshing  breeze  of  the 
day,  see  Chardin  Voy.  T.  IV.  p.  8. 

During  the  fourth  part  of  the  year,  which  is  called  V'lT  or  seed- 
time, i.  e.  from  the  middle  of  October  to  the  middle  of  December, 
the  appearance  of  the  sky  is  various,  sometimes  dark  and  cloudy, 
but  calm,  and  sometimes  rainy.  In  the  latter  part  of  October,  be- 
gin the  first  or  autumnal  rains,  so  necessary  for  the  sower.  The 
atmosphere  still  continues  warm  and  at  times  it  is  very  hot,  but 
the  weather  gradually  grows  colder,  and  towards  the  end  of  this 
division  of  the  seasons,  the  snows  fall  on  the  mountains.  The 
brooks  are  still  dry,  and  the  water  in  the  rivers  is  shallow.  In 
the  second  half  of  November,  the  leaves  fall  from  the  trees. 
Some,  who  are  less  robust  find  the  need  of  a  fire,  which  they  con- 
tinue almost  till  April,  Jer.  36:  22 ;  others  do  without  one  the 
whole  winter. 

The  fifth  part  of  the  year,  fpfr ,  extending  from  the  middle  of 
December  to  the  middle  of  February,  constitutes  the  winter. 
The  snows,  which  are  then  not  unfrequent,  scarcely  continue 
through  the  day,  except  on  the  mountains;  the  ice  is  thin  and 


24 


§  22.  FERTILITY  OF  THE  SOIL. 


melts  as  soon  as  the  sun  ascends  to  any  considerable  height.  The 
north  winds  are  chill,  and  the  cold,  particularly  on  the  mountains, 
which  are  covered  with  snow,  is  intense.  The  roads  are  slippe- 
ry, and  travelling  is  both  tedious  and  dangerous,  particularly 
through  the  declivities  of  the  mountains,  Jer.  13:  16.  23:  12.  Si- 
rach  43:  22.  Matt.  24:  20.  When  the  sky  is  serene  and  tranquil 
and  the  sun  is  unclouded,  the  heat  in  the  vallies  and  plains  is  some- 
times great,  as  Josephus  expressly  testifies  in  regard  to  the  plain  of 
Cesarea  near  the  sea.  Thunder,  lightning,  and  hail  are  frequent. ; 
the  brooks  are  filled ;  the  rivers  are  swollen  ;  the  fields  are  cov- 
ered with  flowers.  As  January  departs  and  February  enters,  the 
grain  fields  flourish  ;  the  trees  put  forth  their  foliage  ;  the  amyg- 
dalus,  the  earliest  tree  of  the  forest,  is  in  bloom  about  the  middle 
of  February. 

Finally,  the  sixth  part  of  the  year,  from  the  middle  of  February 
to  the  middle  of  April,  is  called  "vp  or  cold,  because  in  the  com- 
mencement of  it  the  weather  is  still  cold,  though  it  soon  grows 
warm  and  even  hot.  The  rains  still  continue,  but  are  diminished  ; 
thunder  and  lightning  and  hail  are  frequent,  though  they  cease  to- 
wards the  end  of  this  season.  The  rain  during  this  season  is  call- 
ed the  latter  rain. 

The  first  rain,  or  autumnal,  and  the  latter,  or  vernal,  are  neces- 
sary to  the  fertility  of  the  earth,  and  greatly  to  be  desired,  Lev. 
26:  4.  Deut.  8:  7.  11:  14,  17.  Isa.  30:  23.  Jerem.  3:  3.  5:  24. 
Hosea6:3.  Joel  2:  3.  Zech.  10:  1.  Job  29:  23.  Prov.  16:  15. 
25:  14.  James  5:  7.  Rains  in  those  regions  are  cold,  and 
are  announced  by  previous  whirlwinds,  raising  the  dust,  which 
are  expressed,  by  Arabic  words,  which  mean  messengers,  and 
good  messengers  or  tidings,  Koran,  7:  55.  77:  1 — 3.  By  the 
Hebrews  they  are  sometimes  called  the  word  or  the  command  of 
God,  ^  n^fttf  ,  'ni'?  Ps.  147:  15,  18.  The  north  and  west  wind 
in  particular  indicate  rain,  1  Kings  18  :  42 — 45.  Prov.  25  :  23. 
If  the  evening  be  red,  the  morrow  is  expected  to  be  serene  ;  if  the 
morning  be  red,  rain  is  expected.    Matt.  16:  2. 

§22.  FERTILITY  OF  THE  SOIL. 

The  fertility  of  soil,  so  celebrated  by  Moses,  is  confirmed  by  the 
testimony  of  all,  who  have  visited  this  region.    Even  the  unculti- 


§  22.   FERTILITY  OF  THE  SOIL. 


25 


vated  and  desert  tracts  are  not  destitute  of  rich  spots,  although 
they  have  comparatively  but  a  small  claim  to  the  praise  of  fertili- 
ty. If  the  untilled  and  waste  places  at  the  present  day  afford  no 
very  prepossessing  appearance,  it  ought  to  be  remembered,  that 
they  were  predicted  by  Moses,  Deut.  29:  22,  et  seq.  and  that  the 
country  has  been  laid  waste  successively  by  Assyrians,  Chaldeans, 
Syrians,  Romans,  Saracens,  the  European  crusaders,  the  Turks, 
and  Moguls ;  and  that  it  now  groans  under  the  dominion  of  the 
Turks,  who  neither  protect  the  agriculturalist  from  the  incursions 
of  the  Arabs,  nor  afford  him  any  encouragement,  but  the  contra- 
ry. And  yet  it  is  the  unanimous  testimony  of  travellers  in  regard  to 
this  country,  that,  where  it  is  cultivated,  it  is  extremely  fertile. 
It  produces  all  sorts  of  fruit-trees  ;  and  vines  are  not  wanting,  al- 
though the  Mahometans  do  not  drink  wine.  There  are  abund- 
ance of  domesticated  animals,  of  wild  beasts,  and  birds.  Josephus, 
Jewish  War,  B.  III.  c.  3.  §  3,  praises  Perea,  (which  at  the  present 
time  is  a  desert,)  for  its  vines  and  its  palm  trees  :  and  particular- 
ly celebrates  the  region  near  the  lake  Gennesareth,  also  the 
plain  of  Jericho,  which  are  now  uninhabited  and  desolate,  B. 
III.  c.  10.  §  8.  B.  IV.  c.  8.  §  3.  Indeed,  we  are  informed  by  Jo- 
sephus, that  in  Galilee  there  were  204  cities  and  towns,  that  the 
Lrgest  of  the  cities  had  150,000,  and  the  smallest  towns  15,000  inhab- 
itants. Hence  we  can  account  for  it,  that  Josephus  himself  in  this 
small  province,  short  of  40  miles  long  and  30  broad,  collected  an 
army  of  nearly  an  100,000  men,  J.  War.  B.  II.  c.  20.  §  6.  As  so 
many  people  were  collected  in  such  a  small  extent  of  country,  it  is 
clear,  that  the  arts  and  commerce  must  have  been  patronized, 
and  consequently  the  sciences ;  which  leaves  us  to  conclude,  that 
the  miracles  of  Jesus  were  performed  in  a  country,  where  they 
could  be  examined  and  fairly  discussed.  The  reproach,  which 
is  cast  upon  Galilee  in  John  7:  52,  has  no  reference  to  the  char- 
acter of  its  soil  or  climate,  but  only  to  the  fact,  that  the  prophet 
or  Messiah  was  not  to  be  expected  from  that  part  of  Palestine. 

Note. — There  is  an  intimation  in  Deut.  8:  9,  that  there  were 
mines  in  Palestine,  but  we  do  not  any  where  learn,  that  they  were 
wrought  by  the  Hebrews.  The  author  of  the  book  of  Job  men- 
tions mines,  in  the  commencement  of  his  28th  chapter,  but  it  is 
not  certain,  that  he  has  reference  to  Palestine  ;  and  a  very  general 
mention  is  made  of  them  in  Ps.  95:  4,  Isa.  51:  1.  It  is  a  well-known 
4 


26       §23.   CALAMITIES  TO  WHICH  PALESTINE  IS  SUBJECT. 


fact,  that  mines,  at  a  comparatively  recent  period,  were  wrought 
at  Sarepta,  a  city  of  Phenicia.  Scanty  as  our  information  is  in  re- 
gard to  their  mines,  there  is,  nevertheless,  reason  to  believe,  that 
the  Hebrews  understood  metallurgy,  or  the  art  of  smelting  ores  ; 
for  we  find  mention  made  of  an  iron  furnace,  ^T'laH  ,  Deut. 
4:  20.  1  Kgs.  8:  51.  Jer.  11:  4;  otherwise  called  the  furnace  of 
silver  ore,  i.e.  a  furnace  for  refining  silver-ore,  tP:PD  "tfS, 

Ezek.  22:  18 — 22;  called  also  the  gold  furnace,  SnT  *V&,  i.  e.'a 
furnace  for  refining  gold,  Prov.  17:  3.  27:  21.  The  word  JtfD  or 
2*6  ,  a  metallurgical  expression,  means,  (1.)  a  sort  of  unrefined  ore, 
which,  when  melted,  is  employed  in  glazing  earthen  vessels,  Prov. 
26:  23;  (2.)  it  means  also  alloy  or  metal  of  a  meaner  sort,  which, 
by  melting  them  together,  was  artificially  combined  with  gold  and 
silver,  Ps.  119:  119.  Prov.  25:  4.  Isa.  1:  22,  25.  Ezek.  22:  18, 
19. 

"Fullers'  soap,"  rT'nb  ,  which  was  employed  not  only  in  wash- 
ing garments,  but  in  cleansing  gold  and  silver  from  the  dross,  was 
well  known,  Mai.  3:  2.  Jer.  2:  22. 

§  23.   CALAMITIES  TO  WHICH  PALESTINE  IS  SUBJECT. 

I.  It  is  often  afflicted  with  the  pestilence,  which  enters  from 
Egypt  and  other  countries,  and  is  frequently  spoken  of  in  the  Bi- 
ble. 

II.  Earthquakes  are  common ;  see  Abdollatif.  Denkwiird.  Ae- 
gypt.  p.  335,  et  seq.  The  city  of  Jerusalem  rarely  received  any 
detriment  from  this  source,  Ps.  46:  3,  et  seq.  The  earthquakes,  by 
which  the  country,  with  the  exception  of  Jerusalem,  was  so  often 
shaken  and  laid  waste,  were  a  source  of  images  to  the  prophets,  by 
which  any  scenes  of  destruction  and  overthrow  were  represented, 
Ps.  60:  2,  3.  Isa.  29:  6.  54:  10.  Jer.  4:  24.  Hag.  2:  6,  22.  Matt. 
24:  7. 

III.  Thunder,  lightning,  hail,  inundations,  and  severe  winds  hap- 
pen in  the  winter,  Isa.  11:  15.  Pliny,  Histor.  Nat.  ii.  49.  Shaw's 
Travels,  p.  289.  From  these  operations  of  nature,  the  prophets 
borrowed  many  figures,  Ps.  18:  8—15.  29:  1—10.  42:  7.  Isa.  5: 
30.  8:  7,  8.  11:  15.  28:  2.  29:  6.  24:  18.  Matt.  7:  25. 

IV.  Vast  bodies  of  migrating  locusts,  n:nnN  ,  called  by  the  Orien- 
tals the  armies  of  God,  lay  waste  the  country.    They  observe  as 


§  23.   CALAMITIES  TO  WHICH  PALESTINE  IS  SUBJECT.  27 

regular  order,  when  they  march,  as  an  army.    At  evening  they 
descend  from  their  flight,  and  form,  as  it  were,  their  camps.    In  the 
morning,  when  the  sun  has  risen  considerably,  they  ascend  again,  if 
they  do  not  find  food,  and  fly  in  the  direction  of  the  wind,  Prov.  30: 
27.  Nah.  3:  16,  17.    They  go  in  immense  numbers,  Isa.  46: 23,  and 
occupy  a  space  of  10  or  12  miles  in  length,  and  4  or  5  in  breadth,  and 
are  so  deep,  that  the  sun  cannot  penetrate  through  them ;   so  that 
they  convert  the  day  into  night,  and  bring  a  temporary  darkness  on 
the  land,  Joel  2:  2,  10.  Exod.  10:  15.    The  sound  of  their  wings  is 
terrible,  Joel  2:  2.     When  they  descend  upon  the  earth,  they 
cover  avast  tract  a  foot  and  a  half  high,  Joel  1:  5.  2:  11.  Judg.  6: 
5.  7:  12.  Exod.  10:  15.    If  the  air  is  cold  and  moist,  or  if  they 
be  wet  with  the  dew,  they  remain    where  they  happen    to  be 
till  they  are  dried  and  warmed  by  the  sun,  Nahum  3:  17.  They 
decamp  at  length  in  good  order  and  march  almost  in  a  direct  line 
north.    Nothing  stops  them.    They  fill  the  ditches  which  are  dug 
to  stop  them  with  their  bodies,  and  extinguish  by  their  numbers 
the  fires,  which  are  kindled.     They  pass  over  walls  and  enter 
the  doors  and  windows  of  houses,  Joel  2:  7 — 9.     They  devour 
every  thing  which  is  green,  strip  diT  the  bark  of  trees,  and  even 
break  them  to  pieces  by  their  weight,  Exod.  10:  12,  15.  Joel  1: 
4,  7,  10,  12,  16,  18,  20.  2:  3.    They  make  a  loud  noise  when 
eating,  Jer.  51:  14.     The  greatest  part  of  the  evil  is,  that  the 
first  army  of  locusts  is  likely  to  be  succeeded  by  another,  a  third, 
and  a  fourth,  which  consume  all  that  is  left,  and  leave  the  ground 
in  appearance,  as  if  it  had  been  burnt  over  with  fire.    When  they 
have  consumed  every  thing,  they  fly  away  in  the  direction  of  the 
wind,  leaving  behind  them  not  only  their  foetid  excrements,  but 
their  eggs,  buried  in  the  ground,  from  which  is  produced  in  the 
following  spring  a  much  more  numerous  progeny  of  these  evil 
invaders.    They  are  borne,  at  length,  over  the  sea,  an  element  with 
which  they  have  not  formed  an  acquaintance.    They  descend  up- 
on it,  as  they  do  upon  the  land,  and  are  drowned.    They  are  driv- 
en by  the  waves  upon  the  shore,  where  they  putrify,  and  render 
the  air  so  corrupted,  as  to  breed  the  pestilence,  Exod.  10:  13 — 20. 
Joel  2:  20.    These  locusts  are  much  longer  than  those  among  us, 
being  5  or  6  inches  long,  and  an  inch  and  a  half  thick.    The  form 
of  the  head  is  like  that  of  a  horse.    Hence  they  are  often  com- 
pared to  horses.    In  some  instances,  it  is  like  the  human  head, 
Rev.  9:  7.    Their  teeth  are  sharp  and  are  compared  to  those  of 


28 


§  24.   DIVISION  OF  PALESTINE 


lions,  Joel  1:  5.  2:  4.  There  are  different  species  of  them  ;  eight 
or  nine  occur  in  the  Bible. 

V.  Famine  is  a  consequence  of  the  devastations  of  the  locusts, 
and  of  the  defect  of  the  first  and  latter  rain.  Famines  have  been 
so  severe,  that,  in  besieged  cities,  the  inhabitants  have  been  reduc- 
ed to  the  necessity  not  only  of  eating  animals,  not  fit  to  be  eaten, 
but  human  bodies,  Deut.  28:  22—49.  2  Sam.  xxi.  2  Kgs.  6:  25, 
28.  25:  3,  &c. 

VI.  The  evil  of  the  greatest  magnitude  is  the  wind,  called  by 
the  Arabs  Samoom,  by  the  Turks  Samyel,  and  by  the  Hebrews 
flBybT  ,Ps.  11:  6,  US  ffin,  Jer.  4:  11, 1^3  Isa.  4:  4,  st?tj?/rn#tp: 
Isa.  27:  8.  It  blows  in  Persia,  Babylonia,  Arabia,  and  the  deserts  of 
Egypt,  in  the  months  of  June,  July,  and  August ;  in  Nubia,  in 
March  and  April,  September,  October  and  November.  It  con- 
tinues not  longer  than  7  or  8  minutes  ;  but  it  destroys  in  a  moment 
every  person,  whom  it  passes,  who  stands  erect.  They  fall  dead, 
and  lie  like  one  sleeping.  If  a  person  takes  hold  of  their  hand, 
to  arouse  them,  it  falls  off.  The  body  soon  after  turns  black. 
This  wind  does  not  extend  high  in  the  air,  nor  descend  below  the 
altitude  of  two  feet  from  the  earth.  Hence  travellers,  when  they 
see  it  appioaching,  commonly  fall  prone  upon  the  ground  ;  place 
their  feet  in  the  direction  of  the  wind,  and  apply  their  mouths  as  firm- 
ly as  possible  to  the  earth,  breathing  as  little  as  they  can,  lest  they 
should  receive  into  their  lungs  any  of  the  passing  Samoom.  The 
indications  of  the  Samyel's  approach  are  distant  clouds,  slightly 
tinged  with  red,  in  appearance  something  like  the  rainbow ;  also 
a  rushing  noise ;  of  the  last  circumstance,  however,  some  persons 
do  not  make  mention. 

In  houses  and  cities,  its  power  is  not  felt.  Animals,  though 
exposed  to  it,  do  not  perish,  but  they  tremble  through  all  their 
limbs,  and  instinctively  thrust  down  their  heads.  The  Arabians 
sometimes  use  the  word  Samoom  in  a  broader  sense,  to  denote 
any  hot  wind,  which  continues  for  a  l@iig  lime.  In  a  similar  way 
the  Hebrews  use  the  word  D^p  ,  comp.  Ps.  103:  15,  16,  &c. 

§  24.  Division  of  Palestine  among  the  Israelites. 

The  Hebrews,  having  taken  the  country  by  arms,  divided  it 
among  the  twelve  tribes.    The  posterity  of  Joseph,  it  is  true,  had 


AMONG  THE  ISRAELITES. 


29 


been  divided  into  two,  those  of  Ephraim  and  Manasseh,  but  the 
tribe  of  Levi  received  only  48  cities  for  its  portion,  which  left 
twelve  tribes,  among  whom  the  main  body  of  the  country  was  to 
be  divided. 

The  region  beyond  the  Jordan  was  assigned  by  Moses  to  the 
tribes  of  Reuben  and  Gad,  and  the  half  tribe  of  Manasseh,  Deut. 
3:  12—27.  Jos.  12:  1—6.  13:  8—33.  The  southern  part  of  this 
tract  was  allotted  to  Reuben  ;  it  was  bounded  on  the  east  and  south 
by  the  river  Arnon,  on  the  borders  of  which  river  were  situated 
the  Ammonites  to  the  east,  and  the  Moabites  to  the  south  ;  the 
western  limit  was  the  Dead  Sea  and  the  Jordan.  The  tract  of 
country  called  Gilead,  in  the  more  limited  sense  of  the  word,  ex- 
tending north  of  Reuben  to  the  lake  Gennesareth,  became  the  por- 
tion of  the  tribe  of  Gad.  The  remainder,  which  was  the  northern 
portion  on  the  further  or  eastern  side  of  the  Jordan,  fell  to  the  half 
tribe  of  Manasseh. 

The  remaining  nine  and  a  half  tribes  took  up  their  abode  on 
this,  i.  e.  the  western,  side  of  the  Jordan.  The  territory  allotted 
to  Judah  was  the  tract,  which  runs  from  the  southern  boundary 
of  Palestine  in  a  northern  direction,  as  far  as  the  entrance  of  the 
Jordan  into  the  Dead  Sea,  the  valley  of  Hinnom,  and  the  northern 
limits  of  the  city  Ekron,  Jos.  15:  1 — 15.  As  this  portion,  in  a 
subsequent  division  of  the  country,  was  too  large,  a  <;ract  was  set 
off  on  the  western  side  of  it  towards  the  Mediterranean,  the  sou- 
thern part  of  which  was  allotted  to  the  tribe  of  Simeon,  and  the 
northern  to  that  of  Dan.  The  limits  of  these  two  tribes  are  not 
denned  ;  the  cities  merely,  which  they  obtained,  are  mentioned. 
Jos.  15:  2—1:3.  19:  1—9,  40—47.  This  part  of  Palestine 
was  divided,  according  to  the  face  of  the  country,  into  5*3  or 
the  southern  district,  £&B8?n  or  the  Plain  bordering  on  the  Medi- 
terranean sea,  the  mountain  or  the  hill-country  of  Judah,  and 
the  Desert  of  Judah,  Jos.  11:  16.  Luke  1:  39.  To  these  the  pro- 
phet Jeremiah '  adds  the  following  geographical  divisions,  viz.  Me 
land  of  Benjamin,  and  the  Country  round  about  Jerusalem,  but  he 
has  reference  to  a  period  after  the  separation  of  Israel,  Jer.  32:  44. 
33:  13. 

[The  canton,  allotted  to  the  tribe  of  Benjamin,  lay  between  the 
tribes  of  Judah  and  Joseph,  contiguous  to  Samaria  on  the  north, 
to  Judah  on  the  south,  and  to  Dan  on  the  west,  which  last  parted 
it  from  the  Mediterranean.]  Home's  Introduc.  vol.  iii.  p.  12. 


30 


§  25.  DIVISION  OF  PALESTINE 


The  tribe  of  Ephraim  received  the  tract,  extending  to  the  north 
of  Benjamin  as  far  as  the  Brook  of  Reeds,  Jos.  16:  1 — 4,8.  17: 
7 — 10.  By  the  same  lot,  the  second  half  of  the  tribe  of  Manasseh 
received  its  portion,  the  limits  of  which  cannot,  therefore,  be  ac- 
curately defined,  Jos.  16:  4.  17:  9.  It  is  clear,  however,  that  the 
tribe  of  Manasseh  come  north  of  Ephraim  and  the  Brook  of  Reeds, 
and,  though  on  the  east  it  fell  short  of  the  Jordan,  that  it  extended 
on  the  west  as  far  as  the  Mediterranean,  Jos.  17:  10. 

The  tribe  of  Issachar,  which  was  situated  north  of  the  half  tribe 
of  Manasseh,  obtained  for  its  inheritance  the  plain  of  Jezreel.  It 
extended  south  along  the  Jordan  as  far  as  the  tribe  of  Ephraim. 

Its  northern  limit  was  mount  Tabor,  but  it  does  not  appear  to 
have  reached  to  the  Mediterranean,  Jos.  17:  10.  19:  17 — 23. 

The  canton  of  Asher  extended  from  Carmel  or  the  boundary 
line,  by  which  the  half  tribe  of  Manasseh  was  limited  on  the  west, 
in  the  first  instance  in  a  northern  direction  along  the  shores  of  the 
Mediterranean,  and  then  along  the  borders  of  Phenicia  to  the  city 
Apheca,  Jos.  19:  24—31. 

The  tribe  of  Zebulun  was  situated  east  of  Asher  and  north  of 
Issachar,  and  extended  as  far  as  the  egress  of  the  Jordan  from  lake 
Gennesareth,  Jos.  19:  10 — 15.  Matt.  4:  13. 

The  remainder  of  Palestine  was  allotted  to  the  tribe  of  Naph- 
tali;  this  canton  was  bounded  by  the  tribes  of  Asher  and  Zebulun, 
the  lake  Gennesareth,  the  Jordan,  and  the  northern  line  of  the 
whole  kingdom,  where,  however,  a  colony  of  Danites  took  up  their 
residence  in  the  city  of  Lais,  afterwards  called  Dan,  Jos.  19:  32 — 
39.  Judg.  xviii. 

After  the  death  of  Solomon  a  contention  arose  and  the  whole 
country  was  divided  into  the  kingdoms  of  Judah  and  Israel.  The 
boundary  line  between  them  was  the  northern  limit  of  the  tribe  of 
Benjamin. 

§  25.   Division  of  Palestine  in  the  time  of  Christ. 

In  the  time  of  Christ  the  country  on  the  western  side  of  the  Jor- 
dan was  divided  into  three  principal  provinces. 

1.  Galilee.  By  this  name,  which  occurs  a  number  of  times  in 
Joshua,  and  at  a  later  period  very  often,  is  meant  the  territory, 
which  is  surrounded  by  Phenicia,  Syria,  Jordan,  the  lake  Gen- 


IN  THE  TIME  OF  CHRIST. 


31 


nesareth,  and  the  plain  of  Jezreel.  It  is  in  the  north  of  Palestine, 
and  was  divided  into  lower  or  southern,  and  northern  or  upper  Gal- 
ilee. The  latter  section  was  denominated  Galilee  of  the  Gentiles, 
FuXdaia  to>v  i&vwv,  fi^ijrn        ,  Jos.  12:  23.  20:  7.  Matt.  4:  15. 

II.  Samaria  ;  it  was  situated  nearly  in  the  centre  of  Palestine, 
but,  though  it  ran  across  the  country,  it  did  not  extend  down  to 
the  Mediterranean.  It  reached  from  Ginea  and  Scythopolis  on 
one  side,  to  Acrabatene  and  Annuath  on  the  other,  John  iv. 

III.  Judea,  which  comprehended  Idumea  as  far  as  the  town  of 
Jardan  in  Arabia  Petrea,  and  also  the  shore  of  the  Mediterranean 
as  far  as  Ptolemais,  was  surrounded  by  Samaria,  the  Jordan,  the 
Dead  Sea/ Arabia  Petrea,  and  the  Mediterranean.  Josephus,  Jew. 
War,  Bk.  III.  ch.  3. 

In  Perea  or  the  country  beyond  the  Jordan,  that  is,  on  the 
eastern  side  of  it,  were  eight  provinces  or  cantons. 

I.  Perea,  in  the  more  limited  signification  of  the  word,  viz., 
the  southern  part  of  the  whole  district,  extending  from  the  river 
Arnon  to  the  river  Jabbok. 

II.  Gilead,  situated  north  of  the  Jabbok. 

III.  Decapolis,  or  the  district  of  ten  cities,  which  were  inhab- 
ited chiefly  by  the  heathen  or  gentiles.  Their  names  were  as  fol- 
lows;  Scythopolis,  which  lies  west  of  the  Jordan,  Hippos  and  .Ga- 
dara,  Pella,  Philadelphia,  Dion,  Canath,  Gerasa,  Raphana,  and 
perhaps  Damascus ;  in  the  enumeration  of  the  ten  cities  of  this 
district,  however,  ancient  historians  are  not  agreed,  see  Pliny  H. 
N.  Lib.  V.  c.  18.  Mark  5:  1.  Luke  8:  26.  Matt.  8:23. 

IV.  Gaulonitis,  a  tract  extending  on  the  eastern  shore  of  the 
lake  Gennesareth  and  the  Jordan  as  far  as  Hermon. 

V.  Batanea,  the  ancient  Bashan,  though  somewhat  diminish- 
ed in  its  limits.  It  lies  to  the  east  of  Gaulonitis  and  the  north 
of  Gilead. 

VI.  Auranitis,  formerly  Chauran  or  Chavran.  |H*(rj ,  Ezek. 
47:  16 — 18,  also  called  Iturea,  was  situated  to  the  north  of  Batanea 
and  to  the  east  of  Gaulonitis,  Luke  3:  1. 

VII.  Trachonitis,  to  the  north  of  Auranitis  and  to  the  east  of 
Paneas  otherwise  called  Cesarea  Philippi,  by  which  it  was  sepa- 
rated from  Galilee  ;  it  was  celebrated  for  its  caves,  which  were 
inhabited  in  the  time  of  Herod. 

VIII.  Abilene,  on  the  northern  limits  of  this  territory,  situated 


32 


26.   THE  EARLIEST  SHELTERS. 


between  Baalbec  and  Damascus  from  lat.  33°  30'  to  33°  40' ;  it 
was  called  also  Abilene  Lysanias,  from  the  robber  Lysanias,  who 
purchased  it  from  the  Romans.  Luke  3:  1. 


CHAPTER  II. 
OF  DWELLINGS. 

§  26.  The  earliest  shelters  were  shady  trees  and  caves. 

As  men  in  the  primitive  condition  of  society  were  unacquaint- 
ed with  the  arts,  they  were  not  of  course  in  a  condition  to  erect 
houses ;  they  lived,  consequently,  under  the  open  sky.  In  un- 
pleasant weather,  whether  hot  or  rainy,  they  sought  for  a  shelter 
under  shady  trees,  in  the  clefts  of  rocks,  and  such  caves  as  they 
happened  to  discover.  Nor  are  we  to  suppose,  that  shelters  of 
this  kind  were  altogether  inadequate.  The  inhabitants  of  mount 
Taurus  even  to  this  day,  in  a  climate  much  more  severe  than  that 
of  Palestine,  live  in  caves,  as  also  do  the  wandering  shepherds  of 
Arabia  Petrea,  either  in  caves  and  the  clefts  of  rocks,  or  beneath 
a.      the  shade  of  trees. 

§  27.  the  more  recent  troglodytes  or  dwellers  in  caves. 

Caves  are  not  only  numerous  in  the  East,  but  many  of  them  are 
both  large  and  dry.  They  formed  convenient  dwellings,  being 
warm  in  the  winter  and  cool  in  the  summer.  Hence  in  a  com- 
paratively recent  age,  when  dwellings  of  a  different  kind  were 
commonly  resorted  to,  the  caves  were  still  preferred  by  many, 
especially  by  those,  who  had  emigrated  to  distant  regions.  The 
dwellers  in  caves  whom  we  find  mentioned,  at  quite  a  late  peri- 
od, were  robbers,  who  had  abandoned  the  restraints  of  society, 
and  were  the  latest  occupants  of  these  abodes.  The  inhabitants 
of  caves  and  mountains  commonly  occur  in  the  Old  Testament  un- 
der the  designation  of  Horites ;  in  regard  to  whom  we  are  inform- 
ed more  particularly, 


§  28.  TABERNACLES. 


33 


I.  Of  the  inhabitants  of  mount  Seir  ;  they  chiefly  occupied 
the  mountains  of  Seir,  but  were  found  dwelling  as  far  as  Paran  in 
Arabia  Petrea,  Gen.  14:  6.  21:  21.  Deut.  2:  12,  22.  Num.  10:  12. 
Gen.  36:  20—30. 

II.  Of  the  Rephaims,  who  in  addition  to  their  caverns  had  some 
fortified  cities,  and  were  divided  into  three  tribes,  as  follows;  (1.) 
The  Emims,  who  dwelt  in  the  region,  which  the  Moabites  afterwards 
occupied,  Deut.  2:  11,  12.  (2.)  The  Zamzummims,  men  of  large 
stature,  living  in  the  region,  which  was  afterwards  possessed  by 
the  Ammonites.  (3.)  The  Rephaims,  or  giants  strictly  so  called, 
who  lived  in  the  country  of  Bashan,  were  also  of  large  stature,  and 
were  driven  out  by  the  Hebrews,  Deut.  2:  10 — 23.  3:  3 — 16. 

III.  Of  the  Troglodytes,  or,  as  the  Hebrews  denominated 
them,  the  sons  of  the  caves,  tPpa?  ^a  ,  called  in  the  English  version 
Anakims,  Deut.  1:28.  2:10.  9:1,2.  The  three  tribes,  into 
which  they  were  divided  were,  (1.)  the  Nephilim,  Num.  13:33. 
(2.)  The  clans  of  Achiman,  Sheshai,  and  Talmai,  Num.  13:  22, 
23.  Jos.  14:  15.  (3.)  The  Anakims,  inhabiting  Debir,  Anab,  and 
the  mountains  of  Judah,  Jos.  11:  21,  22.  (4.)  The  Anakims  around 
Gaza,  Gath,  and  Ashdod,  1  Sam.  17:  4. 

Note. — The  caves,  of  which  we  have  spoken,  when  they  had 
become  less  frequently  selected  for  the  abodes  of  the  living,  were 
employed  as  sepulchres  for  the  dead,  Gen.  xxiii.  In  times  of  perse- 
cution and  war  also,  those,  which  were  not  converted  into  ceme- 
teries, nor  occupied,  as  they  sometimes  were,  by  hordes  of  robbers, 
became  a  refuge  to  the  oppressed  and  the  vanquished,  Jos.  10 : 
16.  Judg.  15:  8.  20:  45.  1  Sam.  13:  6.  22:  1,  et  seq.  In  these 
caves,  the  necromancers  sometimes  practised  their  inauspicious 
arts,  and  the  beasts  of  the  forest  found  a  dwelling  place,  1  Sam. 
28:  8—24. 

§  28.  Tabernacles. 

As  caves  could  not  always  be  readily  found,  and  as  it  was  some- 
times great  labor  to  excavate  one,  men  were  compelled  by  the 
exigencies  of  their  situation,  to  form  some  other  sort  of  residence. 
The  shady  trees  and  tall  shrubs,  whose  tops  approached  each  other 
and  were  twisted  together,  suggested  the  plan  of  cutting  down 
5 


34 


§  29.   ON  TENTS. 


large  branches,  fixing  them  into  the  ground  in  parallel  lines,  binding 
them  together  at  the  top,  and  covering  them  with  leaves,  herbs, 
reeds,  branches,  and  even  broad  flat  stones,  in  order  to  shield 
themselves  from  the  cold,  the  heat,  and  the  dew.  Thus  they 
built  tabernacles,  huts,  or  lodges,  in  Heb.  J-OD .  The  Romans 
called  them  Mappalia.  They  were  small  and  low  in  the  begin- 
ning, so  that  a  person  could  not  stand  erect,  but  was  obliged  either 
to  lie  down  or  to  sit,  but  afterwards  were  built  higher. 

The  use  of  these  tabernacles  did  not  cease,  even  after  the 
erection  of  more  stable  and  convenient  dwellings.  They  were  fre- 
quently made,  sometimes  from  necessity,  sometimes  for  convenience, 
and  sometimes  for  pleasure,  and  are  to  this  day  erected  in  the 
summer  among  the  wandering  tribes  or  Nomades  of  Mesopotamia. 
A  collection  of  such  tabernacles  is  called  in  Heb.  ni^n  and  rtTHS  • 
The  word  ri"ivO  is  used,  however,  for  uncovered  sheep-cotes, 
towers,  castles,  and  turrets,  Gen.  33:  17.  Ps.  27:  5.  Jon.  4 :  5. 
Matt.  17:  4.  Gen.  25:  16.  Ezek.  25:  4.  1  Chron.  6:  54.  Num.  31: 
10.  Cant.  8:  9. 

§  29.  On  Tents. 

As  tabernacles,  which  could  not  readily  be  moved  from  place 
to  place,  and  from  a  want  of  materials  could  not  every  where  be 
built,  were  made  partly  of  skins,  the  design  arose  of  erecting  a 
shelter  wholly  of  skins  extended  round  a  long  pole,  and  so  light,  as 
to  be  easily  moved  from  one  place  to  another.  It  was  tents  of 
this  kind,  we  may  suppose,  which  Jabal  invented,  Gen.  4:  20. 
In  the  progress  of  years  they  were  no  longer  covered  with  skins, 
but  with  various  kinds  of  cloth,  particularly  linen.  The  Nomades 
of  the  east  still  use  them.  They  pitch  them  in  any  place,  which 
appears  suitable,  but  they  give  the  preference  to  a  spot  near  some 
shady  tree,  Gen.  18:  4.  Judg.  4:  5. 

§  30.   FORMATION  OF  TENTS. 

The  first  tents,  which  were  made,  were  undoubtedly  round  in 
their  construction,  and  small  in  size  ;  afterwards  they  were  made 
larger  and  oblong*  The  "Nomades  of  Arabia  Petrea  have  two 
kinds,  the  one  larger,  the  other  smaller,  Gen.  33:  17. 


§  30.  FORMATION  OF  TENTS.  3£ 

They  call  the  former  kind,  in  distinction  from  the  smaller 
ones,  baiton  or  houses.  The  smaller  tents  are  sustained  by  three 
poles  only,  and  covered  with  a  fabric,  woven  of  wool  and  camel's 
hair  ;  the  large  ones  are  sustained  sometimes  by  seven,  and  some- 
times by  nine  poles.  The  three  longest  of  these  poles,  whether 
seven  or  nine  in  number,  are  erected  in  the  middle,  and  on  each 
side  of  the  middle  row  are  placed  2  or  3  others  parallel,  though 
shorter  much  than  those  between  them  ;  they  are  covered  with  a 
black  cloth  made  of  goat's  hair.  Tne  poleiin  the  middle  is  taller  than 
any  of  the  rest,  though  it  rarely  exceeds  8  or  10  feet.  The  Ara- 
bians take  a  pleasure  in  pitching  their  tents  on  hills,  in  such  a 
way,  as  to  form  a  sort  of  circular  encampment.  When  thus  pitch- 
ed, being  of  a  dark  hue,  they  exhibit  a  beautiful  appearance  to 
the  distantly  approaching  travellers,  Cant.  1:5.  The  flocks  and 
cattle  during  the  night  are  driven  into  the  space  in  the  centre 
of  the  encampment  called  ,  and  guarded  by  dogs,  Job  30:  1. 
Some  one  of  the  shepherds  keeps  watch  also  during  the  night,  a 
duty,  which  is  performed  alternately,  Isa.  56:  9 — 11.  The  tent 
of  the  Emir  is  pitched  in  the  centre  of  the  others,  which  are  about 
30  paces  distant,  and  is  both  larger  and  higher.  The  Emir  has 
a  number  of  tents  in  addition  to  the  one  appropriated  to  himself; 
viz,  one  for  the  females  of  his  family,  one  for  his  servants,  and 
a  third,  covered  with  green  cloth  for  the  reception  of  those,  who 
wish  to  see  him  on  business  or  come  to  render  him  their  homage. 
On  the  same  principle  are  arranged  the  tents  of  the  subordinate 
Emirs  when  in  the  company  of  a  superior  Emir  or  chief,  at  some 
distance,  it  is  true,  but  as  D'Arvieux  testifies,  not  exceeding  4£ 
miles. 

§  31.    Internal  structure  of  tents. 

The  larger  kind  of  tents  are  divided  by  curtains  into  three  parts, 
as  was  done  also  in  the  holy  tabernacle.  In  the  external  divi- 
sion or  apartment  the  servants  lodge,  and  during  the  night  the 
young  animals  also,  to  prevent  their  sucking  the  dam.  In  the  sec- 
ond apartment  are  the  males,  but  if  the  tent  be  smaller  than  usu- 
al, all  the  males  of  the  tent,  together  with  the  animals  just  men- 
tioned, are  lodged  together.  The  third  or  interior  apartment, 
called  i-Dp,  ,  is  allotted  to  the  women,  Num.  25:  8.    The  more 


36 


§  32.  HOUSES. 


wealthy  assign  the  external  apartment  to  the  servants  alone,  ex- 
cluding animals;  and  the  Emirs,  as  already  stated,  have  separate 
tents  both  for  the  servants  and  the  females,  Gen.  24:  67.  The 
Nomades,  who  are  less  jealous,  than  the  inhabitants  of  the  cities, 
watch  the  other  sex  less  scrupulously,  Gen.  12:  15.  IS:  6 — 9, 
34:  1,  2. 

The  bottom  of  the  tent  is  either  covered  with  mats  or  with  car- 
pets according  to  the  wealth  of  the  possessor,  and  upon  these  they 
are  in  the  habit  of  sitting.  The  more  wealthy  of  the  Nomades, 
especially  the  Emirs,  possess  in  addition,  coverlets,  pillows,  &c. 
made  of  valuable  materials  ;  these  are  piled  up  in  one  corner  of 
the  tent  by  day,  and  brought  upon  the  bottom  of  it  at  night.  The 
utensils  of  the  Nomades  are  few  ;  they  have  vessels  of  shell  and 
brass,  viz,  pots,  kettles,  and  cups  of  brass  covered  elegantly  with 
tin,  also  leathern  bags.  Their  hearth  is  on  the  grouud.  It  con- 
sists of  three  stones,  placed  so  as  to  form  a  triangle.  In  the  mid- 
dle of  them  is  a  small  excavation  of  the  earth,  where  the  fire  is 
kindled  ;  the  vessels  are  placed  over  it  upon  the  stones.  The  ta- 
ble, if  so  it  may  be  called,  from  which  they  eat,  is  nothing  more 
than  a  round  skin  spread  upon  the  bottom  of  the  tent.  Clothing 
and  military  arms  are  hung  upon  nails  in  the  poles  of  the  tent. 

§  32.  Houses. 

In  the  progress  of  time,  as  tabernacles  became  larger  and  were 
defended  against  the  injuries  of  the  weather  by  broad  stones  and 
earth  heaped  up  against  them,  it  was  found,  that  dwellings  could 
be  made  of  stones  alone  and  moist  earth  or  clay.  A  want  of  stones 
in  some  places  gave  occasion  for  the  formation  of  tiles,  which  were 
made  by  reducing  a  body  of  clay  to  shape  and  hardening  it  in  the 
sun  or  burning  it  in  the  fire.  These  ancient  attempts  are  mentioned, 
Gen.  11:3.  6:  16.  In  Deut.  8:  12,  mention  is  made  of  elegant 
houses,  and  in  27:  2,  4,  the  use  of  limestone  is  spoken  of,  as  if  it 
were  common  and  well  known. 

§  33.    Size  of  Houses. 

Houses  at  first  were  small,  afterwards  larger ;  especially  in 
extensive  cities,  the  capitals  of  empires.  The  art  of  multiplying 
stories  in  a  building  is  very  ancient,  as  we  may  gather  from  the 


§  34.   FORM  AND  ROOF  OF  HOUSES. 


37 


construction  of  Noah's  ark  and  the  tower  of  Babel.  The  houses 
in  Babylon,  according  to  Herod.  Lib.  I,  §  180,  were  3  and  4  stories 
high,  and  those  in  Thebes  or  Diospolis  in  Egypt,  4  or  5  stories  ; 
consult  Diod.  Sic.  Lib.  I.  c.  45.  They  appear  to  have  been  low 
in  Palestine  in  the  time  of  Joshua ;  an  upper  story,  although  it  may 
have  existed,  is  not  mentioned,  till  a  more  recent  age.  Jeremiah 
praises  houses  of  good  form  and  architecture,  and  calls  them  Tia , 
rn^E  Jer.  22:  14.  The  houses  of  the  rich  and  powerful  in  the  time 
of  Christ  were  splendid,  and  were  built  according  to  the  rules  of 
Grecian  architecture. 

§  34.  Form  and  roof  of  houses. 

Many  of  the  larger  houses  were  tetragonal  in  form,  and  enclos- 
ed a  square  area.  They  were  lately  denominated  by  a  word  of 
Persian  origin  StV©*  ficcgug  a  palace,  which  according  to  Jerome, 
in  whose  time  it  was  still  used,  signifies  enclosed  houses,  built  with 
turrets  and  walls.  The  roofs  of  the  houses  were  flat,  such  as  are 
still  seen  in  the  east.  They  were  formed  of  earth  heaped  togeth- 
er, or  in  the  houses  of  the  rich,  of  a  firmly  constructed  flooring, 
made  of  coals  broken  up,  stones,  ashes,  chalk  and  gypsum,  reduc- 
ed to  a  solid  substance  by  the  application  of  blows.  The  declivi- 
ty of  the  roof  from  the  centre  to  the  extremity  is  very  small,  hard- 
ly an  inch  in  10  feet.  On  those  roofs,  which  are  covered  with 
earth,  herbs  sometimes  spring  up,  and  spears  of  wheat  and  barley, 
but  they  soon  perish  with  the  heat  of  the  sun.  The  orientals  of- 
ten ascend  these  roofs,  to  enjoy  a  purer  air,  to  secure  a  wider  pros- 
pect, or  to  witness  any  event  which  happens  in  the  neighbourhood. 
In  the  summer  they  sleep  upon  them,  but  not  without  a  cover- 
ing. They  even  erect  tents  and  tabernacles  upon  them ;  they 
also  spread  their  flax  and  cotton  there  to  be  dried  by  the  sun. 
They  ascend  their  roofs,  moreover,  to  talk  with  a  person  privately, 
to  witness  a  public  solemnity,  to  mourn  publicly,  and  to  announce 
any  thing  to  the  multitude,  to  pray  to  God,  and  to  perform  sacrifices. 
2  Sam.  11:  2, 6,  7.  Is.  22:  1.  Matt.  24:  17.  Mark  13:  15.  2  Sam.  16: 
22.  Jos.  2:  6.  1  Sam.  9:  25.  Judg.  16:26,  27.  Is.  15:3.  Jer.  19: 13. 
48:  38.  Matt.  10:  27.  Acts  10:  9.  The  roofs  are  surrounded  by  a 
breast  work  or  wall,  to  prevent  one  from  falling,  which  is  as  high  as 
the  breast.    On  the  side  next  a  neighbour's  house,  it  is  lower,  in 


38 


§  35.   OF  THE  GATE,  PORCH,  ETC. 


order,  that,  if  the  houses  are  near  and  of  the  same  altitude,  the  oc- 
cupants may  pass  from  one  to  the  other.  The  railing  or  wall  of 
the  roof,  ftj&fc ,  was  required  by  a  law  of  Moses,  Deut.  22:  8.  It 
was  this  railing  which  the  men  demolished,  Mark  2:  4.  Luke  5: 
19,  that  they  might  let  the  paralytic  down  into  the  court  or  area  of 
the  house. 

§  35.  The  gate,  porch,  area  or  court,  female  apartments. 
The  gate  or  door,  opening  to  the  streets,  is  in  the  middle  of  the 

front  side  of  the  house.  Hence  in  Arabic  it  is  called  il**^  or  the 
centre.  The  gates  not  only  of  houses,  but  of  cities,  were  customa- 
rily adorned  with  the  inscription,  which  according  to  Deut.  6:  9. 
11:  20,  was  to  be  extracted  from  the  law  of  Moses  ;  a  practice  in 
which  may  be  found  the  origin  of  the  modern  Mezuzaw,  or  piece 
of  parchment,  inscribed  with  Deut.  6:  5 — 9.  11:  13 — 20,  and  fasten- 
ed to  the  door-post.  The  gates  were  always  shut,  and  one  of 
the  servants  acted  the  part  of  a  porter,  Acts  12: 13.  John  18:  16,  17. 

The  space  immediately  inside  of  the  gate  is  called  the  porch, 
is  square,  and  on  one  side  of  it  is  erected  a  seat  for  the  accommo- 
dation of  those  strangers,  who  are  not  to  be  admitted  into  the  in- 
terior of  the  house.  In  this  porch,  or  contiguous  to  it,  are  the 
stairs  which  lead  to  the  upper  stories  and  the  roof  of  the  house, 
Matt.  24:  16,  17. 

From  the  porch  we  are  introduced,  through  a  second  door, 
into  the  quadrangular  area  or  Court,  which  is  denominated 
,  to  iitoov,  the  centre,  2  Sam.  17:  18.  Luke  5:  19. 
The  court  is  commonly  paved  with  marble  of  various  kinds.  In 
the  centre  of  it,  if  the  situation  of  the  place  admits,  there  is  a 
fountain.  The  court  is  generally  surrounded  on  all  sides,  some- 
times, however,  only  on  one,  with  a  cloister,  peristyle  or  covered 
walk,  "O^ft  ,  over  which,  if  the  house  have  more  than  one  story,  is 
a  gallery  of  the  same  dimensions,  supported  by  columns,  Heb. 
fc^Tlft? ,  and  protected  by  a  balustrade,  fillip,  to  prevent  one 
from  falling,  2  Kings  1:  2.  Hence  occur  so  many  allusions  to  col- 
umns, Ps.  75:  3.  Prov.  9:  1.  Gal.  2:  9.  1  Tim.  3:  15.  Large  com- 
panies are  received  into  the  court,  as  at  nuptials,  circumcisions,  &c. 
Esther  1 :  5.  Luke  5:  19.  On  such  occasions,  a  large  veil  of  thick 
cloth  is  extended  by  ropes  over  the  whole  of  it  to  exclude  the 
heat  of  the  sun  ;  which  is  practised  at  the  present  day,  Ps.  104:  2. 


§  36.   CHAMBERS  AND  OTHER  APARTMENTS. 


39 


The  veil  or  curtain  of  the  area  is  called  in  the  New  Testament 
OTt'yrj,  Luke  7:  6.  Mark  2:  4. 

The  back  part  of  the  house  is  allotted  to  the  women,  called  in 
Arabic  the  Harem,  and  in  Hebrew  by  way  of  eminence  "p73"]&f  or 
the  palace.  The  door  is  almost  always  kept  locked,  and 
is  opened  only  to  the  master  of  the  house,  2  Kings  15:  25.  Prov. 
18:  19.  White  eunuchs  guard  the  door  externally,  but  maids  and 
black  eunuchs  only  are  permitted  to  serve  within.  The  latter 
are  great  favourites  with  their  masters,  Isa.  32:  14.  Jer.  13:  23. 
2  Kings  15:  25.  The  Harem  of  the  more  powerful  is  often 
a  separate  building,  1  Kings  7:  8.  2  Chron.  8:  11.  Esth.  2:  3.  Be- 
hind the  Harem  there  is  a  garden,  into  which  the  women  enjoy  the 
pleasure  of  looking  from  their  small  but  lofty  apartments.  In  the 
smaller  houses,  which  are  not  made  in  a  quadrangular  form,  the 
females  occupy  the  upper  story.  This  is  the  place  assigned  them 
also  by  Homer  in  the  Iliad  and  Odyssey. 

§  36.  Chambers  and  other  apartments. 

The  chambers  are  large  and  spacious,  and  so  constructed,  as  to 
extend  round  the  whole  of  the  open  court  or  area.  The  doors  of 
the  chambers,  Q^hns ,  frns,  open  in  the  first  story  into  the  clois- 
ters, in  the  second  into  the  gallery.  The  ceiling  is  flat ;  some  say 
arched,  but  arches  do  not  appear  to  have  been  known  at  a  very 
early  period.  We  search  in  vain  for  arches  among  the  ruins  of 
ancient  edifices  ;  perhaps  they  have  perished  with  years,  but  they 
do  not  remain.  We  infer  therefore  that  33  in  Ezekiel  16:  24,  31, 
39,  cannot  with  certainty  ^be  translated,  arch  or  vault. 

The  Hebrews  at  a  very  ancient  date  had  not  only  summer  and 
winter  rooms,  but  palaces,  Judges  3:  20.  1  Kings  7:2 — 6.  Amos  3: 
15.  Jeremiah  36:  32.  The  houses,  or  palaces  so  called,  expressly 
made  for  summer,  were  very  large,  and  in  point  of  altitude  did  not 
yield  much  to  our  churches. 

The  lower  stories  were  frequently  under  ground.  The  front 
of  these  buildings  faced  the  north,  so  as  to  secure  the  advantage 
of  the  breezes,  which  in  summer  blow  from  that  direction.  They 
were  paved  with  marble,  and  when  it  could  be  done,  had  a  foun- 
tain in  the  centre  of  the  court,  in  order  to  render  them  still  more 
cool.    They  were  supplied  with  a  current  of  fresh  air  by  means 


40 


§  36.   CHAMBERS  AND  OTHER  APARTMENTS- 


of  ventilators,  which  consisted  of  perforations  made  through  the  up- 
per part  of  the  northern  wall,  of  considerable  diameter  externally, 
but  diminishing,  in  size,  as  they  approached  the  inside  of  the  wall. 
There  was  another  kind  of  ventilator,  which  arose  from  the  centre 
of  the  roof,  was  10  cubits  broad,  and  looked  like  a  turret.  It  was 
hollow  and  open  to  the  north,  and  so  constructed  as  to  convey  the 
cool  air  into  the  chambers  and  rooms  below.  Summer  houses  and 
chambers  are  called  in  Scripture,  B^tWlO  nrbs  and  mptt  n*bs, 
Judg.  3:  20,  24.  Jer.  22:  14. 

One  apartment  worthy  of  notice  extends  from  the  interior  of 
the  front  side  into  the  court,  sometimes  a  considerable  distance 
beyond  the  galleries  and  cloisters.  Its  roof  is  supported  by  two 
columns  only,  and  the  front  of  it  has  no  wall,  in  order  to  leave  the 
prospect  more  free.  In  this  apartment  princes  receive  ambassa- 
dors, transact  business,  and  dispense  justice.  The  temple  of  Da- 
gon,  which  was  destroyed  by  Samson,  was  similar,  as  far  as  con- 
cerned the  columns,  in  its  construction.  It  was  here  that  the  Sa- 
viour seems  to  have  had  his  trial,  Judg.  16:  26.  Matt.  26:  69.  Luke 
22:  61,  62.  compare  also  1  Kings  7:  7.  Esther  5:  1.  In  the  win- 
ter rooms  and  houses,  the  windows  face  the  south,  in  order  to  ren- 
der them  more  warm.  They  are  not  furnished  with  stoves  and 
fire-places  as  among  us.  The  coals  and  wood  are  heaped  into  a 
pot,  which  is  placed  in  a  hollow  place  left  for  that  purpose  in  the 
centre  of  the  paved  floor.  The  smoke  escapes  through  the  win- 
dows. This  method  of  keeping  fires  is  still  practised  in  the  East, 
Isa.  44:  16.  47:  14.  Sometimes  the  fire  is  placed  directly  in  the 
hollow  place  or  hearth  in  the  middle  of  the  floor,  Jer.  36:  22. 

All  the  rooms  of  the  upper  story  may  be  called  ftjV?  and  vns- 
qowv,  but  these  words  apply  more  appropriately  to  the  chamber 
over  the  porch.  It  opens  by  a  door  directly  upon  the  roof,  being 
commonly  a  story  higher  than  the  rest  part  of  the  house.  It  is  a 
place  for  retirement,  devotion,  &,c.  Strangers  are  frequently  lodg- 
ed in  it,  1  Kings  17:  19.  2  Kings  4:  10.  23:  12.  Acts  9:  37—39. 

Note.  There  is  no  mention  made  of  kitchens,  or  places  for 
cooking,  Heb.  nib&ntt  ,  except  in  Ezek.  46:  23,  24.  Chimneys, 
for  the  emission  of  smoke,  were  not  known  to  the  Hebrews.  Those 
of  modern  construction  are  the  invention  of  the  14th  century. 
The  Hebrews,  however,  like  the  modern  orientals,  had  openings 


§  37.   DOORS  AND  METHODS  OF  SECURING  THEM.  41 

in  their  houses,  by  which  the  smoke  might  escape.  The  word 
na^N  is  rightly  explained  by  Jerome,  in  Hosea  13:  3,  as  an  open- 
ing in  the  walls  for  letting  out  smoke,  although,  in  other  passages,  it 
signifies  an  opening  of  any  kind  whatever,  and  especially  a  win- 
dow. 

§  37.   Doors  ;  and  methods  of  securing  them. 

The  doors  were  valves,  Heb.  tfeir ,  t^nb? .  They  were  sus- 
pended and  moved  by  means  of  pivots  of  wood,  which  projected 
from  the  ends  of  the  two  folds  both  above  and  below.  The  upper 
pivots,  which  were  the  longest,  were  inserted  in  sockets  sufficiently 
large  to  receive  them  in  the  lintel,  the  lower  ones  were  secured, 
in  a  correspondent  manner  in  the  threshold.  The  pivots  or  axles 
are  called  ni  nb ;  the  sockets,  in  which  they  are  inserted,  t3n"}"»il , 
Prov.  26:  14.  The  doors  were  fastened  by  a  lock,  bWttj  Sol. 
Song  5:  5,  or  by  a  bar,  Job  38:  10.  Deut.  3:  5.  Judges  16: '3.  The 
bars  were  commonly  of  wood.  Those  made  of  iron  and  brass 
were  not  used,  except  as  a  security  to  the  gates  of  fortified  places, 
or  of  valuable  repositories,  Isa.  45:  2.  The  lock  was  nothing 
more  than  a  wood  slide,  attached  to  one  of  the  folds,  which  enter- 
ed into  a  hole  in  the  door-post,  and  was  secured  there  by  teeth  cut 
into  it,  or  catches.  Two  strings  passed  through  an  orifice  leading 
to  the  external  side  of  the  door.  A  man  going  out  by  the  aid  of 
one  of  these  strings  moved  the  slide  into  its  place  in  the  post, 
where  it  was  fastened  so  among  the  teeth  or  catches,  as  not  to  be 
drawn  back.  The  one  coming  in,  who  wished  to  unlock,  had  a 
wooden  key,  sufficiently  large,  and  crooked  like  a  sickle.  It  was 
called  ftP]£E  ,  Judges  3:  25.  He  thrust  the  key  through  the  ori- 
fice of  the  door,  or  key-hole,  lifted  up  the  slide  so  as  to  extricate 
it  from  the  catches,  and  taking  hold  of  the  other  string,  drew  it 
back,  and  thus  entered.  Keys  were  not  made  of  metal  except  for 
the  rich  and  powerful,  and  these  were  sometimes  adorned  with  an 
ivory  handle.  A  key  of  this  kind,  in  the  days  of  the  Hebrew  mon- 
archs,  was  assigned  to  the  steward  of  the  royal  palace,  as  a  mark 
of  his  office ;  he  carried  it  on  his  shoulder,  Isa.  22:  22.  The 
key-hole  was  sometimes  so  large,  as  to  admit  a  person's  finger 
through  it  and  enable  him  to  lift  the  slide ;  in  that  case  he  stood 
in  no  absolute  need  of  a  key  to  enter,  Sol.  Song  5:  4. 
6 


42  §  39.    MATERIALS  FOR  BUILDING. 

§  38.  Windows  ;   jjhajfctf ,  friiih ,  ^fi . 

They  look  from  the  front  chambers  into  the  court,  from  the 
female  apartments  into  the  garden  behind  the  house.  Occasional- 
ly the  traveller  sees  a  window,  which  looks  towards  the  street, 
but  it  is  guarded  by  a  trellis,  and  is  thrown  open  only  on  the  pub- 
lic festivities,  Judges  5:  28.  Prov.  7:  6.  2  Kings  9:  30.  Sol.  Song  2: 
9.  The  windows  are  large,  extending  almost  to  the  floor.  Persons 
sitting  on  the  floor  can  look  out  at  them.  They  are  wide,  not  set 
with  glass,  but  latticed,  ^np,  {-Onto,  tJ*5*nlT.  In  the  winter  they 
are  protected  by  very  thin  veils,  or  by  valves,  through  which  the 
light  is  admitted  by  means  of  an  orifice,  2  Kings  13:  17.  1  Kings 
7:  17.  Sol.  Song  2:  9.  Over  the  windows  are  nails  fastened  into 
the  walls.  They  are  adorned  with  beautiful  heads,  and  not  only 
sustain  curtains  by  the  aid  of  a  rod  extended  from  one  to  the  other, 
but  are  of  themselves  considered  a  great  ornament.  Hence  the 
propriety  of  those  illustrations  drawn  from  nails,  Isa.  22:  23.  Zech. 
10:  4.  Eccles.  12:  11. 

§  39.   Materials  for  building. 

Although  the  materials  for  the  construction  of  edifices  were 
originally  stone  and  mud,  the  inhabitants  of  the  East  at  a  very  ear- 
ly period  made  use  of  tiles,  and  do  to  this  day.  They  are  called 
in  scripture  D^ib ,  ttaab  ,  from  the  white  clay  of  which  they  were 
made.  They  were  of  different  sizes,  somewhat  larger  than  those 
among  us.  Commonly  they  were  hardened  by  the  heat  of  the 
sun  merely,  but  when  intended  for  splendid  edifices,  as  in  Gen.  11: 
3,  they  were  burnt  by  fire,  fSpE  a  brick-kiln,  occurs  2  Sam.  12: 
31.  Nahum  3:  14.  Jer.  43:  3.  The  walls  of  the  common  dwell- 
ing houses  were  erected  of  tiles  dried  in  the  sun  upon  a  founda- 
tion of  stone,  but  where  the  ground  was  solid,  a  basement  of  this 
kind  was  sometimes  omitted,  Matt.  7:  25.  Dwelling  houses,  made  of 
tiles  dried  in  the  sun,  seldom  endure  longer  than  one  generation. 
They  fill  the  streets  with  mud  in  wet  weather,  and  with  dust, 
when  it  is  dry,  Isa.  5:  24.  10:  6.  Zech.  9:  3.  Vehement  storms, 
especially,  injure  them  very  much,  Matt.  7:  25.  Ezek.  12:  5 — 7. 
13:  11,  14. 

In  Palestine  the  houses  were  every  where  built  of  stones,  of 


§  39.    MATERIALS  FOR  BUILDING. 


43 


which  there  were  great  numbers  in  that  region.  Hence  Moses, 
Lev.  14:  33 — 57,  enacted  his  law  in  respect  to  the  leprosy  of  hous- 
es. From  the  indications  of  it,  which  are  mentioned,  and  also 
from  the  name  n^Ntttt  HJfiSj ,  or  the  corrosive  leprosy,  it  would 
seem,  that  it  could  be  no  other,  than  nitrous  acid,  which  dissolves 
stones,  and  communicates  its  corrosive  action  to  those  which  are 
contiguous.  Wherever  this  disease  makes  its  appearance,  its  de- 
structive effects  are  discovered  upon  the  surface  of  the  wall,  it 
renders  the  air  of  the  room  corrupt,  and  is  injurious  both  to  the 
dress  and  the  health  of  the  inhabitants.  The  Hebrews  probably 
supposed  it  to  be  contagious,  and  hence  in  their  view  the  necessity 
of  those  severe  laws,  which  were  enacted  in  reference  to  it. 

Palaces  were  constructed  of  hewn  stones,  rPU  *|&M ,  some- 
times with  stones  sawed,  rTHASa  rn-T^iJO  tr^al* ,  sometimes  with 
polished  marble.  The  were  ail  called,  rPtt  *»na ,  1  Kings  6:  36. 
7:  9,  II,  12.  Ezek.  40:  42.  1  Chron.  22:  %  Isa'  9:  10.  Amos  5: 
11.  Sol.  Song  5:  15. 

The  Persians  took  great  delight  in  marble.  To  this  not  only 
the  ruins  of  Persepolis  testify,  but  the  book  of  Esther,  where 
mention  is  made  of  white  marble,  tbijj  or  UT^,  of  red  marble,  *yt  , 
of  black  marble,  rnjnb,  of  the  party-coloured  or  veined  marble, 
t2Ji3  .  The  splendour  and  magnificence  of  an  edifice  seems  to  have 
been  estimated  in  a  measure,  by  the  size  of  the  square  stones,  of 
which  it  was  constructed,  1  Kings  7:  9 — 12.  The  foundation 
stone,  which  was  probably  placed  at  the  corner  and  thence  called 
the  corner  stone,  was  an  object  of  particular  regard,  and  was  se- 
lected with  great  care  from  among  the  others,  Ps.  118:  22.  Isa. 
28:  16.  Matt.  21:  42.  Acts  4:  11.  2  Tim.  2:  19.  1  Pet.  2:  6.  Rev. 
21:  14. 

The  square  stones  in  buildings,  as  far  as  we  can  ascertain  from 
the  ruins,  which  yet  remain,  were  held  together,  not  by  mortar 
or  cement  of  any  kind,  except  indeed  a  very  little  might  have 
been  used,  but  by  cramp  irons.  The  tiles  dried  in  the  sun  were 
at  first  united  by  mud  placed  between  them,  Ifth,  afterwards  by 
lime  T^ia ,  mixed  with  sand,  bin ,  to  form  mortar,  tibft.  The  last 
sort  of  cement  was  used  with  burnt  tiles,  Lev.  14:  41,  42.  Jer. 
43:  9. 

The  walls  even  in  the  time  of  Moses  were  commonly  incrust- 
ed  with  a  coat  of  plaster,  Lev.  14:  41,  42,  45,  and  at  the  present 


44  §  40.   HOUSEHOLD  FURNITURE  AND  UTENSTLS. 

day  in  the  East,  the  incrustations  of  this  kind  are  of  the  finest  ex- 
ecution ;  such  was  that  in  the  palace  of  the  Bahylonian  king,  Dan. 
5:  5.  Wood  was  used  in  the  construction  of  doors  and  gates,  of 
the  folds  and  lattices  of  windows,  of  the  flat  roofs,  and  of  the 
wainscoting,  with  which  the  walls  were  ornamented.  Beams  were 
inlaid  in  the  walls,  to  which  the  wainscoting  was  fastened  by  nails 
to  render  it  more  secure,  Ezra  6:  4.  Houses  finished  in  this  man- 
ner were  called  Hagg.  1:  4.  Jer.  22:  14,  ceiled  hou- 
ses and  ceiled  chambers.  They  were  adorned  with  figures  in 
stucco,  with  gold,  silver,  gems,  and  ivory.  Hence  the  expressions, 
f©in  I,FI2 ,  "jttj  ''rS^n ,  "  ivory  houses,"  "  ivory  palaces,"  and  "  cham- 
bers ornamented  with  ivory,"  1  Kings  22:  39.  2  Chron.  3:  6.  Ps. 
45:  8.  Amos  3:  15. 

The  wood  which  was  most  commonly  used,  was  the  sycamore, 
D^JDp'Oj;  (it  will  last  a  thousand  years;)  the  acacia,  C^CSU? ;  the 
palm,  ^iEm,  for  columns  and  transverse  beams;  the  fir,  c^ttji^S  ; 
the  olive  tree,  75323  **agS? ;  cedars,  t^T^N,  which  were  peculiarly 
esteemed,  1  Kings  6:  18.  7:  3,  7,  11.  The  most  precious  of  all  was 
the  Almug  tree,  so  called  by  an  Arabian  name,  though  the  wood  it- 
self seems  to  have  been  brought  through  Arabia  from  India,  1  Kings 
10:  11,  12.  2  Chron.  2:  8.  9:  10,  21.  Trees  not  well  known,  per- 
haps a  species  of  the  oak,  in  Heb.  ^irnft  "lwtfgft,  and  STnft,  oc- 
cur, Isa.  41:  19.  44:  14.  60:  10. 

§  40.  Household  furniture  and  utensils. 

These  in  the  most  ancient  periods  were  both  few  and  simple. 
A  hand-mill,  and  some  sort  of  an  oven  to  bake  in,  could  not  of 
course  be  dispensed  with,  Levit.  26:  26.  Deut.  24:  6.  Subsequent- 
ly domestic  utensils  were  multiplied  in  the  form  of  pots,  kettles, 
leathern  bottles,  plates,  cups,  and  pitchers. 

The  floors  were  covered  with  mats  of  carpets,  and  supplied  also 
for  the  purposes  of  rest  with  a  sort  of  mattresses  of  thick,  coarse  ma- 
terials, called  nrP/OiJ,  Judg.  4:  18. 

The  bolsters,  niftsp/a,  which  were  more  valuable,  were  stuff- 
ed with  wool  or  some  soft  substance,  Ezek.  13:  18,  21.  The 
poorer  class  made  use  of  skins  merely,  for  the  purposes  to  which 
these  mattresses  and  bolsters  were  applied.  The  mattresses 
were  deposited  during  the  day  in  a  box  beside  the  wall.  Beds 


§  40.   HOUSEHOLD  FURNITURE  AND  UTENSILS.  45 

supported  by  posts  are  not  known  in  the  East,  the  beds  or  mattress- 
es being  thrown  upon  the  floor.  It  is  common,  however,  in  vil- 
lages, if  we  may  credit  Aryda,  to  see  a  gallery  in  one  end  of 
the  room,  three  or  four  feet  high,  where  the  beds  are  placed. 
What  is  now  called  the  Divan,  and  in  Scripture,  tttaJQ,  tny , 
and  ,  is  an  elevation  running  round  three  sides  of  the  room, 

three  feet  broad  and  nine  inches  high.  In  the  bottom  of  it 
is  a  stuffed  cushing  throughout ;  on  the  back  against  the  wall 
are  placed  bolsters,  covered  with  elegant  cloth.  Here  the  peo- 
ple sit  crosslegged,  or  with  their  knees  bent,  on  account  of  the 
small  elevation  of  the  Divan.  At  the  corners  commonly,  at  one  al- 
ways, there  are  placed  two  or  three  of  the  bolsters  mentioned,  made 
of  the  richest  and  softest  materials.  This  is  accounted  the  most 
honorable  position,  and  is  occupied  by  the  master  of  the  house,  ex- 
cept when  he  yields  it  to  a  stranger  of  distinction. 

The  Hebrews  appear  to  have  had  another  sort  of  beds,  which 
occur  sometimes  under  the  names,  tfj^y ,  ^t272 ,  sypft ,  and  are 
said  to  have  been  adorned  with  ivory,  an  ornament  of  which  the 
Divans  just  described  were  not  susceptible.  These  beds  resembled 
the  Persian  settees,  (sofas  so  called,)  having  a  back  and  sides, 
six  feet  long,  three  broad,  and  like  the  Divans  about  nine  inches 
high.  They  were  furnished  also  with  bolsters.  The  sofas,  as 
will  be  readily  imagined,  were  susceptible  of  ornamental  ivory  on 
the  sides  and  back,  and  also  on  the  legs,  by  which  they  were  sup- 
ported, and  although  those  who  sat  in  them  were  under  the  ne- 
cessity of  sitting  crosslegged  or  with  their  knees  bent,  they  were 
of  such  a  length  as  to  answer  all  the  purposes  of  beds,  Amos  6:  4. 
Ps.  41:  3.  132:  3.  Those,  who  were  more  delicate,  had  a  veil  or  caul 
"l5pB  ,  xowomelov,  which  when  disposed  to  sleep,  they  spread  over 
the  face  to  prevent  the  gnats  from  infesting  them,  2  Kgs.  8:  15. 
The  poor,  as  is  common  in  Asia  at  this  day  ;  and  in  the  older  and 
more  simple  times,  the  powerful  as  well  as  the  poor  ;  when  travel- 
ling, slept  at  night  with  their  heads  supported  by  a  rock,  and  with 
their  cloaks  folded  up  and  placed  under  them  for  a  pillow,  Gen. 
28:  11,  18,  22. 

To  prevent  as  much  as  possible  the  mats  and  carpets  from  be- 
ing soiled,  it  was  not  lawful  to  wear  shoes  or  sandals  into  the  room. 
They  were  left  at  the  door.  Hence  it  was  not  necessary,  that  the 
room  should  often  be  swept,  Matt.  12:  44.  Lamps,  ^3 ,  Xv)>voq, 
were  fed  with  the  oil  of  olives,  and  were  kept  burning  all  night, 


46  §41.  VILLAGES,  TOWNS,  CITIES. 

Job  18:  5,0.  21:17.  Prov.  13:  9.  20:20.  24:20.  3l!  18.  We 
may  infer  from  the  golden  lamp  of  the  Tabernacle,  that  those  of 
the  opulent  were  rich  and  splendid.  Flambeaus,  tPTsb  ,  were 
of  two  kinds.  The  one  were  pieces  of  old  linen  twisted  firmly  to- 
gether and  diped  in  oil  or  bitumen,  which  were  sometimes  whol- 
ly consumed  by  the  flame,  Judg.  15:  4.  The  others  were  small 
bars  of  iron  or  brass,  inserted  into  a  stick,  to  which  pieces  of  linen 
dipped  in  oil  were  fastened.  But,  lest  the  oil  should  flow  down  up- 
on the  hand  of  him,  who  carried  them,  a  small  vessel  of  brass  or 
iron  surrounded  the  bottom  of  the  stick,  Matt.  25:  3. 

§  41.    Villages,  Towns,  Cities. 

A  number  of  tents  or  cottages,  collected  together,  were  called 
villages,  tF"")33  ,  1D3  ,  T'SS  ,  also  towns  and  cities  ,  ns> ,  1"»  , 
PPnp  .  When  a  number  of  families  saw  that  their  situation  was 
not  secure,  they  begun  to  fortify  themselves.  Cain  set  the  exam- 
ple ;  who  surrounded  with  a  ditch,  or  a  sort  of  hedge  a  few  cot- 
tages situated  perhaps  on  a  hill,  and  raised  a  sort  of  scaffolding 
within,  in  order  to  aid  him  in  reaching  his  enemies  with  stones. 
However  this  may  be,  undoubtedly  something  of  this  kind  was 
the  origin  of  fortified  cities.  In  process  of  time  the  hedge  was 
converted  into  a  wall,  the  ditch  became  both  wider  and  deeper, 
and  the  scaffold  increased  into  a  tower.  Great  advancement  was 
made  in  the  art  of  fortification  even  in  the  time  of  Moses,  Numb. 
13:  25 — 33.  But  still  greater  at  a  subsequent  age.  It  seems  that 
the  cities  in  Palestine  in  the  time  of  Joshua  were  large,  since 
12,000  men  were  slain  in  the  city  of  Ai,  which  is  said  to  have 
been  a  small  city.  The  Hebrews  in  the  time  of  David,  who 
were  exceedingly  increased  in  point  of  numbers,  must  have  had 
large  cities.  Jerusalem  in  particular  could  not  have  been  other- 
wise than  extensive,  since  such  myriads  of  people  assembled  there 
on  festival  days.  For,  though  many  dwelt  in  tents  and  many  met 
with  a  hospitable  reception  in  the  neighboring  villages,  yet  vast 
multitudes  were  received  into  the  city.  The  extent  of  the  cities 
of  Galilee  in  the  time  of  Christ  is  made  known  to  us  by  Josephus. 
J.  War,  B.  III.  3,  2 ;  and  at  that  period,  as  we  may  gather  from  the 
number  of  the  Paschal  lambs,  slain  at  one  time,  3,000,000  people 
were  wont  to  assemble  at  Jerusalem  at  the  feast  of  the  Passover. 
It  is  clear  from  this,  that  the  site  of  Jeiusalem  which  at  this  time 


§  41.   VILLAGES,  TOWNS,  CITIES. 


47 


occupied  an  extent  of  33  stadia,  was  crowded  with  houses,  and 
those  of  many  stories.  Tt  is  worthy  of  remark,  that  towns  are  call- 
ed ni^T?*  and  d"*-^  ,  and  fortified  cities,  B^nS  ,  in  the  Talmud,  an- 
swering to  the  distinctions  in  the  New  Test,  of  noktig  and  tko/xotio- 
Itig.  The  streets,  &yrm  ,  pVJ  ,  yitt  ,  ntoft,  in  the  cities  of  Asia 
are  merely  from  three  to  six  feet  broad.  The  object  of  this  is,  that 
the  shades  which  they  cast,  may  counteract  in  some  degree  the  heat 
of  the  sun. 

That  many  of  them  formerly  were  much  larger,  is  evident  from 
the  fact,  that  chariots  were  driven  through  them,  which  is  not 
done  at  the  present  day.  Josephus  also  makes  a  division,  both  of 
streets  and  gates,  into  larger  and  smaller.  The  larger  streets  are 
distinguished  by  a  separate  name,  Srn  and  rpzrn  .  A  paved 
street  is  a  rare  sight  in  the  East,  at  the  present  day ;  although  for- 
merly, at  least  in  the  time  of  Herod,  they  were  by  no  means  un- 
common. The  market  places  were  near  the  gates  of  the  city, 
sometimes  within,  sometimes  without,  where  the  different  kinds 
of  goods  were  exposed  to  sale,  sometimes  under  the  open  sky, 
sometimes  in  tents,  2  Chron.  18:  9.  32:  6.  Neh.  8:  1,  3.  2  Kgs.  7: 
18.  Job  29:  7.  This  was  the  case  at  a  very  early  period  ;  but  Jose- 
phus teaches  us,  that  later  down,  in  the  time  of  Christ,  they  were 
similar  to  those,  which  at  the  present  day  are  common  in  the  East, 
being  large  streets,  covered  with  an  arch,  through  which  the  light 
was  admitted  by  the  means  of  orifices.  These  large  streets  or  Ba- 
zars, as  they  are  termed,  which  are  furnished  with  gates,  and  shut 
up  during  the  night,  are  occupied  on  both  sides  with  the  storehous- 
es of  merchants.  In  the  large  cities  there  are  many  broad  streets  of 
this  kind,  and  commonly  a  separate  one  for  each  different  species 
of  merchandize  ;  in  these  streets  also  are  the  shops  of  artificers. 

The  houses  in  oriental  cities  are  rarely  contiguous  to  each  other, 
and  for  the  most  part  have  large  gardens  attached  to  them.  If, 
therefore,  Nineveh  and  Babylon  are  said  to  have  occupied  an  al- 
most incredible  space,  we  must  not  suppose,  that  it  was  occupied 
throughout  by  contiguous  houses.  Indeed  it  is  the  testimony  of 
ancient  historians,  that  nearly  a  third  part  of  Babylon  was  taken 
up  with  fields  and  gardens. 

Aqueducts  are  very  ancient  in  oriental  cities,  Josephus,  Antiq. 
B.  IX.  14.  §  2.  We  find  mention  made  of  aqueducts  at  Jerusalem, 
2  Chron.  32:  30.  2  Kgs.  20:  20.  Isa.  7:  3,  especially  of  one  called 
rrs^b^rj  ilS^a  nbsm ,  the  aqueduct  of  the  upper  pool  or  ditch,  which 


48 


§  42.   OF  THE  NOMADES. 


implies,  that  there  was  another  one  more  known,  probably  the  one, 
whose  distinguished  ruins  are  seen  to  this  day  from  Jerusalem  to 
Bethlehem.  The  one  first  mentioned,  some  of  the  ruins  of  which 
still  remain,  conveyed  the  waters  from  the  river  Gihon  into  Jerusa- 
lem. These,  as  well  as  all  the  other  aqueducts  of  Asia,  were  erect- 
ed above  the  surface  of  the  earth  and  were  carried  through  vallies, 
over  arches  and  columns.  From  this  circumstance  it  appears,  that 
the  ancients  did  not  know,  that  water  enclosed  in  this  manner  will 
of  itself  gain  the  elevation  from  which  it  falls.  Aqueducts  were  not 
unfrequent,  but  cisterns  were  found  every  where. 

Note.  The  people  of  the  East  metaphorically  ascribe  the  char- 
acter of  females  to  cities.  They  represent  them  as  the  mothers  of 
the  inhabitants  ;  they  speak  of  them,  as  wives  of  the  kings ;  when 
they  revolt  against  their  sovereign,  they  are  adulterous,  &c.  2  Sam. 
20: 19.  2  Kgs.  19: 21.  Ps.  137:  8.  Is.  23: 12.  47:  1—8.  54:  3.  62:  4. 
66:  9.  Jer.  3:  8—14.  20:  5—8.  13:  26.  31:  4.  Lam.  1:  1—8,  17. 
Nahum  3:  5,  6.  Ezek.  16:  14.  23:  29. 


CHAPTER  III. 

§  42.   Of  the  Nomades. 

The  Nomades  are  a  very  ancient  people,  Gen.  3:  18,  21.  4:  2, 
19,  20.  11:2.  They  are  numerous  even  at  this  day,  and  occupy 
large  tracts  of  land.  Nor  is  it  wonderful ;  for  their  mode  of  life 
has  many  things  to  recommend  it,  especially  freedom,  and  facili- 
ties for  the  acquisition  of  riches.  These  shepherds  of  the  des- 
ert wander  about  without  any  fixed  habitation.  They  despise 
and  neglect  all  other  business,  but  that  of  tending  their  flocks. 
Still  they  are  not  mean  and  uncultivated,  but  are  polite,  power- 
ful, and  magnanimous.  Such  were  Abraham,  Isaac,  Jacob,  and 
their  posterity  also,  till  they  conquered  the  land  of  Canaan.  They 
possess  vast  flocks  and  a  great  number  of  servants.  The  masters 
always  go  armed,  and  spend  their  time  in  hunting,  in  the  over- 
sight of  their  affairs,  in  wars  and  predatory  excursions.  Part  of 
the  servants  are  armed,  in  order  to  keep  from  the  flocks  robbers 
and  wild  beasts.  Part  have  only  a  staff  T\XZ12,  b$72,  and  a  pouch, 
which   were   anciently   the   whole   property   of  travellers,  and 


§  43.  PASTURES. 


49 


those  who  were  not  rich,  except  that  instead  of  a  pouch  they 
carried  a  somewhat  larger  sack,  f^bpS,  2  Kgs.  4:  42.  1  Sam.  17: 
40—43.  Ps.  23:  4.  Mic.  7:  14.  Matt.  10:  10.  Luke  9:  3.  10:  4. 

Note.  If  in  the  Bible  kings  are  called  shepherds,  we  are 
not  to  conclude,  that  the  title  is  degrading  to  them ;  on  the  con- 
trary it  is  sublime  and  honourable.  For  the  same  reason,  that  it 
was  applied  to  earthly  monarchs,  it  was  applied  to  God,  who  was 
the  king  of  the  Hebrews,  and  as  the  shepherd  is  to  his  flock,  so 
was  He  the  guide  and  protector  to  his  children  Israel,  see  Ps. 
23:  1—4.  Isa.  40:  11.  63:  11.  Jer.  10:  21.  23:  1.  31:  10.  50:  6. 
51:  23.  Mic.  5:  5.  Nahum  3:  18.  Ezek.  34:  2—28.  37:  24.  Zech. 
11:  15.  In  the  Old  Testament  this  tropical  expression,  viz.  a 
shepherd,  constantly  indicates  kings,  but  in  the  New  Testament 
the  teachers  of  the  Jews,  those,  who  presided  in  the  synagogues, 
were  denominated  shepherds.  The  notions  of  the  Jews  in  this 
instance  seems  to  have  coincided  with  those  of  the  Stoicks,  who 
would  have  it,  that  wise  men  alone,  those  qualified  to  be  teachers, 
were  true  kings.  The  appellation  of  shepherds,  however,  used 
by  the  former,  is  the  more  modest  of  the  two,  though  the  same  in 
significancy.  The  use  of  the  word  to  denote  religious  teachers 
was  received  and  transmitted  in  the  Christian  church,  and  to  this 
day  we  speak  of  the  pastors  or  shepherds  of  a  religious  society, 
Ephes.  4:11.  Matt.  9:  36.  John  10:  12— 14.  Heb.  13:  20.  1  Pet. 
2:  25.  5:  4. 

§  43.  Pastures.  ■ 

The  pastures  of  the  Nomacles  were  the  deserts  or  wilder- 
nesses, which  have  already  been  mentioned,  ni*C ,  !rp.5 ,  ritott  , 
■ph,  12173  e'Sco,  Job  5:  10.  Mark  1:  45.  These  vast  tracts  of  land 
could  not  be  monopolized  by  any  individual,  but  were  open  to  all 
the  shepherds  alike,  unless  some  one  had  by  some  means  acquir- 
ed in  them  a  peculiar  right.  Such  an  unappropriated  pasture 
was  the  part  of  Canaan,  where  Abraham  dwelt,  and  where  Isaac 
and  Jacob  succeeded  him.  The  Israelites  from  Egypt  appear  al- 
so to  have  gone  there  with  their  flocks,  till  they  were  debarred 
by  the  increased  number  of  the  Canaanites.  The  pastures,  which 
were  the  property  of  separate  nations,  came  in  the  progress  of 
7 


§  44.  EMIGRATIONS  OF  THE  NOMADES. 


time  occasionally  into  contention.  This  was  the  case  in  regard  to 
Canaan,  which  the  Hebrews  were  eventually  under  the  necessity 
of  reoccupying  by  arms.  After  the  occupation  of  Palestine,  there 
lay  open  to  the  Hebrews  not  only  the  vast  desert  of  Judah,  but 
many  other  deserts  or  uncultivated  places  of  this  kind.  This  ac- 
counts for  what  we  may  gather  from  Scripture,  that  the  Hebrews 
were  among  the  richest  of  the  Nomades,  or  people,  who  kept  flocks 
in  the  wilderness,  2  Sam.  17:  27,  et  seq.  19:  32.  1  Sam.  xxv. 
1  Chron.  27:  29—31.  comp.  Isa.  65:  10.  Jer.  50: 19. 

§  44.  Emigrations  of  the  Nomades. 

These  shepherds  occupy  almost  the  same  positions  in  the  de- 
serts every  year,  ni^ft  .  In  the  summer  they  go  to  the  north,  or 
on  to  the  mountains,  in  the  winter  to  the  south,  or  the  vallies. 
When  about  to  emigrate,  they  pluck  up  their  tents,  pile  them  up- 
on the  beasts  of  burden,  and  go  with  them  to  the  place,  destined 
for  their  subsequent  erection.  The  flocks  live  both  night  and  day 
under  the  open  sky.  Hence  their  wool,  being  unexposed  to  the 
exhalations  of  sheepcotes,  but  always  being  in  the  open  air,  is  finer 
than  usual.  The  flocks  become  acquainted  with  the  path,  which 
they  yearly  travel,  and  afford  but  little  trouble  to  those,  who  con- 
duct them.  Still  they  are  guarded  by  hired  servants,  and  by  the 
sons  and  daughters  of  their  owners,  even  by  the  daughters  of  the 
Emirs  or  chiefs,  who  to  this  day  perform  for  strangers  those  friend- 
ly offices,  which  are  mentioned,  Gen.  24:  17 — 20.  comp.  Gen.  29: 
9.  Exod.  2:  16.  The  servants  are  subject  to  the  steward,  who  is 
himself  a  dependent,  though  he  has  the  title  of  rT2  ]£t ,  the  senior 
of  the  house.  He  numbers  the  sheep  at  evening,  perhaps  also  in 
the  morning,  Gen.  24:  2.  Jer.  33:  13.  If  animals  or  their  young 
are  lost,  the  steward  is  obligated  to  make  compensation.  Some 
Jimitations,  however,  are  assigned,  Gen.  31:  38.  Exodus  22:  12. 
comp.  Amos  3:  12.  The  hired  servants  sometimes  received  a 
portion  of  the  young  of  the  flock,  as  their  reward,  Gen.  xxx.  The 
servants,  who,  as  well  as  the  cattle,  are  sometimes  comprehend- 
ed under  the  word,  TiJ.pft  ,  inhabited  tents  in  the  winter,  but  often 
dwelt  in  tabernacles  in  the  summer.  The  masters  on  the  contra- 
ry dwelt  in  tents  the  whole  year,  except  when  occasionally  they 
retreated  into  the  neighbouring  cities,  Gen.  19:  1.  26:  1.  12:  10, 


§  45.   FOUNTAINS  AND  CISTERNS. 


51 


20.  33:  17.  Lev.  23:  43.  In  the  vicinity  of  the  tents,  was  erected 
a  sort  of  watch  tower,  IrytD  ,  Tiy  btyft  ,  from  which  the  approach 
of  enemies  could  be  discerned  afar  off.  Mich.  4:  8. 

§  45.  Fountains  and  Cisterns. 

Water,  which  was  very  scanty  in  the  deserts,  and  yet  was  very 
necessary  to  large  flocks,  was  very  highly  valued  and  very  frugal- 
ly imparted,  Job  22:  7.  Num.  20: 17—19.  Deut.  2:  6—28.  Hence 
the  Nomades,  in  those  tracts,  through  which  they  yearly  travel, 
dig  wells  and  cisterns  at  certain  distances,  which  they  have  the 
art  of  concealing  in  such  a  manner,  that  another,  who  travels  the 
same  way,  will  not  discover  them,  nor  steal  away  the  waters.  In 
this  way  perhaps  they  may  be  said  to  take  possession  of  certain 
districts  and  to  render  them  their  own  property,  as  was  done 
by  Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob,  in  respect  to  Palestine.  Hence 
the  contentions  respecting  wells  were  of  great  moment,  Gen.  21: 
25.  26:  13 — 22.    Different  receptacles  of  water  are  mentioned. 

I.  Fountains,  tr?3  WStia  ,  "pS>.  These  are  the  source  of  running 
waters,  and  are  common  to  all.  If  they  flow  all  the  year  round, 
they  are  called  by  the  Orientals,  Dn3rPi$  fi^ft ,  or  t:^: £N 3 ,  never- 
failing  or  faithful  fountains  ;  if  they  dry  up  in  the  summer,  they  are 
denominated  tPlara  or  deceitful,  Job  6:  15 — 22.  Isa.  33:  16.  Jer. 
15:  18.  Wells,  niTlfijta  ,  are  receptacles  of  water,  from  which 
there  is  no  stream  issuing.  They  belong  to  those  persons, 
who  found  or  dug  them  first.  Sometimes  they  are  owned  by  a 
number  of  shepherds  in  common,  who  come  to  them  on  appointed 
days  with  their  flocks,  in  an  order  previously  settled  upon,  descend 
a  number  of  steps,  which  lead  to  the  surface  of  the  water,  receive 
the  water  into  small  buckets,  ,  and  pour  it  into  troughs,  QTnK'&tt  , 
for  the  flock.  The  flocks  are  admitted  to  drink  in  a  regular  or- 
der, Gen.  29:  3—12.  24:  11—15.  Exod.  2:  16.  Judg.  5:  11.  The 
waters  of  wells  and  fountains  are  called  living  waters,  d^ln  D")tt , 
and  are  very  much  esteemed,  Lev.  14:  5,  50.  Num.  19:  17.  Hence 
they  are  made  a  symbol  of  prosperity,  and  God  himself  is  compar- 
ed to  a  fountain  of  living  waters,  Is.  43:  19,  20.  49:  10.  Jer.  2:  13. 
17:  13.  Ps.  87:  7.  Joel  3:  18.  Ezek.  47:  1.  et  seq.  Zech.  14:  18. 

II.  Cisterns,  gfcfta  ,  rrniO  ,  ni3,  ^83  .  They  were  the  pro- 
perty of  those  by  whom  they  were  made,  Num.  21:  22.   Under  this 


52 


§  46.   THE  FLOCKS  OF  THE  NOMADES. 


name  occur  large  subterranean  vaults,  often  occupying  an  acre  in 
extent,  but  which  open  by  a  small  mouth.  They  are  filled  with  rain 
water  and  snow  during  the  winter,  and  are  then  closed  at  the  mouth 
by  large  flat  stones,  over  which  sand  is  spread  in  such  a  way,  as 
to  prevent  its  being  easily  discovered.  In  cities  the  cisterns  were 
works  of  much  labour,  for  they  were  either  hewn  into  rocks  or 
surrounded  with  subterranean  walls,  and  covered  with  a  firm  in- 
crustation. We  gather  this  from  their  ruins,  and  not  a  few  of 
them  remain.  But  if  by  chance  the  waters,  which  the  shepherd 
has  treasured  up  in  cisterns,  are  lost  by  means  of  an  earthquake 
or  some  other  casualty,  or  are  plundered  by  a  thief,  both  he  and 
his  flocks  are  exposed  to  destruction  ;  an  event,  which  happens 
not  unfrequently  to  travellers,  who  hasten  to  a  fountain,  but  find 
its  waters  gone.  For  this  reason  a  failure  of  water  is  used  in 
Scripture,  as  an  image  of  any  great  calamity,  Isa.  41:  17,  18.  44: 
3.  There  is  a  large  deposition  of  mud  at  the  bottom  of  these  cis- 
terns, so  that  he  who  falls  into  them,  when  they  are  empty  of  wa- 
ter, perishes  by  a  miserable  death,  Gen.  37:  22,  ff.  Jer.  38:  6.  Lam. 
3:  53.  Ps.  40:  2.  69:  15.  Cisterns,  notwithstanding,  were  used, 
when  empty,  as  prisons ;  prisons  indeed,  which  were  constructed 
under  ground,  received  the  same  name,  Gen.  39:  20.  40:  15. 


§  46.  The  Flocks  of  the  Nomades. 

These  are  goats  and  sheep,  and  they  have  great  numbers  of 
them.  They  are  called  by  the  Hebrews,  collectively,  ,  but 
separately,  FPJS  Jer.  49:  29.  Ezek.  25:  5.  The  sheep  are  horn- 
ed, and  commonly  white,  Ps.  147:  16.  Isa.  1:  18.  Dan.  7:  9.  Black 
ones  are  very  rare,  tttft;  some  are  covered  with  small  spots, 
tp^np:  ,  some  with  larger  ones,  fc\Vrp  ,  others  are  streaked, 
and  others  again,  called  2'Hrl  ,  are  distinguished  by  variegated 
hoofs,  or,  as  some  say,  by  circular  streaks  round  the  body,  like 
rings,  Gen.  30:  32 — 34.  31:  10 — 12.  The  sheep,  mentioned  in 
Ezek.  27:  18,  whose  wool  is  of  a  bright  brown,  inclining  to  a 
grey,  ^ift^  1232£,  are  found  in  Caramania. 

Further  ;  there  are  three  different  breeds  of  sheep  in  the  East. 
I.  The  common,  of  which  we  have  specimens  every  day  among 
ourselves.  II.  The  deformed  breed,  with  short  legs,  macerated  body, 
and  rough  wool,  called  in  Arabic  nakad,  and  in  Hebrew  "JpiU. 


\ 


§  46.  THE  FLOCKS  OF  THE  NOMAD ES. 


53 


III.  A  breed  larger  than  ours,  and  of  very  fine  wool.  Of  this  class 
of  sheep,  there  are  two  kinds,  the  one,  having  immense  tails  about 
four  feet  long,  and  five  inches  thick,  !TPb«  ,  the  other,  having  short 
tails,  and  large  clumps  of  fat  on  the  haunches.  Sheep  are  profi- 
table to  their  owners  for  their  milk,  nbfi ,  their  flesh  *vtoa ,  and  par- 
ticularly for  the  wool,  ,  which  is  shorn  twice  a  year.  A  sheep 
hardly  worth  a  florin  will  return  a  thousand  to  its  owner,  and 
many  thousands  of  them  are  owned  by  a  single  shepherd  in  the 
vast  deserts  of  the  East,  Job  1:3.  1  Sam.  25:  3,  4.  1  Chron.  5: 
18 — 21.  The  annual  increase  of  the  flock  is  the  greater  on  this 
account,  that  the  sheep  frequently  bear  twins,  Cant.  6:  6.  They 
bring  forth  twice  a  year,  viz.  in  the  spring  and  autumn,  going  with 
young  only  five  months ;  but  the  spring  lambs  are  esteemed  pre- 
ferable to  those  of  the  autumn.  The  lambs  of  a  year  old  are 
called  9  ,  Batons  ,  fc)33 .  We  may  infer  from  what  has  been 
stated,  which  indeed  is  the  fact,  that  their  sheep,  which  are  the 
source  of  so  much  emolument  to  the  Nomades,  are  very  dear  to 
them.  They  give  them  titles  of  endearment,  and  the  ram,  that  is 
called  out  by  its  master,  marches  before  the  flock  ;  hence  the  rul- 
ers of  the  people  are  every  where  called  leaders  of  the  flock,  Jer. 
25:  34,  35.  50:  8.  Isa.  14:  9.  Zech.  10:  3.  The  Arabians  have 
certain  terms,  by  which  they  can  call  the  sheep,  either  to  drink 
or  to  be  milked.  The  sheep  know  the  voice  of  the  shepherd,  and 
go  at  his  bidding,  John  10:  3,  14.  Sometimes  a  lamb  is  taken  in- 
to the  tent,  and  tended  and  brought  up  like  a  dog.  Such  an  one 
is  called  in  Heb.  qri^N  fc32S ,  and  in  Arabic  by  a  word  which  means 
an  inmate,  2  Sam.  12:  3.  Jer.  11:  19. 

Before  the  shearing,  the  sheep  are  collected  into  an  uncovered 
enclosure,  surrounded  by  a  wall,  Hhffi  ,  ri'yja  ,  >  »"183 ,  <*v- 

Xrj,  John  10:  11,  16.  The  object  of  this  is,  that  the  wool  may  be 
rendered  finer  by  the  sweating  and  evaporation,  which  necessarily 
result  from  the  flock's  being  thus  crowded  together.  These  are 
the  sheepfolds  mentioned  in  the  following  as  well  as  in  other  pla- 
ces, Num.  32:  16.  24:  36.  2  Sam.  7:  8.  Zeph.  2:  6.  There  is  no 
other  kind  than  this,  used  in  the  East.  Sheepshearings  were  great 
festivals,  I  Sam.  25:  2,  4,  18,  36.  2  Sam.  13:  23. 

Goats,  as  well  as  sheep,  are  comprehended  under  the  collective 
noun,  but  are  properly  called  ff**3? ,  from  T3J ,  a  she-goat.  The 
he-goat  is  called  tthfr,  ana<  hfaaSC.    They  are  of  a 


54 


§  47.   ANIMALS  OF  THE  OX-KIND. 


black  colour,  sometimes  particoloured.  They  live  under  the  open 
sky,  with  this  exception  only,  that  the  kids  are  sometimes  taken 
into  the  tent,  to  keep  them  from  sucking  the  dam.  They  com- 
pensate their  owners  with  their  milk,  more  precious  than  any 
other,  Prov.  27:  27  ;  with  their  flesh,  which  in  the  East  is  highly 
esteemed  ;  and  with  their  hair,  of  which  the  Arabian  women  make 
cloth  to  cover  their  tents  with.  Of  the  skins  bottles  are  made, 
nfafit ,  tPl&a  ,  ,  ,  fttgh  •  When  they  are  used  to  hold  water 
or  other  liquids,  the  hairy  side  of  the  skin  is  external,  with  the  ex- 
ception, that  in  wine  bottles,  the  hairy  side  is  always  turned  in  and 
the  other  out. 

From  the  skins  of  kids  small  bottles  are  made,  which  answer  the 
purpose  of  flasks.  It  is  uncertain  what  that  preparation  by  the 
means  of  smoke  was,  which  is  mentioned,  Ps.  119:  83.  Perhaps 
it  was  the  same  with  what,  the  ambassador  from  Vienna  informs 
us,  is  practised  at  this  day  among  the  Calmucks,  who,  by  means 
of  smoke,  prepare  very  durable  and  transparent  skins,  and  make 
from  them  small,  but  elegant,  flasks  and  bottles.  The  goats  of 
Ancyra,  with  hair  resembling  silk  commonly  called  cameVs  hair, 
appear  to  have  been  known  to  the  ancient  Hebrews;  and  Schultz,  in 
Paulus'  Collection  of  Travels,  VII.  108 — 110,  says,  that  he  saw 
flocks  of  these  goats  descending  from  the  mountains  in  the  vicinity 
of  Acco  and  Ptolemais,  which  exemplified  the  descriptions  in  Cant. 
4:  1,  2.  6:  5. 

Note.  It  is  not  necessary  to  enumerate  the  different  species  of 
wild  goats.  It  is  worthy  of  remark,  that  geese,  hens,  and  swine 
were  not  known  among  the  domestic  animals  of  the  Nomades. 
At  a  somewhat  recent  period,  hens  in  some  places  were  raised  by 
the  Hebrews  ;  for  ^«  ,  a  hen,  '  that  does  not  hatch  its  eggs,'  is  spok- 
en of  by  Jeremiah  17:  11 ;  and  in  the  time  of  Christ,  when  Peter 
denied  his  master,  the  cock  crew  in  Jerusalem.  No  hearing  is  to 
be  given  to  those  Talmudists,  who,  though  they  lived  nearly  200 
years  after  Christ,  took  it  upon  themselves  to  deny  the  existence, 
at  any  time,  of  fowls  of  this  kind  in  that  city. 

§  47.  Animals  of  the  Ox-kind. 

These  animals  are  called  collectively  Iga,  but  separately 
^TO ,  t^C^N ,  bWttj ;    those  under  three   years  f)S±y%  t^ay. 


$  47.  ANIMALS  OF  THE  OX-KIND. 


5^ 


fcitt*;  and  those  over  three  years,  *is,  rns ,  D***}3 ,  nVnS,  also 
^riv ,  which  last,  however,  is  properly  an  epithet  of  strength. 
These  animals  are  smaller  in  oriental  countries  than  among  us, 
and  have  certain  protuberances  on  the  back  directly  over  the  fore- 
feet. They  are  useful  chiefly  in  agriculture  ;  but  they  are  not  ex- 
cluded from  the  possessions  of  the  Nomades,  Gen.  24:  25.  Job 
1:  3.  Herdsmen  were  held  in  lower  estimation,  than  the  keepers 
of  flocks,  but  they  possessed  the  richest  pastures  in  Bashan,  Sha- 
ron, and  Achior.  Hence  the  oxen  and  bulls  of  Bashan,  which 
were  not  only  well  fed,  but  strong  and  ferocious,  are  used  as  the 
symbols  of  ferocious  enemies,  Ps.  22:  12.  68:  31.  Isa.  34:  7. 
Deut.  33:  17.  Prov.  14:  4.  Heifers  were  symbolic  of  matrons, 
Amos  4:  1.  Hosea  4:  15,  16.  10:  11.  Jer.  46:  20.  The  horns  of 
oxen  and  bulls,  also  of  goats,  are  used  tropically  to  express  power, 
Ps.  75:10.  89:  17,24.  92:  10.  Amos  6:  13.  Jer.  48: 25.  Lam.  2: 3. 
Ezek.  29:  21.  Dan.  7:  7,  8,  24.  S:  3—5.  Luke  1:  69.  If  the  horns 
are  represented  as  made  of  brass  or  iron,  they  indicate  very  great, 
and  as  it  were,  insuperable  power,  1  Kings  22:  11.1  Chron.  18:  10. 
Mic.  4:  13- — 16.  Hence  the  ancient  coins  represent  kings  with 
horns,  and  one  of  the  titles  which  the  Arabians  attach  to  the  great, 
especially  to  the  warlike  son  of  Philip,  is,  horned. 

(3)xen  not  only  submitted  to  the  yoke,  and  were  employed  in 
drawing  carts  and  ploughs  ;  but  the  Nomades  frequently  made  use 
of  them  to  transport  goods  on  their  backs,  as  they  did  on  camels. 
The  milk  of  the  cows  was  found  a  nutritive  drink  Gen.  18:  8. 
Of  this  the  people  made  cheese,  in^ni  ,  b^Btj,  rricuj.  2  Sam. 
17:  29.  What  is  called  3|rj  ^^iVr,'  1  Sam.  17:  18,  were  slices  of 
coagulated  milk,  which  had  been  strained  through  a  leathern  strain- 
er, and,  after  it  had  grown  hard,  cut  into  pieces,  as  it  was  found  ne- 
cessary to  use  them.  Anciently  butter  was  not  much  used,  but 
instead  of  it,  oil  of  olives,  which  was  applied  not  only  to  vegeta- 
bles, but  also  to  other  kinds  of  food.  In  the  Bible  there  is  no  men- 
tion made  of  butter.  J->ttftfi ,  which  in  the  Vulgate  and  other  trans- 
lations is  rendered  butter,  was  used  as  a  drink,  Judg.  5:  25,  and, 
therefore,  must  have  been  milk  in  some  shape  or  other.  Honey 
and  milk  were  accounted  great  dainties,  but  a  great  plenty  of 
them  was  an  indication,  that  a  wide  destruction  of  the  people  had 
preceded.  On  account  of  which  diminution  of  the  inhabitants, 
large  and  rich  pastures  were  every  where  to  be  found ;  so  that 


56 


§  48.   OF  ASSES. 


abundance  of  milk  was  the  natural  consequence,  and  swarms  of  bees, 
more  numerous  than  usual,  enjoyed  a  more  free  and  undisturbed 
opportunity  to  gather  their  honey,  comp.  Isa.  7:  15. 

Note,  Wild  animals  of  the  ox-kind  are  not  mentioned  in  the 
Bible.  The  animals,  which  are  called  -pfa'rp,  and  fijjn  ,  tn  ,  are 
a  species  of  the  gazelle  or  wild  goat,  which,  because  they  bear 
some  resemblance  to  them,  are  called  by  the  Arabs,  wild  oxen. 

§  48.  Of  Asses. 

Asses,  l^-nttn  ,  ^iftft  .  She  Asses,  nisini*  ,  finN  .  The  latter 
are  considered  the  most  valuable  on  account  of  the  colts,  "Vy  ,  tJ*vV*  , 
and  in  the  enumerations  of  animals,  they  are  mentioned  separately. 
The  Nomades  possess  great  numbers  of  these  animals,  and,  in  the 
East,  if  rightly  trained  up,  they  are  not  only  patient  and  diligent, 
but  active,  beautiful  in  appearance,  and  ignoble  in  no  respect. 
They  are  esteemed  very  highly,  and  their  name  is  used  tropically  in 
the  Scriptures,  for  active  and  industrious  men,  Gen.  49:  14.  Their 
colour  is  red,  inclining  to  a  brown,  to  which  the  name  ^H/Oh  is 
an  allusion.  Some  are  party-coloured,  Judg.  5:  10.  DITTOS , 
unless  perchance,  such  are  painted;  for  the  Orientals  to  this  day 
are  in  the  habit  of  painting  their  horses  and  oxen.  They  are  em- 
ployed in  ploughing,  in  drawing  carts,  and  in  turning  mills,  to  which 
Matt.  18:  6,  is  an  allusion.  Moses,  Deut.  22: 10,  passed  a  law,  that 
the  ass  and  ox  should  not  be  used  together  in  ploughing.  Com- 
monly the  asses  bear  their  burden,  whether  men  or  packages,  on 
their  backs ;  a  mode  of  service  to  which  they  are  peculiarly  fitted. 

Anciently  princes  and  great  men  rode  on  asses,  Gen.  22:  3,  5. 
Num.  22:  21,  30.  Jos.  15:  18.  Judg.  1:  14.  5:  10.   10:  4.   12:  14. 

1  Sam.  25:  20,  23.   2  Sam.  17:  23.    19:  26.    1  Kgs.  2:  40.    13:  13. 

2  Kgs.  4:  22,  24.  Zech.  9:  9.  Matt.  21:  1—7.  Luke  19:  29—36. 
John  12:  12 — 16.  Horses  were  destined  almost  exclusively  for 
war ;  and  all  classes,  in  time  of  peace,  made  use  of  asses  for 
the  purposes  of  conveyance,  the  great  as  well  as  those  in  ob- 
scure life.  They  were  guided  by  a  rein  placed  in  the  mouth, 
in  Hebrew  iTEri  u3nn ,  translated  to  saddle  the  ass,  Gen.  22:  3. 
Num.  22:21.  Judg.  19:  10.  2  Sam.  16:  1.  17:23.  The  saddle 
was  merely  a  piece  of  cloth,  thrown  over  the  back  of  the  animal, 


/ 


$  49.    CAMELS.  57 

on  which  the  rider  sat.  The  servant  followed  after  with  a  staff, 
when  the  ass  had  no  rider,  and  applied  it  when  there  was  necessi- 
ty, to  quicken  the  celerity  of  his  movements,  Judg.  19:  3.  2  Kgs.  4: 
24.  Prov.  26:  3. 

Note  I.  Mules,  E^l^S,  *n?>  are  spoken  of  in  the  age  of  David, 
1  Chron.  12:  40.  Ps.  32i  9.  2  Sam.  18:  9,  10.  13:  25.  1  Kgs. 
1:  33.  Probably  they  were  known  much  earlier,  even  in  the  time 
of  Moses.  The  word  tPW,  Gen.  36:  24,  is  not  to  be  translated 
mules,  as  is  comonly  done,  but  "  warm  baths."  Mules  appear  to 
have  been  brought  to  the  Hebrews  from  other  nations,  and  in  the 
recent  periods  of  their  history,  we  find,  that  the  more  valua- 
ble ones  came  from  Togarmah  or  Armenia,  Ezek.  27:  14.  The 
W'lMfrUT,  or  great  mules  of  Persia,  celebrated  for  their  swiftness, 
the  mothers  of  which  were  mares,  are  mentioned,  Esth.  8:  10. 

Note  II.  There  are  great  numbers  of  wild  asses  in  the  East. 
Two  species  are  worthy  of  observation,  the  one  called  Dsigetai ; 
the  other,  Kulan.  The  latter  are  supposed  to  have  sprung  from 
domestic  asses,  who,  as  occasions  had  presented,  acquired  their 
freedom.  They  are  a  fearful  animal,  and  swift  in  flight,  but  can 
be  tamed,  if  taken  when  young,  Job  11:  12.  24:  5.  39:  5 — 8. 
Dan.  5:  21.  That  the  Hebrew  word  &*\B>  means  the  Dsigetai,  and 
the  word  ■*ri*?S  ,  the  Kulan  species,  can  neither  be  reconciled  with 
the  use  of  the  Arabic,  nor  with  Job  39:  5.  They  must  be  considered 
merely  as  separate  names  for  the  same  species.  These  animals  are 
of  a  fine  figure  and  rapid  in  motion  ;  they  frequent  desert  places 
and  flee  far  from  the  abodes  of  men.  The  females  herd  together, 
and  are  headed  by  a  male.  When  the  latter  is  slain,  the  former 
are  scattered  and  wander  about  separately,  Hos.  8:  9.  They  feed 
on  the  mountains  and  in  salt  vallies,  Job  39:  8.  Their  organs  of 
smelling,  which  are  very  acute,  enable  them  to  scent  waters  at  a 
great  distance.  Hence  travellers,  who  are  destitute  of  water,  are 
accustomed  to  follow  them,  Ps.  104:  11.  Is.  32:  14.  Jer.  14:  6. 

§  49.  Camels,  ,  . 

They  are  of  two  kinds.    The  one  is  the  Turkish  or  Bactrian, 
distinguished  by  two  protuberances  on  the  back.    This  kind  is 
large  and  strong,  carrying  from  eight  to  fifteen  hundred  pounds, 
8 


5S  §  49.  CAMELS. 

but  is  impatient  of  the  heat.  The  other  kind,  called  the  dro- 
medary or  Arabian  camel,  has  but  one  bunch  on  the  back,  is  more 
rapid  in  its  movement,  and  endures  the  heat  better,  than  the  large 
camel.  It  is  denominated  in  Heb.  ^SSS,  STtea,  and  rri-D"D,  Is. 
60:  6.  66:  20.  Jer.  2:  23. 

Camels  require  but  little  food,  and  endure  thirst  from  sixteen 
to  forty  days.  They  are  particularly  fitted  for  those  vast  de- 
serts, which  are  destitute  of  water  ;  are  kept  in  great  numbers  by 
the  Nomades,  and  the  Arab  is  esteemed  of  a  secondary  rank,  who 
is  not  the  possessor  of  them,  Gen.  24:  10,  64.  31:  17.  1  Chron. 
5:  19—21.  Jer.  49:  29.  comp.  1  Sam.  30  :  17.  1  Kgs.  10:  2.  Is. 
30:  6.  Ezek.  25:  4.  They  are  used  for  the  transportation  of 
every  description  of  packages,  and  burdens  of  every  sort,  Gen.  37: 
25.  Judg.  6:  5.  1  Chron.  12:  40.  2  Chron.  14:  15.  2  Kgs.  8:  9.  Is. 
30:  6.  Men  rode  upon  them  very  often,  1  Sam.  30:  17.  When 
they  are  loaded,  and  set  out  upon  a  journey,  they  follow  one  after 
another,  seven  together.  The  second  is  fastened  to  the  first  by  a 
woollen  string,  the  fourth  to  the  third,  and  so  on.  The  servant 
leads  the  first  kone,  and  is  informed  by  the  tinkling  of  a  bell,  at- 
tached to  the  neck  of  the  last  one,  whether  they  all  continue  their 
march.  The  seven  camels  thus  connected  together,  are  called 
fa^tta  riyD\y,  which  is  badly  rendered  by  the  Vulgate,  "  inunda- 
tio  camelorum,"  Is.  60:  6.  The  riders  either  ride  as  on  a  horse, 
with  the  feet  suspended,  the  one  on  one  side  and  the  other  on 
the  other  ;  or,  when  two  go  together,  sit  upon  baskets,  which  are 
thrown  across  the  animal,  so  as  to  balance  each  other.  Some- 

times  they  travel  in  a  covered  vehicle,  12 ,  v  — which  is  se- 
cured on  the  back  of  the  camel,  and  answers  the  purpose  of  a 
small  house.  It  is  often  divided  into  two  apartments,  and  the  trav- 
eller, who  can  sit  in  either  of  them,  is  enabled  also  to  carry 
some  little  furniture  with  him.  These  conveyances  are  protect- 
ed by  veils,  which  are  not  rolled  up,  except  in  front  ;  so  that  the 
person  within  has  the  privilege  of  looking  out,  while  he  is  him- 
self concealed.  They  are  used  chiefly  by  the  women,  rarely  by 
the  men,  Gen.  31:  17.  If  the  rider  wishes  to  descend,  the  cam- 
el does  not  kneel  as  on  other  occasions,  but  the  rider  takes  hold 
of  the  servant's  staff  and  by  the  aid  of  it  alights,  Gen.  24:  64.  The 
camels,  on  which  the  rich  are  carried,  are  adorned  with  splendid 
chains  and  crescents,  tPshflip ,  Judg.  8:  21,  26. 


§  50.  HORSES. 


59 


The  Nomades  understand  how  to  turn  to  profitable  purpose  all 
the  parts  of  animals  of  this  kind.  They  drink  the  milk,  though  it  is 
thick.  When  it  has  become  acid,  it  inebriates,  Jud.  4:  19.  5:  25. 
They  feed  upon  the  flesh,  a  privilege,  which  was  interdicted  to  the 
Hebrews,  Lev.  11:  4.  The  hair,  which  is  shed  every  year,  was 
manufactured  into  coarse  cloth,  and  constituted  the  clothing  of 
the  poorer  class  of  people,  Matt.  3:  4.  In  the  Arabic  language, 
there  are  many  allusions  made  to  camels,  and  tropes  drawn  from 
this  source  possess  as  much  dignity,  as  those  drawn  from  oxen 
do  in  the  Hebrew.  Proverbs,  founded  in  the  qualities  of  the  camel, 
occur  in  Matt.  19:  24.  23:  24. 

§  50.  Horses. 

S!)0  ,  ,  *j73*n  ,  or  uns  ,  sometimes,  3*p ,  1  Sam.  8:  11. 
2  Sam.  h  6.  8:  4.'  10:  18.'  1  Chro'n.  18.  4.  Is.  21:'  7.  28:  28.  The 
word  t^-PSi* ,  when  applied  to  horses,  is  merely  an  epithet  of 
strength.  It  is  applied  in  the  same  way  to  oxen  also.  The  Noma- 
des of  recent  ages  place  much  more  value  on  these  animals,  than 
those  did  of  an  earlier  period.  We  find  horses  first  in  Egypt,  Gen. 
47:  17.  49:  17.  Exod.  9:  3.  14:  6—28.  Job  39:  19.  That  country 
was  always  celebrated  for  them,  1  Kings  10:  28.  Is.  31:  1.  36:  9. 
Ezek.  17:  15.  Joshua  encountered  chariots  and  horsemen  in  the 
north  of  Palestine,  chap.  11:  4 — 9.  He  rendered  the  horses  use- 
less, which  he  took,  by  cutting  the  hamstrings ;  since  they  would 
have  been  but  of  little  profit  in  the  mountains  of  Palestine,  comp. 
Judg.  4:  15.  5:  22,  28.  Not  long  after,  the  Philistines  conducted 
chariots  into  battle,  Judg.  1:  19.  1  Sam.  13:  5. 

Anciently  horses  were  used  exclusively  for  the  purposes  of  war, 
Prov.  21:  31.  Hence  they  are  opposed  to  asses,  which  were  used 
in  times  of  peace,  Zech.  9:  9.  The  Hebrews  first  attended  to 
the  raising  of  horses  in  the  reign  of  Solomon.  The  hundred, 
which  were  reserved,  2  Sam.  8:  4.  1  Chron.  18:  4,  were  destined 
for  the  use  of  David  himself,  whose  example  was  imitated  by 
Absalom,  2  Sam.  15:  1.  The  Psalmist  frequently  alludes  to 
the  mode  of  governing  horses  and  to  equestrian  armies,  Ps.  32: 
9.  66:  12.  33:  17.  76:  6.  147:  10.  Solomon  carried  on  a  great 
trade  in  Egyptian  horses.  They  were  brought  from  Egypt  and 
from  aop,  rnp,  perhaps  Kua  situated  in  Africa,  1  Kings  10:  28. 


60 


§  51.  DOGS. 


2  Chron.  1:  16,  17.  A  horse  was  estimated  at  about  150,  and  a 
chariot  at  600  shekels.  In  the  time  of  Ezekiel,  the  Tyrians  pur- 
chased horses  in  Togarmah  or  Armenia.  The  Hebrews,  after  the 
time  of  Solomon,  were  never  destitute  of  chariots  and  cavalry.  The 
rider  used  neither  stirrup  nor  saddle,  but  sat  upon  a  piece  of  cloth, 
thrown  over  the  back  of  the  horse.  The  women  rarely  rode  horses, 
but  whenever  they  had  occasion  to,  they  rode  in  the  same  manner 
with  the  men.  Horses  were  not  shod  with  iron  before  the  ninth 
century;  hence  solid  hoofs  were  esteemed  of  great  consequence, 
Amos  6:  12.  Is.  5:  28. 

The  bridle,  3fj52 i,  and  the  cavesson,  fD"\ ,  were  used  both  for 
horses  and  mules,  Ps.  32:  9. 

§51.  Dogs,  tP^rs , 

The  Nomades  found  use  for  them  in  guarding  and  in  driving 
their  flocks.  Frequent  as  these  animals  are  in  oriental  cit- 
ies, they  are  universally  abhorred  with  the  exception  of  the 
hunting  dogs.  Hence  to  be  called  a  dog  is  a  cutting  reproach, 
full  of  bitter  contempt,  Job  30:  1.  1  Sam.  17:  43.  2  Sam.  3:  8. 
2  Kings  8 :  13.  Prov.  26 :  11.  comp.  Luke  16  :  21.  2  Peter  2  :  22. 
The  appellation  of  dead  dog  indicates  imbecility,  1  Sam.  24:  14. 
2  Sam.  9:  8.  16:  9.  The  reward  of  prostitution  is  called  by  way 
of  contempt,  dog's  hire,  3^3  ^n» ,  Deut.  23:  18.  The  Jews  in 
the  time  of  Christ  were  accustomed  to  call  the  Gentiles  dogs. 
The  Saviour  in  order  to  abate  the  severity  of  the  appellation  used 
the  diminutive  xvvuoia,  Matt.  15:  22 — 28.  Impudent  and  con- 
tentious men  are  sometimes  called  dogs,  Matt.  7:  6.  Philip.  3:  2. 
Gal.  5:  15.  In  the  East,  dogs,  with  the  exception  of  those  em- 
ployed in  hunting,  have  no  masters,  wander  free  in  the  streets, 
and  live  upon  the  offals,  which  are  cast  into  the  gutters.  Being 
often  at  the  point  of  starvation,  they  devour  corpses,  and  in  the 
night  attack  even  living  men,  Ps.  22:  16,  20.  59:  6,  14,  15.  I  Kgs. 
14:11.  16:4.  21:23.22:38.  2  Kgs.  9 :  36.  Jer.  15:3.  They 
herd  together  in  vast  numbers;  whenever  any  tumult  arises  in  the 
night,  they  commence  a  terrific  barking,  and  when  the  people 
mourn  through  the  streets  for  the  dead,  they  respond  to  them  with 
their  howls.  Hence  may  be  explained  Exod.  11:7.  y^hywH 
IDilj^  3^3  comp.  also  Josh.  10:  21. 


§  52.   OF  HUNTING. 


61 


Jackals.  The  wild  or  yellow  dog,  (so  called  by  Hasselquist,) 
/  /  /  m  / 

is  denominated  in  Persian  in  Turkish  JUirs^  in  Hebrew 

5   /  c  /  5  /   /  J 

Vsy£  or  the  fox,  in  Syriac  in  Arab.  (^.Xx'i,  &J\j!$,  Judg. 

15:  14.  Foxes,  however,  properly  so  called,  the  Hebrews  distin- 
guish by  the  name  f:Dp  C^rS-tp,  or  little  jackals,  Cant.  2:  15. 
The  jackals  they  call  also  tfajk  and  tPsn  ,  the  former  of  which 
words  is  commonly  translated  dragons  in  the  Eng.  version.  These 
animals  are  three  and  a  half  feet  long,  have  yellow  hair,  a  tail  al- 
so of  yellow,  with  the  tip  of  brown.  They  go  together  in  herds, 
lie  in  caves  through  the  day,  and  wander  about  howling  through 
the  night.  They  make  their  way  into  houses  for  the  purpose  of 
stealing  food.  They  have  so  little  cunning,  that  when  thieving  in 
a  house,  if  they  hear  one  of  the  herd  howling  out  in  the  fields,  they 
immediately  set  up  a  responsive  cry,  and  thus  betray  to  the  master 
of  the  house  their  predatory  visitation. 

They  are  also  taken  easily  in  other  ways,  Judg.  15:  4.  They  de- 
vour dead  bodies,  Ps.  63:  10.  They  are  ferocious,  but  can  be 
kept  off  with  a  cane.  There  are  vast  numbers  of  these  animals  in 
Palestine,  particularly  in  Galilee,  and  near  Gaza,  and  Jaffa,  (Joppa,) 
Judg.  15:  4.  They  do  much  injury  to  the  vines,  though  less  than 
the  foxes,  Cant.  2:  15. 

§  52.  Of  Hunting. 

Although  the  Nomades  have  many  hunting  dogs,  the  dogs  are 
not  always  able  to  keep  off  the  wild  beasts  from  the  flock,  unless 
aided  by  the  shepherds  themselves.  Hence  arose  hunting  or  the 
chase,  which  is  practised  the  more  readily  from  the  circumstance, 
that  the  meat  of  wild  animals  is  considered  a  great  delicacy. 
The  earliest  inhabitants  of  the  world  were  compelled  to  hunt  in 
order  to  secure  themselves  from  the  attacks  of  wild  beasts,  and  a 
great  hunter,  vx ,  was  accounted  a  benefactor  of  mankind.  Such 
a  benefactor  some  inaccurately  suppose  Nimrod  to  have  been,  not 
taking  into  consideration  all  the  circumstances,  Gen.  10:  9. 

A  different  state  of  things  existed  in  the  time  of  Moses,  who 
enacted  two  laws  on  the  subject  of  hunting,  the  object  of  which 
was  to  preserve  the  wild  animals  of  Palestine,  Exod.  23:  11.  Lev. 
25:  6,  7.  Deut.  22:  6,  7.  Hunting  in  ancient  times  required  both  speed 


62 


§  53.   OF  ROBBERIES. 


and  bravery.  Some  have  slain  lions  without  any  armour,  which  is 
sometimes  done  in  the  East  at  the  present  day.  The  implements  of 
hunting  were  usually  the  same  with  those  of  war  ;  viz,  nttJJ?. ,  the 
bow ;  yn,  the  arrow  ;  (hence  the  hunter  Ishmael  was  called  an 
archer,  Gen.  21:  20  ;)  also,  TVq'-) ,  a  spear  or  lance  ;  n*3ft,  a  javelin  ; 
Sl'lfr,  a  sword.  Hunters  made  use  of  various  arts  to  secure  their 
object.  They  employed  nets,  rv:3~i ,  ^72572,  in  which  lions 
were  taken,  Ezek.  19:8;  likewise  gins,  'iip/iTa ,  snares,  ta^fts,  ns, 
and  pitfalls,  nftttj  which  were  excavated  especially  for  lions,  in 
such  a  way,  that  there  was  an  elevation  of  solid  ground  in  the 
centre.  In  this  elevation  a  pole  was  fastened,  and  a  lamb  was 
confined  to  the  pole.  The  lion,  excited  by  the  prospect  of  a  vic- 
tim, rushed  upon  the  lamb,  but  plunged  headlong  through  the 
light  covering,  which  concealed  the  intervening  pitfall,  Ezek. 
19:  4.  Birds  were  taken  in  snares  or  gins.  These  instruments  and 
modes  of  warfare  are  used  tropically,  to  indicate  the  wiles  of  an 
adversary,  great  danger,  or  impending  destruction,  Ps.  9:  16.  57:  6. 
94:  13.  119:85.  Prov.  26:27.  Is.  24:  17.  42:22.  Jer.  5:  27.  6:21. 
18:  22.  48:  44.  Luke  21:  35.  Rom.  11:  9.  Death  is  represented  as 
a  hunter,  armed  with  his  net,  javelin,  or  sting,  with  which  he  takes 
and  slays  men,  Ps.  91:  3.  Hos.  13:  14.  1  Cor.  15:  55. 

Note. — For  information,  respecting  other  animals,  mentioned 
in  the  Bible,  see  Bochart's  Hierozoicon,  Rosenmiillers  edition,  pub- 
lished at  Leipsic  1793 — 1796,  and  Oedmann's  Sammlungen  aus  Na- 
turkunde  zur  Erklarung  der  htiligen  Schrift,  1786 — 96. 

§  53.  Of  Robberies,  committed  on  Travellers. 

Probably  from  the  hunting  of  wild  beasts,  the  Nomades  turn- 
ed their  attention  to  the  plundering  of  travellers;  an  occupation, 
which  they  follow  to  this  day  in  the  vast  deserts,  nearly  in  the 
same  way  that  pirates  practise  a  similar  vocation  on  the  ocean. 
Their  skill  at  plundering  was  predicted  of  Ishmael  and  his  posteri- 
ty, and  they  have  ever  remarkably  fulfilled  the  prediction,  Gen. 
16:  12.  Still  they  do  not  surpass  many  others  of  the  Nomadic 
tribes  ;  who  lie  hid  behind  hills  of  sand,  and  wait  for  travellers, 
and  then  plunder  them  to  the  skin,  comp.  Jer.  3:  2.  They  do  not 
slay  any  one,  unless  some  one  or  a  number  of  their  own  party  per- 
ishes first.    Having  robbed  them  of  all  they  possess,  they  common- 


§  54.   IMPORTANCE  OF  AGRICULTURE.  63 

ly  return  a  garment  to  the  persons  plundered,  in  order  that  they 
may  conceal  their  nakedness.  They  also  permit  the  countrymen 
or  friends  of  the  captives,  to  redeem  them.  All  the  Nomades  are 
polite  and  hospitable.  They  receive  strangers  into  their  tents, 
and,  without  any  expectation  of  a  return,  exhibit  to  them  every 
office  of  kindness.  But  they  are  different  men,  if  they  meet  stran- 
gers in  the  wilderness.  There  are  now,  and  there  always  have 
been  Nomades,  who  have  disapproved  of  the  proceedings,  of  which 
we  have  spoken.  Such  were  Abraham,  Isaac,  Jacob,  and  the  Isra- 
elites ;  some  of  whom,  however,  were  at  times  guilty  of  plunder- 
ing, Judg.  9:  25.  Mic.  2:  8. 


CHAPTER  IV. 
ON  AGRICULTURE. 

§  54.  Its  value  and  importance. 

In  the  primitive  ages  of  the  world,  agriculture,  as  well  as  the 
keeping  of  flocks,  was  a  principal  employment  among  men,  Gen.  2: 
15.  3:  17 — 19.  4:  2.  It  is  an  art,  which  has  ever  been  a  prominent 
source,  both  of  the  necessaries  and  the  conveniences  of  life.  Those 
nations,  which  practised  it  at  an  early  period,  learnt  its  value,  not 
only  from  their  own  experience,  but  also  from  observing  the  con- 
dition of  the  neighbouring  countries,  that  were  destitute  of  a  knowl- 
edge of  it,  see  Xenophon's  Oixovof*.  L.  V.  §  1 — 20.  p.  299 — 305. 
(T.  IV.  ed.  Thieme.)  Impressed  with  the  importance  of  agriculture, 
Noah,  after  he  had  escaped  from  the  deluge,  once  more  bestow- 
ed upon  it  his  attention  ;  and  there  were  some  of  the  Nomades, 
who  were  far  from  neglecting  it,  Gen.  26:  12 — 14.  25:  34.  37:  7. 
Job  1:  3. 

Those  states  and  nations,  especially  Babylon  and  Egypt,  which 
made  the  cultivation  of  the  soil  their  chief  business,  arose  in  a 
short  period  to  wealth  and  power.    To  these  communities  just 


64         §  55.   LAWS  OF  MOSES  IN  REGARD  TO  AGRICULTURE. 

mentioned,  which  excelled  in  this  particular  all  the  others  of  an- 
tiquity, may  be  added  that  of  the  Hebrews,  who  learned  the  value 
of  the  art  while  remaining  in  Egypt,  and  ever  after  that  time 
were  famous  for  their  industry  in  the  cultivation  of  the  earth. 

§  55.  Laws  of  Moses  in  regard  to  Agriculture. 

I.  Moses,  following  the  example  of  the  Egyptians,  made  agri- 
culture the  basis  of  the  state.  He,  accordingly,  apportioned  to  eve- 
ry citizen  a  certain  quantity  of  land,  and  gave  him  the  right  of 
tilling  it  himself  and  of  transmitting  it  to  his  heirs.  The  person, 
who  had  thus  come  into  possession,  could  not  alienate  the  proper- 
ty for  any  longer  period  than  the  year  of  the  coming  jubilee ;  a 
regulation,  which  prevented  the  rich  from  coming  into  possession 
of  large  tracts  of  land,  and  then  leasing  them  out  in  small  parcels 
to  the  poor ;  a  practice  which  anciently  prevailed,  and  does  to  this 
day,  in  the  East.  II.  It  was  another  law  of  Moses,  that  the  vender 
of  a  piece  of  land,  or  his  nearest  relative,  had  a  right  to  redeem 
the  land  sold,  whenever  they  chose,  by  paying  the  amount  of  pro- 
fits up  to  the  year  of  jubilee,  Ruth  4:  4.  Jer.  32:  7.  III.  Another 
law  enacted  by  Moses  on  this  subject,  was,  that  the  Hebrews,  as 
was  the  case  among  the  Egyptians  after  the  time  of  Joseph,  Gen. 
37:  18,  et  seq.  should  pay  a  tax  of  two  tenths  of  their  income  unto 
God,  whose  servants  they  were  to  consider  themselves,  and  whom 
they  were  to  obey  as  their  king,  Lev.  27:  30.  Deut.  12:  17 — 19. 
14:  22—29.  comp.  Gen.  28:  22.  IV.  The  custom  of  marking  the 
boundaries  of  lands  by  stones,  although  it  prevailed  a  long  time  be- 
fore, Job  24:  2.  was  confirmed  and  perpetuated,  in  the  time  of 
Moses,  by  an  express  law  ;  and  a  cirse  was  pronounced  against 
him,  who  without  authority  removed  them. 

These  regulations  having  been  made  in  respect  to  the  tenure, 
incumbrances,  &c.  of  landed  property,  Joshua  divided  the  whole 
country,  which  he  had  occupied,  first,  among  the  respective  tribes, 
and,  then,  among  individual  Hebrews,  running  it  out  with  the  aid  of 
a  measuring  line,  Josh.  17:  5,  14.  comp  Amos  7:  17.  Mic.  2:  5. 
Ps.  78:  55.  Ezek.  40:  3.  The  word  ^ljft  a  line,  is  accordingly 
used  by  a  figure  of  speech  for  the  heritage  itself,  Ps.  11:  6.  Josh. 
17:  5,  14.  19:  9. 

Though  Moses  was  the  friend  of  the  agriculturist,  he  by  no 
means  discouraged  the  keeper  of  the  flock. 


§  57.    MEANS  OF  INCREASING  FERTILITY. 


65 


<§  56.  Estimation  in  which  Agriculture  was  held. 

The  occupation  of  the  husbandman  was  held  in  honour,  not 
only  for  the  profits  which  it  brought,  but  from  the  circumstance, 
that  it  was  supported  and  protected  by  the  fundamental  laws  of 
the  state.  All  who  were  not  set  apart  for  religious  duties,  such 
as  the  priests  and  the  Levitcs,  whether  inhabitants  of  the  country, 
or  of  towns  and  cities,  were  considered  by  the  laws,  and  were  in 
fact  agriculturists.  The  rich  and  the  noble,  it  is  true,  in  the 
cultivation  of  the  soil,  did  not  always  put  themselves  on  a  level 
with  their  servants,  but  none  were  so  rich  or  so  noble,  as  to  dis- 
dain to  put  their  hand  to  the  plough,  1  Sum.  11:7.  1  Kgs.  19:  19. 
comp.  2  Chron.  26:  10.  The  priests  and  Levites  were  indeed  en- 
gaged in  other  employments,  yet  they  could  not  withhold  their 
honour  from  an  occupation,  which  supplied  them  with  their  in- 
come. 

The  esteem  in  which  agriculture  was  held,  diminished  as  lux- 
ury increased  ;  but  it  never  wholly  came  to  an  end.  Even  after 
the  captivity,  when  many  of  the  Jews  had  become  merchants  and 
mechanics,  the  esteem  and  honour  attached  to  this  occupation  still 
continued,  especially  under  the  dynasty  of  the  Persians,  who  were 
agriculturists  from  motives  of  religion. 

§  57.  Means  of  increasing  Fertility. 

The  soil  of  Palestine  is  very  fruitful,  if  the  dews  and  vernal 
and  autumnal  rains  are  not  withheld.  The  country,  in  opposition 
to  Egypt,  is  eulogized  for  its  rains  in  Deut.  11:  10.  The  He- 
brews, notwithstanding  the  richness  of  the  soil,  endeavoured  to 
increase  its  fertility  in  various  ways.  They  not  only  divested  it  of 
stones,  but  watered  it  by  means  of  canals,  E'Vjbs,  communicating 
with  the  rivers  or  brooks  ;  and  thereby  imparted  to  their  fields  the 
richness  of  gardens,  Ps.  1:3.  65:  10.  Prov.21:l.  Is.  30:  25.  32:2,20. 
Hos.  12:  11.  Springs,  therefore,  fountains,  and  rivulets,  were  held 
in  as  much  honour  and  worth  by  husbandmen  as  by  shepherds,  Josh. 
15:  9.  Judg.  1:  15  ;  and  we  accordingly  find,  that  the  land  of  Ca- 
naan was  extolled  for  those  fountains  of  water,  of  which  Egypt  was 
destitute.  The  soil  was  enriched  also,  in  addition  to  the  method 
9 


66 


§  58.  DIFFERENT  KINDS  OF  GRAIN. 


just  mentioned,  by  means  of  ashes;  to  which  the  straw,  p  the 
stubble,  u5j5,  the  husks,  yi  72 ,  the  brambles  and  grass,  that  over- 
spread the  land  during  the  sabbatical  year,  were  reduced  by  fire. 
The  burning  over  the  surface  of  the  land  had  also  another  good  ef- 
fect, viz.  that  of  destroying  the  seeds  of  the  noxious  herbs,  Is.  7: 
23.  32:  13.  Prov.  24:  31.  Finally,  the  soil  was  manured  with  dung, 
Ps.  83:  10.  2  K.  9:  37.  Is.  25:  10.  Jer.  8:  2.  9:  22.  16:  4.  25:  33. 
Luke  14:  34,  35. 

§  58.  Different  kinds  of  Grain. 

The  Hebrew  word  ]xn ,  which  is  translated  variously  by  the 
English  words,  grain,  corn,  &c.  is  of  general  signification,  and  com- 
prehends in  itself  different  kinds  of  grain  and  pulse,  such  as  wheat, 
nt2h  ;  millet,  ]ED3 ;  spelt,  ;  wall-barley,  "jh^j;  barley,  FHiripj 

beans,  lentils,  tPttHjfr ;    meadow-cumin,  "pas ;  peppervvort, 

tt!£p ;  flax,  !"TP)tt53  ;  cotton,  yy  — 'Hips  ;  to  these  may  be  added  va- 
rious species  of  the  cucumber,  and  perhaps  rice,  iT-n&,  Is.  28:  25. 
Rye  and  oats  do  not  grow  in  the  warmer  climates,  but  their  place 
is,  in  a  manner,  supplied  by  barley.  Barley,  mixed  with  broken 
straw,  affords  the  fodder  for  beasts  of  burden,  which  is  called  . 
Wheat,  MtafT,  which  by  way  of  eminence  is  also  called  ]:n ,  grew 
in  Egypt  in  the  time  of  Joseph,  as  it  now  does  in  Africa,  on  stalks 
or  branches,  fr^ftpb  ,  each  one  of  which  produced  an  ear,  Gen. 
41:  47.  This  sort  of  wheat  does  not  flourish  in  Palestine  ;  the 
wheat  of  Palestine  is  of  a  much  better  kind.  Cotton,  yy  ^^S?» 
grows  not  only  on  trees  of  a  large  size,  which  endure  for  a  num- 
ber of  years,  but  also  on  shrubs,  which  are  annually  reproduced. 
It  is  enclosed  in  the  nuts  of  the  tree,  if  they  may  so  be  called  from 
their  resemblance  to  nuts.  The  nuts,  when  they  are  ripe,  fall  off ; 
they  are  then  gathered  and  exposed  to  the  sun,  which  causes  them 
to  increase  to  the  size  of  an  apple.  When  opened,  they  exhibit 
the  cotton.  There  are  a  few  seeds  found  in  each  of  these  nuts, 
which  are  sown  again  the  following  year.  The  cotton  of  the  shrub, 
called  yss,  fivoGog,  is  celebrated  for  its  whiteness. 


§  59.   INSTRUMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE.  67 

§  59.  Instruments  of  Agriculture. 

The  culture  of  the  soil  was  at  first  very  simple,  being  perform- 
ed by  no  other  instruments  than  sharp  sticks.  By  these  the  ground 
was  loosened,  until  spades  and  shovels,  lfcp  ,  and  not  long  after 
ploughs,  rnzHft»,  were  invented.  All  these  implements  were 
well  known  in  the  time  of  Moses,  Deut.  23:  13.  Gen.  45:  6.  Job  1: 
14.  The  first  plough  was  doubtless  nothing  more  than  a  stout 
limb  of  a  tree,  from  which  projected  another  shortened  and  point- 
ed limb.  This  being  turned  into  the  ground  made  the  furrows ; 
while  at  the  further  end  of  the  longer  branch  was  fastened  a  trans- 
verse yoke,  to  which  the  oxen  were  harnessed.  At  last  a  handle 
was  added,  by  which  the  plough  might  be  guided.  So  that  the 
plough  was  composed  of  four  parts;  the  beam,  the  yoke,  Jrtnfa, 

which  was  attached  to  the  beam ;  the  handle,  and  what  we 
should  call  the  coulter,  nfij ,  ta^nfi*  ,  HttJlhJg,  1  Sam.  13:20,21. 
Micah  4:  3.  (Pliny,  N.  H.  xviii.  47,  speaks  of  ploughs  constructed 
with  wheels,  which  in  his  day  were  of  recent  invention.)  It  was 
necessary  for  the  ploughman  constantly  and  firmly  to  hold  the 
handle  of  the  plough,  which  had  no  wheels,  and,  that  no  spot 
might  remain  untouched,  to  lean  forward  and  fix  his  eyes  steadily 
upon  it,  Luke  9:  62.  Pliny,  N.  H.  xviii.  49.  no.  2.  The  staff  by 
which  the  coulter  was  cleared,  served  for  an  ox-goad.  In  the  East 
at  the  present  day,  they  use  a  pole  about  eight  feet  in  length ;  at 
the  largest  end  of  which  is  fixed  a  flat  piece  of  iron  for  clearing 
the  plough,  and  at  the  other  end  a  spike  'Jin? ,  h&vtqov,  for  spur- 
ring the  oxen.  Hence  it  appears  that  a  goad  might  answer  the 
purpose  of  a  spear,  which  indeed  had  the  same  name  "Jin?  ,  1  Sam. 
13:21.  Judg.  3:  31.  Sometimes  a  scourge  to ,  was  applied  to 
the  oxen,  Is.  10:  26.  Nah.  3:  2.  There  seems  to  have  been  no 
other  harrow  than  a  thick  clump  of  wood,  borne  down  by  a  weight, 
or  a  man  sitting  upon  it,  and  drawn  over  the  ploughed  field  by  ox- 
en ;  the  same  which  the  Egyptians  use  at  the  present  time.  In 
this  way  the  turfs  were  broken  in  pieces,  and  the  field  levelled  ; 
an  operation  which  the  word  Tjlp  seems  properly  to  signify,  viz., 
to  level,  since,  in  Is.  28:  24,  25,  it  is  interchanged  with  tt-ritfi  At 
a  later  period  wicker-drags  came  into  use,  which  Pliny  mentions 
N.  H.  xviii.  43. 


68 


§  60.   ANIMALS  USED  IN  AGRICULTURE. 


The  modern  orientals,  except  in  India,  are  unacquainted  with 
the  cart ;  but  formerly  not  only  wagons  h\5j? ,  riVa? ,  Gen.  45: 
19,  27.  Num.  7:  3,  6,  7.  1  Sam.  9,  7,  8,  10,  li [  14.' 'Amos  2:  13. 
Is.  5:18.  28:28.  and  warlike  chariots,  tPHD"},  but  also 

pleasure  carriages  SUsnJa,  riiSna  ,  rQSnE,  were  used,  Gen.  41:  43. 
45.  19,  21.  2  K.  5:  9.  2  Sam/ 15:  1.  Acts  8:  28.  All  the  ancient 
vehicles  were  moved  upon  two  wheels  only.  Covered  coaches  are 
known  to  have  been  used  by  ladies  of  distinction ;  though  this  cir- 
cumstance is  not  mentioned  in  the  Bible. 

§  60.  Animals  used  in  Agriculture. 

The  beasts  of  burden,  that  endured  the  toils  of  agriculture, 
were  bulls  and  cows,  he-asses  and  she-asses,  Job  1:  14.  1  Sam. 
6:  7.  Is.  30:  24.  32:  20.  But  it  was  forbidden  to  yoke  an  ass  with 
an  ox,  Deut.  22:  10.  Those  animals,  which  in  the  scriptures  are 
called  oxen,  were  bulls,  for  the  Hebrews  were  prohibited  from 
castrating,  although  the  law  was  sometimes  violated,  Mai.  1:  14. 
Bulls  in  the  warmer  climates,  especially  if  they  are  not  greatly 
pampered,  are  not  so  ungovernable,  but  that  they  may  be  har- 
nessed to  the  plough.  If  indeed  any  became  obstinate  by  rich  pas- 
turage, their  nostrils  were  perforated,  and  a  ring,  made  of  iron  or 
twisted  cord,  was  thrust  through,  to  which  was  fastened  a  rope  ; 
which  impeded  his  respiration  to  such  a  degree,  that  the  most 
turbulent  one  might  easily  be  managed,  2  Kings  19:  28.  Is. 
37:  29.  Ezek.  19:  4.  Job  40:  24.  By  this  ring  also  camels,  ele- 
phants, and  lions,  taken  alive,  were  rendered  manageable.  When 
bulls  became  old,  their  flesh  was  unsuitable  for  aliment ;  for  which 
reason  they  were  left  to  die  a  natural  death.  For  the  old  age  of 
these  animals,  which  had  been  their  companions  in  labor,  was 
treated  by  the  Hebrews  with  kindness.  Whence  it  is  said,  that, 
in  the  golden  age,  the  slaughter  of  an  ox  will  be  equally  criminal 
with  the  slaughter  of  a  man,  Is.  66:  3.  Pliny,  N.  H.  vii.  45,  56. 
Hence  too  among  the  Hebrews  bulls  possessed  their  appropriate 
dignity,  so  that  tropes  were  drawn  from  them,  by  no  means  desti- 
tute of  elegance,  Num.  22:  4.  Deut.  23:  17. 


\ 


$  61.   PREPARATION  OF   THE  LAND.  69 

§  61.  Preparation  of  the  Land. 

Sowing  commenced  in  the  latter  part  of  October  ;  at  which  time, 
as  well  as  in  the  months  of  November  and  December  following,  the 
wheat  was  committed  to  the  earth.  Barley  was  sown  in  January 
and  February.  The  land  was  ploughed,  ,  fl'bti ,  and  the  quan- 
tity which  was  ploughed  by  a  yoke  of  oxen,  17332  ,  in  one  day,  was 
called  a  yoke,  or  an  acre,  1  Sam.  14:  14.  The  yoke,  JiB^E  , 
Y$,  was  laid  upon  the  necks  and  shoulders  of  the  laboring  animals, 
and  with  ropes,  Elijah  ,  biH  ,  was  made  fast  to  the  beam  of  the 
plough.  The  ox  beneath  the  yoke  afforded  metaphors  expres- 
sive of  subjugation,  Hosea  10:  II.  Is.  9:4.  10:27.  Jer.  5:5. 
27:  2,  8—12.  30:  8.  Nahum  1:  13.  Ps.  129:3,  4.  Matt.  11:  29,  30. 
The  Syrians,  according  to  Pliny,  xviii.  3.  ploughed  shallow.  The 
furrows,  tF^niJ  ,  and  the  ridges  between  them  were  harrowed 
and  levelled,*  n-jW,  Job  39:  10.  Is.  28:  24,  25.  Hosea  10:  11.  The 
seed  was  most  probably  committed  to  the  soil  in  the  harrowing, 
as  Pliny  relates.  Yet  it  seems  to  have  been  customary  in  some 
cases  formerly,  as  it  is  at  present,  to  scatter  the  seed  upon  the 
field  once  ploughed,  and  cover  it  by  a  cross  furrow.  When  it  was 
prohibited  by  law  to  sow,  either  in  field  or  vineyard,  seed  of  a 
mixed  kind,  and  crops  of  this  nature  became  sacred,  i.  e.  were  giv- 
en to  the  priests,  without  doubt  the  seed-grain  was  carefully 
cleansed  from  all  mixture  of  tares  so  often  spoken  of,  and  which 
we  find  denominated  in  the  New  Testament  ^i&viov,  in  Arabic 

(jUys  in  Syriac  j. ll*) ,  in  the  Talmud  &3?i ,  and  in  Hebrew  \L:tH 

and  ttiVl.  This  law  by  no  means  referred  to  a.- poorer  sort  of 
grain,  as  the  Talmudic  writers  suppose,  but  what  may  be  called 
the  intoxicating  tare,  from  which  the  bread  and  the  water  in 
which  it  was  boiled  received  an  inebriating  quality,  and  became 
very  injurious  to  soundness  of  mind.  The  beverage  formed  by 
boiling  tares  and  water,  was  called  '^Kn  "V2  ,  water  of  tares,  also 
poison  water,  Deut.  29:  18,  19.  Ps.  69:  21.  Jer.  8:  14.  23:  15. 
Hos.  10:  4.  The  tares  then,  such  were  their  injurious  qualities, 
are  very  properly  said  to  have  been  sown  by  an  enemy,  while 
the  labourers  were  indulging  sleep  at  noon,  Matt.  13:  25 — 40. 

Consult,  in  reference  to  the  law  mentioned  in  this  section,  Lev. 
19:  19.  and  Deut.  22:  9. 


• 


70 


§  62.  HARVEST. 


§  62.  Harvest. 

In  Palestine  the  crops  are  as  far  advanced  in  the  month  of 
February,  as  they  are  in  this  country  in  the  month  of  May.  At 
that  time,  when  the  grain  has  reached  about  a  cubit  in  height,  it 
is  frequently  so  injured  by  cold  winds  and  frost,  that  it  does  riot 
ear.    The  effect,  thus  produced  upon  the  grain,  is  called  pB*r£J 

or  blasting.    The  common  name  for  it  in  Arabic  is  not  («O r>& , 

as  Niebuhr  declares,  but  (^J^ao,  Genesis  41:6.   Deut.  28:  22. 

2  Kgs.  19:  26.  Sometimes,  even  in  November,  the  crops  are  so  an- 
noyed by  easterly  winds,  as  to  turn  yellow,  and  never  to  come  to 
maturity.  This  calamity  is  denominated  "pp"V,  mildew,  Deut. 
28:  22.  Amos  4:  9.  Hag.  2:  17.  1  Kgs.  8:  37.  2  Chron.  6:  23.  But 
whether  the  opinion  of  the  orientals,  that  these  effects  are  occa- 
sioned by  winds,  is  founded  in  truth,  cannot,  as  it  seems,  be  deter- 
mined. 

The  crops,  in  the  southern  parts  of  Palestine  and  in  the  plains, 
come  to  maturity  about  the  middle  of  April ;  but  in  the  northern 
and  the  mountainous  sections,  they  do  not  become  ripe,  till  three 
weeks  after,  or  even  later. 

The  cultivated  fields  are  guarded  by  watchmen,  who  sit  upon  a 
seat  hung  in  a  tree,  or  on  a  watch-tower  made  of  planks,  and  keep 
off  birds,  quadrupeds,  and  thieves,  Jer.  4:  16,  17.  Is.  24:  20. 
It  was  lawful  for  travellers,  Deut.  23:  25.  to  strip  ears  from  anoth- 
er's field  and  to  eat ;  but  they  were  not  to  use  a  sickle.  The  se-  < 
cond  day  of  the  passover,  i.  e.  the  sixteenth  from  the  first  new 
moon  of  April,  the  first  handful  of  ripe  barley  was  carried  to  the 
altar,  and  then  the  harvest  TSjJ  commenced,  comp.  John  4:  35. 
The  barley  was  first  gathered ;  then  the  wheat,  spelt,  millet,  &c. 
Exod.  9:  31,  32.  Ruth  1:  22.  2:  23.  The  time  of  harvest  was  a 
festival.  It  continued  from  the  passover  until  Penticost,  seven 
weeks;  and  accordingly  went  by  the  name  nipft  nisatp, 

Deut.  16:  9 — 12.  Jer.  5:24. — The  reapers  were  masters,  chil- 
dren, men-servants,  maidens  and  mercenaries,  Ruth  2:  4,8,  21,  23. 
John  4:  36.  James  5:  4.  Merry  and  cheerful,  they  were  intent 
upon  their  labour,  and  the  song  of  joy  might  be  heard  on  every 


§  63.     THRESHING  FLOOR. 


71 


side,  Is.  9:  3.  61:  7.  Ps.  126:  6.  Travellers  congratulated  them 
on  the  rich  harvest ;  which  was  attributed  to  the  beneficence  of  De- 
ity and  considered  a  great  honour  ;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  steril- 
ity of  the  soil  was  supposed  to  be  a  divine  punishment  and  a  dis- 
grace, Lev.  26:  4.  Deut.  11:  14.  28:  12—24.  Is.  4:  2.  Hag.  1: 
5 — 11.  Mai.  3:  10,  11.  Anciently  the  ears  were  plucked  off,  or 
the  stalks  pulled  up  by  the  roots,  which  is  still  the  custom  in  some 
eastern  countries.  It  was  esteemed  servile  labour  by  the  Phari- 
sees, and  a  profanation  of  the  sabbath,  when  done  on  that  day, 
Matt.  12:  1 — 5.  The  Hebrews  used  the  sickle,  tiiEnn,  b2E,  Deut. 
16:  9.  Joel  3:  13.  Jer.  50:  16 ;  so  that  the  stubble  xj>  remained 
in  the  earth.  The  crops  when  reaped  were  gathered  up  by  the 
arms,  and  bound  in  bundles,  Gen.  37:  7.  Levit.  23:  10 — 15.  Job 
24:  10.  Ruth  2:  7,  15,  16.  Amos  2:  13.  Mic.  4:  12.  Jer.  9:  21, 
22.  At  length  the  bundles  were  collected  into  a  heap,  titt^ ,  or 
conveyed  away  on  a  wagon,  Amos  2:  13.  Ps.  126:  6.  But  the 
corners  of  the  field  irniB  ni*5 ,  and  the  gleanings  ttpb ,  were  re- 
quired to  be  left  for  the  poor,  Levit.  19:  9.  Deut.  24:  19.  Ruth  2: 
2,  23.  The  land  in  the  East  generally  yields  ten  fold,  rarely, 
twenty  or  thirty ;  but  Matt.  13:  8.  the  land  yielded  thirty,  sixty  and 
an  hundred  fold,  and,  Gen.  26:  12.  an  hundred  fold.  Herodotus, 
Strabo,  and  Pliny  mentioned  the  increase  of  crops  at  the  rate  of 
one  hundred  and  fifty,  two  hundred,  and  even  three  hundred 
fold.  This  great  increase  is  owing  to  the  circumstance  of  the 
kernels  being  put  into  the  soil  at  a  distance  from  each  other,  so 
as  to  send  out  several  stalks,  Gen.  41:  5,  47.  some  of  which, 
(according  to  Pliny,  N.  H.  xviii.  21,  55.)  have  from  three  to  four 
hundred  ears  ;  and  in  Africa  at  the  present  time,  they  bear  at  least 
ten  and  fifteen. 

§  63.   Threshing  Floor,  "p.ii. 

The  bundles  were  transported  into  the  threshing  floor  either  by 
hand,  or  by  beasts  of  burden,  or  in  wagons,  Amos  2:  13.  and  piled  in 
a  heap,  Exod.  22:  6.  Judg.  15:  5.  A  bundle  left  in  the  field,  even 
though  discovered,  was  not  to  be  taken  up,  but  left  to  the  poor, 
Deut.  24:  19.  The  threshing  floor  was  in  the  field,  in  some  ele- 
vated part  of  it ;  it  was  destitute  of  walls  and  covering  ;  and  in- 
deed was  nothing  more  than  a  circular  space  thirty  or  forty  paces 
in  diameter,  where  the  ground  had  been  levelled  and  beaten  down, 


72 


§  64.  THRESHING. 


Gen.  50:  10.  2  Sam.  24:  16,  24.  Judg.  6:  37.  etc.  The  assemblage 
of  bundles  in  the  floor  for  threshing,  was  used  figuratively  to  de- 
note reservation  for  future  destruction,  Mic.  4:  13.  Is.  21 :  10. 
Jer.  51:  33. 

§  64.  Threshing. 

At  first  the  grain  was  beaten  out  with  cudgels.  Afterwards 
this  method  was  retained  only  in  respect  to  the  smaller  kinds  of 
grain  and  in  threshing  small  quantities,  Ruth  2:  17.  Is.  28:  27.  At 
a  later  period,  it  was  trodden  out  by  the  hoofs  of  oxen,  Is.  28: 
28.  Deut.  25:  4.  or  beaten  out  with  machines  of  the  same  kind, 
that  are  used  in  the  East  at  the  present  day.  All  these  modes  of 
threshing  are  called  tin.  Three  kinds  of  instruments,  however, 
are  mentioned.  The  first,  called  Di:p")Z  ,  is  not  well  known.  Per- 
haps it  was  a  square  piece  of  wood,  armed  on  the  lower  side  with 
sharp  stones.  The  second,  called  Jnift,  was  composed  of  four 
beams  joined  so  as  to  form  a  square,  between  which  were  set 
three  revolving  cylinders,  each  one  of  which  was  furnished  with 
three  iron  wheels,  having  teeth  like  a  saw ;  (see  Archaeol.  Germ. 
P.  I.  T.  1.  tab.  IV.  no.  VII.)  The  third,  y n nn ,  was  formed  like 
the  preceding,  except  that  the  cylinders  were  not  furnished  with 
iron  wheels,  but  with  sharp  pieces  of  iron  six  inches  long  and 
three  broad.  Possibly  this  may  be  the  same  kind  with  the  first. 
These  machines,  upon  which  the  driver  sat,  were  fastened  to  the 
oxen,  and  were  driven  round  upon  the  bundles,  which  were  brok- 
en open  and  were  deposited  in  the  circle  of  the  area  six  or  eight 
feet  in  height.  In  this  manner  the  grain  was  beaten  out  of  the 
ears,  and  the  straw  itself  broken  in  pieces,  which  in  this  state  was 
called  pp.  Another  man  followed  the  machine  with  a  wooden 
instrument,  and  placed  the  grain  in  order.  Threshing  frequently 
stands  figuratively  for  a  great  slaughter  ;  and  if  the  machine  is 
said  to  be  new,  when  it  is  usually  the  sharpest,  it  denotes  a  slaugh- 
ter proportionably  greater.  The  victorious  people  are  some- 
times represented  as  a  huge  machine,  that  threshes  and  crumbles 
even  mountains  and  hills,  like  straw.  But  the  conquered  are  al- 
ways prostrated  upon  the  earth,  like  the  bundles  on  the  threshing 
floor,  and  ground  to  powder  by  the  instruments,  Judg.  8:  7.  2  Sam. 
12:  31.  Amos  1:  3.  Micah  4:  12,  13.    In  Deut.  25:  4,  it  was  for- 


§  65.  VENTILATION. 


73 


bidden  to  muzzle  the  ox,  that  was  treading  out  the  corn,  comp. 
1  Cor.  9:  9—12.  1  Tim.  5:  18.  and  the  cattle  which  drew  the 
threshing  machine,  were  allowed  to  eat  of  it  to  the  full.  In  refer- 
ence to  this  circumstance,  threshing  denoted  figuratively  a  splen- 
did manner  of  life. 


§  65.  Ventilation. 

The  grain  being  threshed,  was  thrown  into  the  middle  of  the 
threshing  floor  ;  it  was  then  exposed  with  a  fork  to  a  gentle  wind, 
Jer.  4:  11,  12.  which  separated  the  broken  straw,  and  chaff, 

Y'TD  ;  so  that  the  kernels  and  clods  of  earth  with  grain  cleaving 
to  them,  and  the  ears  not  yet  thoroughly  threshed  fell  upon  the 
ground.  The  clods  of  earth,  as  is  customary  in  the  East  at  the 
present  day,  were  collected,  broken  in  pieces,  and  separated  from 
the  grain  by  a  sieve,  ft*lH3..  Sifting  was  accordingly  used  as  a 
symbol  of  misfortune  and  overthrows,  Amos  9:  9.  Luke  22:  31. 
The  heap  thus  winnowed  which  still  contained  many  ears,  that 
were  broken,  but  not  fully  threshed  out,  was  again  exposed  in 
the  threshing  floor,  and  several  yoke  of  oxen  driven  over  it  for 
the  purpose  of  treading  out  the  remainder  of  the  grain.  At  length 
the  grain,  mingled  with  the  chaff,  was  again  exposed  to  the  wind 
by  a  fan  which  was  called  fnttt ,  nxvov ;  which  bore  off  the  chaff, 
y'lfc,  so  that  the  pure  wheat  fell  upon  the  floor,  Ruth  3:  2.  Is.  30: 
24.  This  operation  was  symbolical  of  the  dispersion  of  a  van- 
quished people  ;  also  of  the  separation  between  the  righteous  and 
the  wicked,  Is.  41:  15,  16.  Jer.  13:  24.  15:  7.  51:  2.  Job  21:  18. 
Ps.  1:  4.  35:  5.  83:  13.  Matt.  3:  12.  Luke  3:  17.  The  scattered 
straw,  as  much  at  least  as  was  required  for  the  manufacturing  of 
bricks  and  the  fodder  of  cattle,  was  collected,  but  the  residue, 
with  the  chaff  and  stubble,  as  has  been  stated  above,  was  reduced 
to  ashes  by  fire ;  which  afforded  a  figurative  illustration  to  denote 
the  destruction  of  wicked  men,  Is.  5:  24.  47:  14.  Joel  2:  5.  Obad. 
18.  Nahum  1:  10.  Jer.  15:  7.  Malachi  4:  1.  Matt.  3: 12.  Original- 
ly the  grain  thus  obtained  from  the  earth  was  kept  in  subterra- 
nean storehouses,  and  even  caverns  ;  but  in  progress  of  time  grana- 
ries above  the  earth  were  built,  both  in  Egypt  and  Palestine,  see 
Gen.  41:  35.  Exod.  1:  11.  1  Chron.  27:  28. 

10 


74 


§  66.   OF  VINES  AND  VINEYARDS. 


§  66.  Of  Vines  and  Vineyards. 

Among  other  objects  of  agriculture,  the  vine  may  justly  be 
considered  worthy  of  particular  attention. 

Vines,  tPasa  ,  in  some  parts  of  the  East,  for  instance  on  the 
southern  shore  of  the  Caspian  sea,  grow  spontaneously ,  produc- 
ing grapes  of  a  pleasant  taste,  which,  in  the  very  first  ages  of  the 
world,  could  not  but  have  invited  the  attention  of  men  to  their  cul- 
tivation. Hence  mention  is  made  of  wine  at  an  early  period,  Gen. 
9:  21.  14:  18.  19:  32—35.  27:  25.  49:  11,  12.  The  Hebrews 
were  no  less  diligent  in  the  culture  of  vineyards,  than  of  fields  for 
grain  ;  and  the  soil  of  Palestine  yielded  in  great  quantities  the  best 
of  wine.  The  mountains  of  Engedi  in  particular,  the  valley  of  salt- 
pits,  and  the  vallies  of  Eshcol  and  Sorek  were  celebrated  for  their 
grapes.  Sorek  indeed,  was  not  only  the  proper  name  of  a  valley,  but 
also  of  a  very  fruitful  vine,  which  bore  small,  but  uncommonly  sweet 
and  pleasant  grapes.  In  the  kingdom  of  Morocco  at  the  present 
time,  the  same  vine  is  called  Serki,  the  name  being  slightly  alter- 
ed, see  Pliny,  xvii.  35.  no.  5.  In  a  few  instances  the  wine  of 
mount  Libanus  and  Helbon  is  extolled  in  the  scriptures,  Hos.  14: 
7.  Ezek.  27:  18.  In  Palestine  even  at  the  present  day,  the  clus- 
ters of  the  vine  grow  to  the  weight  of  12  pounds  ;  they  have  large 
grapes,  and  cannot  be  carried  far  by  one  man,  without  being  injur- 
ed, Num.  13:  24,  25.  The  grapes  of  Palestine  are  mostly  red  or 
black  ;  whence  originated  the  phrase,  "  blood  of  grapes"  E^3S;  tH 
Gen.  49:  11.  Deut.  32:  14.  Is.  27:  2.  Some  vines  in  eastern 
countries,  when  supported  by  trees,  grow  to  a  great  height  and 
magnitude ;  of  such  are  made  the  staves  and  sceptres  of  kings. 

The  vine  growing  spontaneously,  of  which  we  have  spoken, 
is  not  that  which  in  2  Kings  4:  39,  is  called  the  "  wild  vine," 
Jflibn  ,  for  that,  (as  the  Vulgate  rightly  translates,)  is  the  colo- 
cyntis  or  wild  gourd,  which  in  Jer.  2:  21.  is  called  Fi^pJ  W&f 
the  degenerate  or  strange  vine.  The  vine  of  Sodom  tnp  ]E>2  is  the 
solanum  melangenae,  the  fruit  of  which,  as  was  said  above,  is  called 
Uii^  ^535? ,  or  the  poisonous  clusters. 


§  G7.   SITUATION  AND  ARRANGEMENT  OF  VINEYARDS.  75 


§  67.  Situation  and  Arrangement  of  Vineyards. 

Vineyards,  tTE'-o,  E^D ,  were  generally  planted  on  the  decliv- 
ity of  hills  and  mountains.  They  were  sometimes  planted  in  pla- 
ces, where  the  soil  had  been  heaped  by  art  upon  the  naked 
rocks,  and  was  supported  there  merely  by  a  wall,  Is.  5:  1.  Jer. 
31:  5.  Joel  3:  18.  Amos  9:  13.  Micah  t:  6.  According  to  Strabo 
and  Pliny,  there  were  also  very  fine  vineyards  in  moors  and  wet 
lands,  in  which  the  vines  grew  to  a  very  great  height.  Of  the 
vines,  that  grew  upon  such  a  kind  of  soil,  were  fabricated  the  scep- 
tre, &c.  spoken  of  above,  whilst  the  branches  of  other  vines  were 
destined  to  be  fuel  for  the  flames,  Ezek.  17:  1—8.  19:  10,  11,  12. 
15:  1—5. 

Vines  were  commonly  propagated  by  means  of  suckers,  tP*V!£p  . 
Pliny  (xvii.  35.  no.  6.)  says,  vines  were  of  four  kinds  ;  viz,  those  that 
ran  on  the  ground ;  those  that  grew  upright  of  themselves ;  those 
that  adhered  to  a  single  prop ;  and  those  that  covered  a  square 
frame.  It  is  not  my  design  to  treat  of  all  these :  it  may  suffice 
merely  to  mention,  that  Pliny  is  by  no  means  correct,  when  he 
says,  the  custom  prevailed  in  Syria  and  all  Asia,  of  letting  the  vines 
run  on  the  ground.  This  indeed  accords  with  Ezekiel  17:  6,  7  ; 
but  that  vines  frequently  grew  to  a  great  height,  being  supported 
by  trees  and  props,  or  standing  upright  of  themselves,  the  prover- 
bial phrase,  which  so  often  occurs,  of  sitting  under  one's  own  vine 
and  fig-tree.  i.  e.  enjoying  a  prosperous  and  happy  life,  is  sufficient 
proof,  Jer.  5:  17.  8:  13.  Hos.  2:  12.  Mic.  4:  4.  Zech.  3:  10.  The 
prohibition,  Deut.  22:  9,  to  sow  vineyards  with  divers  seeds,  and 
the  command,  that  what  was  thus  sown  should  be  given  to  the 
priests,  are  not  to  be  understood  of  the  vines,  but  of  herbs,  which 
were  sown  in  the  intervals  between  them.  Vineyards  were  defend- 
ed by  a  hedge  or  wall,  ftSsjto»,  "n*,  Num.  22:  24.  Ps.  80:  12. 
Prov.  24:  31.  Is.  5:  5.  27:  2,  3.  Jer.  49:  3.  Neh.  4:  3.  Matt. 
21:  33.  In  the  vineyards  were  erected  towers,  Is.  5:  2.  Matt.  21: 
33  ;  which,  at  the  present  time  in  eastern  countries,  are  thirty 
feet  square,  and  eighty  feet  high.  These  towers  were  for  keep- 
ers, who  defended  the  vineyards  from  thieves,  and  from  animals, 
especially  dogs  and  foxes,  Cant.  1:6.  2:  15.  By  the  law  in  Deut. 
23:  25,  the  keeper  was  commanded  not  to  prohibit  the  passing  tra- 


76  $  69.   VINTAGE  AND  WINE-PRESS. 

veller  from  plucking  the  grapes,  which  he  wished  to  eat  on  his 
way,  provided  he  did  not  carry  them  off  in  a  vessel. 

§68.  Culture  of  Vineyards. 

The  manner  of  trimming  the  vine,  .  and  also  the  singular 
instrument  of  the  vine-dresser,  ft*i»T»>  were  well  known  even  in 
the  time  of  Moses,  Lev.  25:  3,  4.  compare  Is.  2:  4.  5:  6.  18:  5. 
Mic.  4:  3.  Joel  3:  10.  A  vintage  from  new  vineyards  was  forbid- 
den for  the  first  three  years,  Exod.  34:  26.  and  Num.  18:  11.  and 
the  grapes  also  of  the  fourth  year  were  consecrated  to  sacred  pur- 
poses; the  vines  therefore,  without  doubt,  during  these  first  years, 
were  so  pruned,  as  that  few  sprouts  remained.  On  the  fifth  year 
when  they  were  first  profaned,  bVfr  ,  i.  e.  put  to  common  use,  they 
had  become  sturdy  and  exuberant.  Pruning  at  three  several  times, 
viz,  in  March,  April,  and  May,  is  mentioned  not  only  by  Bochart, 
but  by  Pliny ;  and  Homer  speaks  of  it  as  a  thing  well  known, 
Odyss.  vii.  120.  The  Hebrews  dug,  pty  ,  their  vineyards,  and  gath- 
ered out  the  stones,  ^J>D  .  The  young  vines,  unless  trees  were 
at  hand,  were  wound  around  stakes ;  and  around  those  vines  which 
ran  on  the  ground  were  dug  narrow  trenches  in  a  circular  form,  to 
prevent  the  wandering  shoots  from  mingling  with  each  other. 
These  practices  in  the  cultivation  of  the  vine  are  to  be  duly  con- 
sidered in  those  allegories,  which  are  drawn  from  vineyards,  Is. 
5:  i__7.  27:  2-6.  Ps.  80:  9—13.  Matt.  21:  33—46. 

§  69.  Vintage  and  Wine-press. 

The  vintage,  -p£3 ,  in  Syria,  commences  about  the  middle  of 
September,  and  continues  till  the  middle  of  November.  But  grapes 
in  Palestine,  we  are  informed,  were  ripe  sometimes  even  in  June 
and  July  ;  which  arose  perhaps  from  a  triple  pruning,  in  which  case 
there  was  also  a  third  vintage.  The  first  vintage  was  in  August, 
which  month  in  Num.  13.  20,  is  called  6^335  *$tiBCl  W  ;  the  sec- 
ond in  September,  and  the  third  in  October.  The  grapes  when  not 
gathered  were  sometimes  found  on  the  vines,  until  November  and 
December.  The  Hebrews  were  required  to  leave  gleanings  for  the 
poor,  Levit.  19:  10. 

The  season  of  vintage  was  a  most  joyful  one,  Judg.  9:  27. 


§  69.     VINTAGE  AND  WINE-PRESS. 


77 


Is.  16:  10.  Jer.  25:  30.  48:  33.  With  shoutings  on  all  sides,  the 
grapes  were  plucked  off  and  carried  to  the  wine-press,  STil®, 
Xtjvog,  which  was  in  the  vineyard,  Is.  5:  2.  Zech.  14:  10.  Hag. 
2:  16.  Matt.  21:  33.  Rev.  14:  19,  20.  The  presses  consisted 
of  two  receptacles,  which  were  either  built  of  stones  and  covered 
with  plaster,  or  hewn  out  of  a  large  rock.  The  upper  receptacle, 
called  nit ,  as  it  is  constructed  at  the  present  time  in  Persia,  is  near- 
ly eight  feet  square  and  four  feet  high.  Into  this  the  grapes  are 
thrown  and  trodden  out  by  five  men.  The  juice,  -JiVn,  flows  out 
into  the  lower  receptacle,  called  3jg* ,  through  a  grated  aperture, 
which  is  made  in  the  side  near  the  bottom  of  the  upper  one. 

The  treading  of  the  wine-press  was  laborious  and  not  very  fa- 
vourable to  cleanliness  ;  the  garments  of  the  persons  thus  employ- 
ed were  stained  with  the  red  juice,  and  yet  the  employment  was 
a  joyful  one.  It  was  performed  with  singing,  accompanied  with 
musical  instruments  ;  and  the  treaders,  as  they  jumped,  exclaimed, 
*HT: ,  (ho  up,)  Is.  16:  9,  10.  Jer.  25:  30.  48:  32,  33.  Figurative- 
ly,  vintage,  gleaning,  and  treading  the  wine-press,  signified  battles 
and  great  slaughters,  Is.  17:  6.  63:  1 — 3.  Jer.  49:  9.  Lam.  1:  15. 
The  must,  as  is  customary  in  the  East  at  the  present  day,  was  pre- 
served in  large  firkins,  which  were  buried  in  the  earth.  The 
wine-cellars  were  not  subterranean,  but  built  upon  the  earth. 
When  deposited  in  these,  the  firkins,  as  is  done  at  the  present  time 
in  Persia,  were  sometimes  buried  in  the  ground,  and  sometimes 
left  standing  upon  it.  Formerly  also  new  wine  or  must  was  pre- 
served in  leathern  bottles ;  and  lest  they  should  be  broken  by  fer- 
mentation, the  people  were  careful  that  the  bottles  should  be  new, 
Job  32:  19.  Matt.  9:  17.  Mark  2:  22.  Sometimes  the  must  was 
boiled  and  made  into  syrup,  which  is  comprehended  under  the 
term  Sia^r,  although  it  is  commonly  rendered  honey,  Gen.  43:  11. 
2  Chron.  31:  5.  Sometimes  the  grapes  were  dried  in  the  sun  and 
preserved  in  masses,  which  were  called  E^S*  *1j£',12?fi$  and  d"]?*!^ , 
1  Sam.  25:  18.  2  Sam.  16:  1.  1  Chron.  12:  40.  Hosea  3:  1.  From 
these  dried  grapes,  when  soaked  in  wine  and  pressed  a  second  time, 
was  manufactured  sweet  wine,  which  is  also  called  new  wine,  'diVFi, 
yUvxog,  Acts  2:  13. 


78 


§  70.  GARDENS. 


§  70.  Gardens. 

Culinary  plants  and  fruit-trees  were  among  the  first  objects 
of  agriculture.  Gardens,  accordingly,  were  very  ancient,  and  have 
always  been  numerous.  By  the  Hebrews  they  were  called  Q^a  ,  fa 
IYISA,  nsa  ;  afterwards,  the  Persian  name  D^^S ,  nagadeiaog, 
paradise,  was  introduced.  The  later  Hebrews  were  invited  the 
more  to  the  cultivation  of  gardens  by  the  example  of  the  Syrians, 
whom  Pliny  extols  for  this  species  of  agriculture,  above  all  other 
nations. — Trees  were  multiplied  by  seeds  and  shoots  ;  they  were 
transplanted,  dug  around,  manured,  and  pruned,  Job  8:  16.  Is.  17: 
10.  Grafting-  occurs  figuratively,  Rom.  11:  17,  24. — The  gardens 
in  Persia  at  the  present  day  are  disposed  in  good  order ;  those  in 
the  Ottoman  empire  are  very  rude,  displaying  hardly  any  indica- 
tions of  art,  except  a  fountain  or  receptacle  of  waters,  which  is 
never  wanting. 

In  the  scriptures,  gardens  are  denominated  from  the  preva- 
lence of  certain  trees  ;  as  the  garden  of  nuts,  \SM&  nsa  ,  and  the 
garden  of  Carthaginian  apples  or  pomegranates,  D**:  173*1  D^SJ  ; 
Cant.  6:  11.  The  forest  of  palms  also,  in  the  plain  of  Jericho, 
was  only  a  large  garden,  in  which  other  trees  were  interspersed 
among  the  palms,  Strabo,  p.  768.  The  modern  orientals  are  no 
less  fond  of  gardens  than  were  the  ancient  Hebrews  ;  not  only  be- 
cause they  yield  the  richest  fruits,  but  because  the  shade  is  very 
refreshing,  and  the  air  is  cooled  by  the  waters,  of  which  their 
gardens  are  never  allowed  to  be  destitute,  1  K.  21:  2.  2  K. 
25:4.  Hos.  9:  13.  Cant.  4:  13.  6:11.  Eccles.  2:  5.  John  18:  1. 
19:  41.  20:  15.  The  Hebrews  had  an  attachment  to  gardens  as 
a  place  of  burial  ;  hence  they  frequently  built  sepulchres  in  them, 
2  K.  9:  27.  21:  18.  Mark  15:  46.  Matt.  26:  36.  John  18:  1,  2. 
A  pleasant  region  is  called  "  a  garden  of  God,"  i.  e.  a  region  ex- 
tremely pleasant.  The  trees  which  the  gardens  constantly  dis- 
played are  often  used  figuratively  for  men.  Those  which  are 
flourishing  and  fruitful  denote  good  men  ;  the  unfruitful  and  bar- 
ren, toicked  men,  and  lofty  cedars  in  particular  are  ,the  emblems  of 
kings,  Job.  29:  19.  Ps.  1:  3.  92:  12—14.  Hos.  14:  6,  7.  Jer.  17:  8. 
Dan.  4:  10—16.  Luke  23:  31.  Matt.  3:  10.  7:  17—20.  12:  33. 
Ezek.  17:  3,  4.  31:  3,  13.    Indeed  an  assembly  of  men  is  com- 


§71.   OLIVE  TREES.  79 

pared  to  a  forest,  and  a  multitude  of  wicked  men  to  briers,  Is.  9: 
10.  10:  19,  33,  34.  11:1.  Several  trees,  which  are  often  mention- 
ed in  the  scriptures,  but  not  very  well  known,  we  shall  now  de- 
scribe in  a  few  words. 

§  71.  Olive  Trees. 

Olive  Trees,  tJWT ,  rPT  ,  were  a  very  ancient  and  profitable  ob- 
ject of  agriculture.  Its  branches  as  early  as  Gen.  8:  11,  and  since 
that  time  among  all  nations,  have  been  a  symbol  of  peace  and 
prosperity.  Oil  is  first  mentioned,  Gen.  28:  18.  Job  24:  11,  which 
proves  the  cultivation  of  this  tree  to  have  been  very  ancient. 
Olives  in  Palestine  are  of  the  best  growth  and  afford  the  best  oil ; 
hence  this  region  is  often  extolled  on  account  o  f  this  tree,  and  es- 
pecially in  opposition  to  Egypt,  which  is  destitute  of  good  olives, 
Num.  18:  12.  Deut.  7:  13.  11:  14.  12: 17.  18:  4.  Land  that  is  bar- 
ren, sandy,  dry  and  mountainous,  is  favourable  to  the  production 
of  the  olive.  The  mount  of  Olives  derives  its  name  from  this 
tree.  The  olive  is  pleasant  to  the  view,  having  widely  extended 
branches,  and  remaining  green  in  winter.  Its  multiplied  branches 
entitled  it  to  become  the  symbol  of  a  numerous  progeny,  a  bless- 
ing which  was  attributed  to  the  peculiar  favour  of  God,  Ps.  52:  8. 
128:  3.  Hos.  14:  6.  Jer.  11:  16,  17.  It  flourishes  about  two  hun- 
dred years,  and  even  while  it  is  living,  young  olives  spring  up 
around  it  which  occupy  its  place  when  dead  ;  the  young  sprouts 
are  called  rPT  ife'TOS ,  Ps.  128:  3.  It  was  customary,  notwithstand- 
ing, to  raise  the  tree  from  suckers,  which  were  transplanted.  It 
requires  no  other  cultivation  than  digging  the  ground  and  pruning 
the  branches.  The  fruit  is  very  pleasant  to  the  palate,  but  near- 
ly all  of  it  is  thrown  into  the  oil  press,  for  the  purpose  of  procur- 
ing the  oil,  of  which  there  are  sometimes  one  thousand  pounds  ob- 
tained from  one  tree.  By  means  of  this  article,  the  Hebrews  car- 
ried on  an  extensive  commerce  with  the  Tyrians,  Ezek.  27:  17. 
comp.  1  Kgs.  5:  11  ;  they  also  sent  presents  of  oil  to  the  kings  of 
Egypt,  Hos.  12:  1.  The  berries  of  the  olive  tree  were  some- 
times plucked  or  carefully  shaken  off  by  the  hand,  before  they 
were  ripe,  Is.  17:  6.  24:  13.  Deut.  24:  20.  If,  while  they  were 
yet  green,  instead  of  being  cast  into  the  press,  they  were  only 
beaten  and  squeezed,  they  yielded  the  best  kind  of  oil ;  it  was  call- 


80 


§  72.  FIG-TREES. 


ed  omphacinum,  or  the  oil  of  unripe  olives,  and  also  beaten  or  fresh 
oil,  rpns  ?JT  rPT  "jEtt ,  Exod.  27 1  20.  There  were  presses  of 
a  peculiar  make  for  pressing  oil,  called  na ,  (from  which 
is  derived  the  name  Gethsemane,  Matt.  26:  36.  John  18:  1.)  in 
which  the  oil  was  trodden  out  by  the  feet,  Micah  6:  15.  The 
first  expression  of  the  oil  was  better  than  the  second,  and  the 
second  than  the  third.  Ripe  olives  yielded  oil  of  a  less  valuable 
kind.  The  best  sort  of  oil  was  mixed  with  spices  and  used  for 
ointment  :  the  inferior  sort  was  used  with  food.  In  sacrifices,  ac- 
cordingly, which  were  in  a  certain  sense  the  feasts  of  God,  the 
king  and  ruler  of  the  people,  the  use  of  oil  was  commanded,  Lev. 
2:  1,  5,  7,  15.  6:  15. 

Note. — The  cotinus,  xortvog,  and  the  oleaster,  dygukaiog,  are 
both  called  wild  olive  trees.  They  are  nevertheless  of  different 
kinds,  though  they  are  sometimes  confounded  by  the  Greeks  them- 
selves.  The  fruit  of  the  cotinus  is  used  for  no  other  purpose  than 
colouring  ;  but  the  oleaster,  the  Agrippa  Elaeagnus  of  Linneus, 
"jEnp  ,  is  that  species  of  wild  olive,  whose  branches,  (see  Schulz, 
in  Paulus'  Collection  of  Travels,  VI.  290.)  are  grafted  into  barren 
olive  trees,  that  are  in  a  state  of  cultivation,  in  order  that  fruitful- 
ness  may  be  produced,  comp.  Rom.  11:  17,  24. 

§  72.  Fig-trees. 

Fig-trees,  fc^Ntft ,  SrbNF) ,  are  very  common  in  Palestine.  They 
flourish  in  a  dry  and  sandy  soil.  They  are  not  shrubs,  as  in  our 
gardens,  but  trees,  not  altogether  erect,  and  yet  tall  and  leafy. 
The  shade  of  the  fig-tree  is  very  pleasant,  and  was  well  known  to 
the  Hebrews,  Micah  4:  4.  Fig-trees  begin  to  sprout  at  the  time 
of  the  vernal  equinox,  Luke  21:  29,  30.  Matt.  24:  32.  The  fruit 
makes  its  appearance  before  the  leaves  and  flowers  ;  the  foliage 
expands  about  the  end  of  March,  Matt.  21:  19.  Mark  11:  13.  The 
figs  are  of  three  kinds.  I.  The  untimely  Jig,  which  puts  forth  at  the 
vernal  equinox,  and  before  it  is  ripe  is  called  as ,  the  green  fig, 
but  when  ripe,  the  untimely  fig,  Cant.  2:  13.  Hos.  9:  10.  Jer.  24:  2. 
It  comes  to  maturity  the  latter  part  of  June,  comp.  Mark  11:  13. 
Matt.  21:  19  ;  and  in  relish  surpasses  the  other  kinds,  Jer.  24:  2. 
II.  The  summer  or  dry  Jig.    It  appears  about  the  middle  of  June, 


§  73.  THE  POMEGRANATE. 


81 


and  comes  to  maturity  in  August.  III.  The  winter  Jig,  which  ger- 
minates in  August,  and  does  not  ripen  until  the  falling  of  the 
leaves,  which  is  about  the  end  of  November.  It  is  longer  and  of 
a  browner  colour,  than  the  others.  All  figs  when  ripe,  but  espe- 
cially the  untimely,  fall  spontaneously,  Nahum  3:  12.  The  early 
figs  are  eaten,  but  some  are  dried  in  the  sun  and  preserved  in 
masses,  which  are  called  tstffift ,  ilbi? ,  1  Sam.  25:  18.  30:  12, 
2  K.  20:  7.  1  Chron.  12:  40.  '  The  parable  in  Luke  13:  6.  et  seq. 
is  founded  in  the  oriental  mode  of  gardening ;  and  the  method  of 
improving  the  palm,  whose  barrenness  may  be  remedied  in  the  way 
there  mentioned,  is  transferred  to  the  fig-tree. 

Note. —  The  sycamore,  b'1»j?U3 ,  in  size  and  figure  resembles  the 
mulberry-tree,  and  is  very  common  not  only  in  Egypt,  but  in  Ju- 
dea,  especially  in  the  low  lands,  1  Chron.  27:  28.  2  Chron.  1:  15. 
9:  27.  Ps.  78:  47.  Its  body  is  large  and  its  branches  numerous, 
growing  nearly  in  a  horizontal  direction  ;  by  means  of  its  branch- 
es it  is  easy  of  ascent,  Luke  19:  4,  5.  It  is  always  green.  Its  wood, 
which  is  of  a  dark  hue,  endures  a  thousand  years,  and  was  there- 
fore much  used  in  building,  I  Chron.  27:  28.  Is.  9:  10.  Its  fruit, 
which  does  not  spring  from  the  branches  and  among  the  leaves, 
but  from  the  trunk  itself,  resembles  the  fig,  though  it  is  destitute 
of  seeds.  It  is  very  luscious,  and  hence  hurtful  to  the  stomach : 
it  is  not,  therefore,  eaten,  except  for  the  want  of  something  better. 
The  fruit  does  not  ripen  unless  it  is  opened,  fc^ra  ,  by  the  nail  or  a 
piece  of  iron,  so  that  the  juice,  which  resembles  milk,  may  be 
emitted  ;  then,  as  the  wound  grows  black,  it  comes  to  maturity, 
Am.  7:  14.  The  tree  is  very  productive,  yielding  its  fruits  seven 
times  a  year,  and  affording  a  supply  of  food  for  the  poor,  during 
four  months  of  the  year ;  comp.  my  Arabic  Chrestomathy,  p.  114. 

§  73.  The  Pomegranate,  lji;a*y. 

The  tree,  which  bears  this  name,  grows  in  Persia,  Arabia, 
Egypt,  and  Palestine.  It  is  not  a  tall  tree,  and  at  a  little  distance 
from  the  ground,  shoots  out  into  a  multitude  of  branches  ;  in  con- 
sequence of  which,  it  is  considered  by  some  merely  a  shrub.  The 
fruit  it  bears  is  very  beautiful  to  the  eye,  and  pleasant  to  the  pal- 
ate ;  it  is  about  the  size  of  a  large  apple,  say,  two  or  three  inches 
11 


82 


§  74.   THE  BALSAM. 


in  diameter,  and  is  encircled  at  the  upper  part  with  something  re- 
sembling a  crown.  At  first  it  exhibits  a  green  appearance,  but  in 
August  and  September  it  appears  of  a  reddish  colour,  approximating 
to  a  brown  ;  the  rind  is  thick  and  hard,  but  easily  broken.  The  in- 
terior of  the  pomegranate  is  of  a  yellow  colour.  There  seems  to 
be  a  number  of  internal  rinds,  which  are  soft  and  rich,  and  afford 
a  juice,  which  from  its  effect  on  the  palate  may  be  called  bitter- 
sweet. The  seeds  are  sometimes  white,  and  sometimes  purple, 
Num.  20:  5.  Deut.  8:  8.  The  artificial  pomegranates,  made  to 
resemble  the  natural  ones,  were  no  small  ornament,  Exod.  28:  33, 
34.  1  K.  7:  18. 

Note.  Citron  and  orange-trees  appear  to  have  been  transplanted 
at  some  recent  period  from  Persia  into  Palestine.  Had  they  been 
native  productions  of  Palestine,  the  Hebrews  clearly  would  not 
have  wanted  a  name  for  them  ;  for  the  phrase,  ^yr\  y$  **\B  the 
fruit  of  a  goodly  tree,  Lev.  23:  40,  means  neither  the  citron  nor  the 
orange,  but  the  fruit  of  any  rich  tree  whatever,  for  instance  the 
pomegranate  or  date. 

§  74.  The  Balsam. 

The  balsam  is  both  a  fruit  and  a  tree.  The  odoriferous  bal- 
sam, so  salutary  in  some  cases  to  health,  Heb.  ,  is  not  gathered 
from  the  tree  in  Yemen  called  by  the  Arabic  name  Abu  Shamm, 
but  is  distilled  from  a  fruit,  which  is  indigenous  on  the  mountains 
of  Mecca  and  Medina. 

The  fruit,  which  produces  this  distillation,  was  found  to  be 
cultivated  in  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries  in  Egypt,  at 
Matara,  not  far  from  Grand  Cairo,  in  gardens.  That  it  was  culti- 
vated in  this  way  at  a  very  ancient  period  in  Gilead,  and  also  in 
the  vicinity  of  Jericho  and  Engedi,  appears  from  many  passages 
of  scripture,  Gen.  37:  25.  43:  11.  Jer.  8:  22.  46:  11.  51:  8  ;  see 
also  the  History  of  Tacitus,  Bk.  V.  c.  6.  Josephus  in  his  Jewish 
War,  Bk.  IV.  c.  8.  §3.  compared  with  his  Antiquities,  Bk.  VIII.  c. 
6.  §  6.  Bk.  XX.  c.  4.  §  2.— Pliny's  Natural  Hist.  Bk.  XII.  2.  Di- 
odorus  Siculus,  XIX.  c.  98.  Strabo  7G3,  and  Justin  Trogus,  XXXVI. 
c.  2.  So  that  the  conjectures  and  statements,  brought  against 
what  is  here  stated,  cannot  hold.    There  are  three  species  of  the 


§  75.   THE  PALM.  83 

balsam,  two  are  shrubs,  the  other  is  a  tree.  They  yield  their  sap  in 
June,  July,  and  August,  which  is  received  into  an  earthen  vessel. 
The  fruit  also,  when  pierced  by  some  instrument,  emits  a  juice  of 
the  same  kind,  and  in  more  abundance,  but  less  rich.  The  sap, 
extracted  from  the  body  of  the  tree  or  shrub,  is  called  the  opobal- 
samum ;  the  juice  of  the  balsam  fruit  is  denominated  carpobal- 
samum,  and  the  liquid,  extracted  from  the  branches  when  cut  off, 
the  xylobalsamum. 

§  75.  The  palm,  *l33Tj,  cpo~ipi%.  . 

The  palm-tree  is  very  common  in  the  countries  of  the  East  and 
in  Africa.  It  is  not  very  frequently  found  in  Palestine  at  the  pre- 
sent day  ;  the  reason  is,  a  want  of  cultivators.  It  requires  men, 
who  are  skilful  and  experienced,  to  make  a  palm  grove  flourish- 
ing and  productive.  At  a  very  early  period,  however,  they  were 
quite  numerous  even  in  Palestine.  This1  we  may  learn  from  Lev. 
23:  40.  Deut.  34:  3.  Judg.  1:  16.  3:  13.  4:  6.  and  from  many  pro- 
fane writers  ;  and  also  from  the  ancient  coins  of  the  Jews  and  Ro- 
mans, which  exhibit  the  palm,  a  sheaf  of  wheat,  and  a  cluster  of 
grapes,  as  the  symbols  of  the  Jewish  nation.  The  palm  flourishes 
most  in  a  warm  climate,  and  in  case  there  is  a  sufficiency  of  wa- 
ter, in  clayey,  sandy,  and  nitrous  soils.  It  is,  therefore,  commonly 
found  most  flourishing  in  vallies  and  plains,  Exod.  15:  27.  It  as- 
cends very  straight,  and  very  lofty,  being  destitute  of  limbs,  except 
very  near  the  top,  where  it  is  surmounted  with  a  crown  of  foliage,  that 
is  always  green.  The  figure  of  the  palm-tree  was  carved  in  orna- 
mental work,  1  K.  6:  32 ;  and  it  is  used  figuratively,  as  a  symbol 
of  a  beautiful  person,  Cant.  7:  8.  and  also  of  a  religious,  upright 
man,  Ps.  1,  3.  92:  12.  The  dates  grow  on  small  stems,  which 
germinate  at  the  angles  formed  by  the  stock  of  the  tree  and  the 
branches.  Palm  trees  exhibit  what  may  be  termed  a  sexual  dis- 
tinction, and,  in  order  to  any  fruits  being  produced,  the  seed  from 
the  flowers  of  the  masculine  palm  must  be  borne  at  the  proper 
season  to  the  tree  of  an  opposite  character.  If  this  is  not  done, 
or  if  it  happen  too  early  or  too  late,  the  female  palm,  like  the 
male,  bears  no  fruit.  The  productions  of  the  palm  are  large  clus- 
ters of  dates,  which  become  ripe  in  August,  September,  and  Octo- 
ber.   Some  of  the  dates  are  eaten  in  their  crude  state ;  the  rest 


84  §  TEREBINTHS  AND  PISTACIAS. 

are  strained  through  a  press  woven  of  osiers,  and  after  the  juice 
is  forced  out,  are  reduced  into  solid  masses,  and  .are  preserved. 
The  juice  pressed  out  is  the  date  wine,  formerly  very  celebrated  ; 
under  which  name  was  also  comprehended  the  beverage,  which 
was  procured  from  clusters  of  dry  dates  steeped  in  warm  water, 
and  then  pressed.  The  Hebrews  at  the  feast  of  tabernacles  bore 
palm  branches  in  their  hands ;  they  also  strewed  them  in  the 
way  before  the  kings,  as  they  entered  on  public  occasions  into 
their  cities,  Lev.  23:  40.  1  Mac.  13:  51.  Matt.  21:  8.  The  Greeks 
gave  a  branch  of  the  palm  to  those,  who  conquered  in  the  games, 
comp.  Rev.  7:  9.  This  tree  is  regarded  by  the  orientals,  of  all 
others  as  the  most  excellent  and  noble.  Hence  the  saying  from 
the  branch,  i.  e.  the  palm  branch,  to  the  rush  or  reed,  expressions 
which  are  interchangeable  with  the  head  and  tail,  i;tl  ©fill,  and 
mean  the  same  thing,  as  the  phrase  "  from  the  highest  to  the  low- 
est," Is.  9:  14.  19:  15. 

§  76.  Terebinths  and  Pistacias. 

I'ercbinths  are  called  in  Heb.  ji^fig  j.fc^i* ,  «ibfct ,  &c.  which 
words  are  sometimes  confounded  and  interchanged  with  trVtt  and 
■p&N  ,  which  mean  the  oak.  The  terebinths  are  a  large  tree, 
are  loaded  with  branches  and  foliage,  and  are  green  through  the 
whole  year.  They  live  a  thousand  years,  and  when  they  die, 
leave  in  their  place  a  scion,  which  in  time  spreads  a  like  luxuri- 
ance of  foliage,  and  lives  to  a  like  number  of  years  ;  so  that, 
where  they  once  appear,  they  may  be  said  to  be  perpetuated.  It 
was  for  this  reason,  viz.  the  comparative  perpetuity,  which  was  at- 
tached to  them,  that  places  were  denominated  from  them,  as  from 
cities,  Gen.  13:  IS.  Judg.  6:  11.  1  Sam.  10:  3.  Is.  6:  13.  Ezek.  6: 
13.  They  are  used  figuratively  as  symbols  of  the  good,  who  in  Is. 
61:  3,  are  called  terebinths  of  righteousness,  pn2|  ^"fij . 

The  pistacia  is  a  tree,  very  much  like  the  terebinth.  It  bears 
a  very  rich  species  of  nuts;  which  hang  in  clusters,  C^Bat ,  Gen. 
43:  11.  and  which  become  ripe  in  October.  They  somewhat  re- 
semble almonds  in  appearance,  but  are  of  a  much  better  flavour; 
and  are,  therefore,  most  valued  by  the  orientals.  Walnuts,  "hitf , 
are  common  in  Palestine  ;  but  hazel  nuts  are  scarce,  if  indeed 
they  are  found  there  at  all.  The  word  nb,  which  some  suppose 
to  mean  the  hazel  nut,  is  the  name  of  the  almond. 


§  77.  BEES  AND  HONEY. 


85 


§  77.  Bees  and  Honey. 

Palestine  has  been  often  called  the  land  flowing  with  milk  and 
honey.  This  is  a  proverbial  expression,  and  is  applied  to  any 
fruitful  land,  for  instance,  Egypt  in  Num.  16:  13.  Still  it  must  be 
confessed,  that  bees  were  very  numerous  in  Palestine,  not  only  in 
the  hives,  which  were  built  for  them  of  clay  mixed  with  broken 
straw,  but  frequently  in  the  woods,  in  the  hollow  trees,  and  the 
fissures  of  rocks,  Deut.  32:  13.  Ps.  81:  17.  They  possess  a  keen 
animosity,  and  a  very  efficient  sting,  and  when  they  have  a  dispo- 
sition, attack  to  good  purpose  individuals  and  even  large  bodies 
of  men.  They  are  consequently  used  by  a  figure  of  speech  to 
represent  violent  and  ferocious  enemies,  Deut.  1:  44.  Ps.  118:  11, 
12.  They  could  be  allured,  by  any  thing  that  made  a  tinkling 
sound,  to  any  particular  place,  Is.  7:  18.  The  Hebrews  took  great 
care  of  these  little  animals ;  as  is  evident  from  the  abundance  of 
honey  which  they  possessed,  and  were  able  to  exchange  in  their 
traffic  with  the  Tyrians,  Ezek.  27:  17.  Hence  honey  is  often  men- 
tioned in  the  Bible,  both  the  comb,  S^ri  ne: ,  fxeXlaaoov  y.rjglov , 
and  the  liquid  honey,  fjstet,  Xtt  .  It  should  be  remarked,  that  the 
word  '^57  ,  which  means  liquid  honey,  may  also  mean  the  sirup 
of  dates  and  must,  Gen.  43:  11.  Wild  honey,  ^itlt  aygiov ,  rnsp 
un^n,  is  likewise  spoken  of,  1  Sam.  14:25 — 27.  Matt.  3:  4.  This 
was.not  the  honey  of  bees,  found  in  the  fissures  of  rocks;  for  this 
occurs  under  the  phrase,  9\lD12  f2- ,  Deut.  32:  13.  Ps.  81:17. 
Nor  was  it  the  liquid  manna,  called  terengabin,  although  this  man- 
na was  formerly  comprehended  under  the  common  word  for  hon- 
ey. It  is  what  has  been  called  the  honey  dew,  i.  e.  the  excre- 
ments, which  certain  little  insects,  called  by  Linneus,  Aphides, 
emit  very  copiously  upon  the  leaves  of  trees,  so  much  that  it  flows 
down  upon  the  ground,  1  Sam.  14:  15—27. 

The  ancients  used  honey  instead  of  sugar,  and  loved  it  much  ; 
it  is  hence  used  tropically  as  an  image  of  pleasure  and  happiness, 
Ps.  119:  103.  Prov.  24:  13,  14.  Cant.  4:  11.  When  taken  in  great 
quantities  it  causes  vomiting,  and  is  consequently  used  by  a  figure 
to  express  fastidiousness,  or  any  nauseating  sensation,  Prov.  25: 
16,  17. 


86 


§  79.  THE  FALLOW  YEAR. 


§  78.  Fishing. 

Fish  were  esteemed  by  the  Hebrews,  as  by  all  the  orientals, 
a  great  delicacy,  Nam.  11:  5.  In  consequence  of  being  held  in 
such  estimation,  they  were  taken  in  great  numbers  from  the  river 
Jordan  and  the  lake  Gennesareth.  Those  only,  which  were  des- 
titute of  scales  or  fins,  were  interdicted,  Lev.  11:9.  Hence  men- 
tion is  made  of  the  fish-gate  at  Jerusalem,  so  called  from  the  cir- 
cumstance of  fish  being  sold  there,  2  Chr.  33:  14.  Neh.  3:  3.  12:  39. 
Is.  19:  8.  Ezek.  26:  5,  14.  47:  10.  Fishermen  are  used  tropically 
for  enemies,  Is.  19:  8.  Hab.  1:  15.  Strabo  says,  there  was  a  great 
trade  carried  on  in  fish  at  the  lake  Gennesareth.  Some  of  the 
apostles  living  near  the  lake  were  fishermen,  and  this  class  of  men 
were  in  general  active,  experienced,  and  apt,  Luke  5:  1.  et  seq. 
comp.  Matt.  4:  19.  The  instruments  used  in  fishing,  were  a  hook, 
r^h  Job  41:  1.  Is.  19:8.  Hab.  1:  15;  an  iron  spear,  XPX\  b^Vs 
Job  41:  7,  and  a  net,  n»3Jq ,  'W^Bi  Job  19:  6.  Is.  51:  20. 

§  79.  The  Fallow  Year. 

Agriculture  on  every  seventh  year  came  to  an  end.  Nothing 
was  sown  and  nothing  reaped  ;  the  vines  and  the  olives  were  not 
pruned  ;  there  was  no  vintage  and  no  gathering  of  fruits,  even  of 
what'  grew  wild ;  but  whatever  spontaneous  productions  there 
were,  were  left  to  the  poor,  the  traveller,  and  the  wild  beast, 
Lev.  25:  1 — 7.  Deut.  15:  1 — 10.  The  object  of  this  regulation 
seems  to  have  been,  to  secure  the  preservation  of  wild  beasts,  to 
let  the  ground  recover  its  strength,  and  to  teach  the  Hebrews  to 
be  provident  of  their  income,  and  to  look  out  for  the  future.  It 
is  true,  that  extraordinary  fruitfulness  was  promised  on  the  sixth 
year,  but  in  such  a  way  as  not  to  exclude  care  and  foresight,  Lev. 
25:  20 — 24.  We  are  not  to  suppose,  however,  that  the  Hebrews 
spent  the  seventh  year  in  absolute  idleness.  They  could  fish, 
hunt,  take  care  of  their  bees  and  flocks,  repair  their  buildings  and 
furniture,  manufacture  cloths  of  wool,  linen,  and  of  the  hair  of 
goats  and  camels,  and  carry  on  commerce.  Finally,  they  were 
obliged  to  remain  longer  in  the  tabernacle  or  temple  this  year, 
during  which  the  whole  Mosaic  law  was  read,  in  order  to  be  instruct- 


$  81.   STATE  OF  THE  ARTS. 


87 


ed  in  religious  and  moral  duties  and  the  history  of  their  nation, 
and  the  wonderful  works  and  blessings  of  God,  Deut.  31:  10 — 13. 
This  seventh  year's  rest,  as  Moses  predicted,  Lev.  26:  34,  35,  was 
for  a  long  time  neglected,  2  Chron.  36:  21  ;  after  the  captivity  it 
was  more  scrupulously  observed. 


CHAPTER  V. 
OF  THE  ARTS. 

^  80.  The  origin  of  the  Arts. 

They  originated,  no  doubt,  partly  in  necessity,  partly  in  accident. 
At  first  they  must  have  been  very  imperfect  and  very  limited,  but  the 
inquisitive  and  active  mind  of  man,  seconded  by  his  wants,  soon  se- 
cured to  them  a  greater  extent  and  fewer  imperfections.  Accord- 
ingly, in  the  fourth  generation  after  the  creation  of  man,  we  find 
mention  made  of  artificers  in  brass  and  iron,  and  also  of  musical 
instruments,  Gen.  4:  21 — 23.  Those  communities,  which,  from  lo- 
cal or  other  causes,  could  not  flourish  by  means  of  agriculture,  of 
course  directed  their  attention  to  and  encouraged  the  arts.  The 
arts,  consequently,  advanced  with  great  rapidity,  and  were  carri- 
ed to  a  high  pitch  as  far  back  as  the  time  of  Noah  ;  as  we  may 
learn  from  the  very  large  vessel,  which  was  built  under  his  direc- 
tion. 

§  81.  State  of  the  Arts  from  the  Deluge  till  Moses. 

Noah  together  with  his  sons  and  servants,  who  were  engaged 
with  him  in  the  construction  of  the  ark,  must,  as  above  intimated, 
have  been  well  acquainted,  at  least  with  certain  of  the  mechanic 
arts.  They  had  also  without  doubt  seen  the  operations  of  artifi- 
cers in  other  ways  besides  that  of  building,  and  after  the  deluge 
imitated  their  works  as  well  as  they  could.    Hence  not  long  after 


88 


§  83.  ARTS  AMONG  THE  HEBREWS. 


this  period,  viz.  the  deluge,  we  find  mention  of  many  things,  such 
as  edifices,  utensils,  and  ornaments,  which  imply  a  knowledge  of 
the  arts,  Gen.  9:  21.  11:1—9.  14:1—16.  12:7,8.  15:10.  17:10. 
18:  4,5,  6.  19:  32.  21:  14.  22: 10.  23:  13—16.  24:  22.  26:  12,  15, 
18.  27:  3,  4,  14.  31: 19,  27,  34.  Traces  and  intimations  of  which 
occur  continually,  as  the  attentive  reader  will  find,  down  to  the 
time  of  Moses. 

§  82.  The  Arts  among  the  Hebrews  in  the  time  of  Moses. 

Egypt  in  the  early  age  of  the  world  excelled  all  other  nations 
in  a  knowledge  of  the  arts.  The  Hebrews,  in  consequence  of  re- 
maining four  hundred  years  with  the  Egyptians,  must  have  become 
initiated  to  a  considerable  degree  into  that  knowledge,  which 
their  masters  possessed.  Hence  we  find  among  them  men,  who 
were  sufficiently  skilful  and  informed  to  frame,  erect,  and  orna- 
ment the  tabernacle.  Moses,  it  is  true,  did  not  enact  any  special 
laws  in  favor  of  the  arts,  nor  did  he  interdict  them  or  lessen 
them  in  the  estimation  of  the  people  ;  on  the  contrary  he  speaks 
in  the  praise  of  artificers,  Exod.  35:  30 — 35.  36:  1.  et  seq.  38:  22, 
23,  &LC.  The  grand  object  of  Moses,  I  mean  in  a  temporal  point 
of  view,  was  to  promote  agriculture,  and  he  thought  it  best,  as 
was  done  in  other  nations,  to  leave  the  arts  to  the  ingenuity  and 
industry  of  the  people. 

§  83.  Arts  among  the  Hebrews  in  Palestine. 

Soon  after  the  death  of  Joshua,  a  place  was  expressly  allotted 
by  Joab  of  the  tribe  of  Judah  to  artificers.  It  was  called  the  val- 
ley of  craftsmen,  tPlinft  fcTa  1  Chron.  4:  14.  comp.  Neh.  11:  35. 
About  this  time  mention  is  made  also  of  artificers  in  gold  and  sil- 
ver, Judg.  17:  3 — 5.  The  arts  could  not,  however,  be  said  to  flour- 
ish much,  although  it  was  a  fact  that  those  utensils  and  instruments, 
which  were  absolutely  necessary,  were  to  be  obtained  from  the  shops 
of  craftsmen,  except  when  they  were  carried  away  captives  in  war, 
Judg.  3:  31.  5:  8.  1  Sam.  13: 19.  Some  of  the  less  complicated  and 
difficult  instruments  used  in  agriculture,  each  one  made  for  him- 
self. The  women  spun,  wove,  and  embroidered ;  they  made 
clothing  not  only  for  their  families,  but  for  sale,  Exod.  35:  25. 


$  84.   STATE  OF  THE  ARTS  AFTER  THE  CAPTIVITY.  89 


I  Sam.  2:  19.  Prov.  31:  18—31.  Acts  9:  39.  Employment,  con- 
sequently, as  far  as  the  arts  were  concerned,  was  limited  chiefly  to 
those  who  engaged  in  the  more  difficult  performances  ;  for  in- 
stance those  who  built  chariots,  hewed  stones,  sculptured  idols  or 
cast  them  of  metal,  made  instruments  of  gold,  silver,  and  brass, 
and  vessels  of  clay  and  the  like,  Judg.  17:  4.  Is.  29:  16.  30:  14. 
Jer.  28:  13.  Artificers  among  the  Hebrews  were  not,  as  among 
the  Greeks  and  Romans,  servants  and  slaves,  but  men  of  some  rank, 
and  as  luxury  and  wealth  increased  they  became  quite  numerous, 
Jer.  24:  1.  29:  2.  2  Kgs.  24:  14.  In  the  time  of  David  and  Solo- 
mon, there  were  Israelites,  who  understood  the  construction  of 
temples  and  palaces,  but  they  were  inferiour  to  the  Tyrians,  and 
were  willing  to  take  lessons  from  them,  1  Chron.  14:  1.  22:  15. 
From  the  frequent  mention  made,  in  the  history  of  the  Hebrews, 
of  numerous  instruments,  and  of  various  operations  in  metals,  we 
may  infer  as  well  as  from  other  sources,  that  quite  a  number  of  the 
arts  were  understood  among  them. 


§  84.  State  of  the  Arts  after  the  Captivity. 

During  the  captivity  many  Hebrews,  (most  commonly  those,  to 
whom  a  barren  tract  of  the  soil  had  been  assigned,)  applied  them- 
selves to  the  arts  and  merchandise.  Subsequently,  when  they 
were  scattered  abroad  among  different  nations,  a  knowledge  of 
the  arts  became  so  popular,  that  the  Talmudists  taught,  that  all 
parents  ought  to  learn  their  children  some  art  or  handicraft.  They 
indeed  mention  many  learned  men  of  their  nation,  who  practised 
some  kind  of  manual  labour,  or  as  we  should  say,  followed  some 
trade.  Accordingly,  we  find  in  the  New  Testament,  that  Joseph, 
the  husband  of  Mary  was  a  carpenter,  and  that  he  was  assisted 
by  no  less  a  personage  than  our  Saviour  in  his  labours,  Matt. 
13:  55.  Mark  6:  3.  Simon  is  mentioned  as  a  tanner  in  the  city  of 
Joppa,  Acts  9:  43.  10:  32.  Alexander,  a  learned  Jew,  was  a  cop- 
persmith, 2  Tim.  4 :  14 ;  Paul  and  Aquila  were  tent-makers, 
oxrjvonoloi,.  Not  only  the  Greeks,  but  the  Jews  also,  esteemed 
certain  trades  infamous.  At  any  rate  the  Rabbins  reckoned  the 
drivers  of  asses  and  camels,  barbers,  sailors,  shepherds,  and  inn- 
keepers in  the  same  class  with  robbers.  Those  Ephesians  and 
Cretans,  who  were  lovers  of  gain,  ahxQOnsgdeig,  1  Tim.  3 :  8. 
12 


90 


§  S5.   ANTIQUITY  OF  THE  ART  OF  WRITING. 


Tit.  h  7,  were  men,  as  we  may  learn  from  ancient  writers,  who 
were  determined  to  get  money  in  however  base  a  manner.  The 
more  eminent  Greek  tradesmen  were  united  together  in  the  time 
of  the  Apostles  in  a  society,  Acts  19:  25.  comp.  Xenophon,  Cyrop. 
viii.  2,  4.    Of  some  of  the  arts  we  must  say  something  separately. 

§  65.  Antiquity  or  the  Art  or  Writing. 

Whether  symbolic  representations  were  first  used,  afterwards 
hieroglyphics,  then  alphabetic  writing,  is  not  very  clear,  nor  is 
it  a  point  necessary  to  be  determined  in  this  place.  In  regard  to 
alphabetic  writing  all  the  ancient  writers  attribute  the  invention 
of  it  to  some  very  early  age,  and  some  country  of  the  East ;  but 
they  do  not  pretend  to  designate  precisely  either  the  age  or  the 
country.  They  say,  further,  that  Cadmus  introduced  letters  from 
Phenicia  into  Greece  in  the  year,  if  we  may  credit  the  Parian 
chronicle,  1519  before  Christ,  i.  e.  forty-five  years  after  the  death  of 
Moses. 

Anticlides,  (see  Pliny's  Natural  History,  vii.  57.)  asserts  and  at- 
tempts to  prove,  that  letters  were  invented  in  Egypt  fifteen  years 
before  Phoroneus,  the  most  ancient  king  of  Greece,  i.  e.  four  hun- 
dred and  nine  years  after  the  deluge,  and  in  the  one  hundred  and 
seventeenth  year  of  Abraham.  On  this  I  remark,  that  they  might 
have  been  introduced  into  Egypt  at  this  time ;  but  they  had  been 
previously  invented  by  the  Phenicians.  Epigenes,  who  in  the  esti- 
mation of  Pliny  is  weighty  authority,  informs  us,  that  observations, 
made  upon  the  heavenly  bodies  for  seven  hundred  and  twenty 
years  at  Babylon,  were  written  down  upon  baked  tiles,  but  Bero- 
sus  and  Critodemus,  also  referred  to  by  Pliny,  make  the  number 
of  years  four  hundred  and  eighty.  Pliny  from  these  statements 
draws  the  conclusion,  that  the  use  of  letters,  as  he  expresses  it, 
must  have  been  eternal,  i.  e.  extremely  ancient.  Simplicius,  who 
lived  in  the  fifth  century,  states  on  the  authority  of  Porphyry,  an 
acute  historian,  that  Calisthtnes,  the  companion  of  Alexander,  found 
at  Babylon  a  record  of  observations  on  the  heavenly  bodies  for 
one  thousand  nine  hundred  and  three  years.  Of  course  the  re- 
cord must  have  been  begun  in  the  year  two  thousand  two  hundred 
and  thirty  four  before  Christ,  i.  e.  the  eighty-ninth  year  of  Abra- 
ham. This  statement  receives  some  confirmation  from  the  fact,  that 


\ 


§  85.   ANTIQUITY  OF  THE  ART  OF  WRITING.  91 

the  month  of  March  is  called  "flTfct,  Adar,  in  the  Chaldaic  dialect ; 
and  at  the  time  mentioned,  viz.  the  eighty  ninth  year  of  Abraham, 
the  sun,  during  the  whole  month  of  March,  was  in  the  sign  of 
the  zodiac,  called  Aries  or  the  ram.  The  word,  *\*y&,  Adar, 
means  the  same  with  Aries.  But,  as  letters  were  unquestionably 
invented  for  the  purposes  of  commercial  intercourse,  they  must 
have  been  known  long  before  they  were  employed,  to  transmit 
the  motions  of  the  stars.  Of  this  we  have  an  evidence  in  the 
bill  of  sale,  which  as  we  have  reason  to  suppose  from  the  expres- 
sions used  in  Gen.  23:  20,  was  given  to  Abraham  by  the  sons  of 
Heth. 

Hence  it  is  not  at  all  wonderful,  that  books  and  writings  are 
spoken  of  in  the  time  of  Moses,  as  if  well  known,  Exod.  17:  14. 
24:4.  28:9—11.  32:32.34:27,28.  Num.  33:  2.  Deut.  27:  8. 
Nor  is  it  a  matter  of  surprise,  that  long  before  his  time  there 
had  been  public  scribes,  who  kept  written  genealogies ;  they 
were  called  by  the  Hebrews,  E^ttitt) ,  Exod.  6: 14.  Deut.  20:  5 — 9. 
Even  in  the  time  of  Jacob,  seals,  upon  which  names  are  engraved 
in  the  East,  were  in  use,  see  Gen.  38:  18.  41:  42  ;  which  is  anoth- 
er probable  testimony  to  the  great  antiquity  of  letters. 

Note  I.  Herodotus  and  Diodorus  Siculus  mention  the  exist- 
ence in  antiquity  of  two  kinds  of  writing,  the  one  sacred,  the  oth- 
er profane.  Clemens  Alexandrinus  and  Porphyry  mention  three 
kinds,  viz.  the  sacred,  the  profane,  and  the  hieroglyphical.  Some 
interpreters  suppose,  that  the  phrase  l$J3#  t3*}ft  a  man's  pen,  Is. 
8:  1.  means  the  mode  of  writing  which  is  denominated  profane. 
Hieroglyphics  were  inscribed  by  the  Egyptians,  among  whom  they 
were  used,  upon  stones.    The  phrase  n'Sta  a  pictured  or 

engraven  stone,  Lev.  26:  1.  Num.  33:  52,  means  a  stone,  engraven 
with  hieroglyphical  figures,  which,  in  that  age  of  idolatry,  was  lia- 
ble to  be  worshipped.  Those  persons,  who  understood  how  to 
read  hieroglyphics,  tP72t?lh:  magicians,  were  held  in  high  estimation 
and  much  honoured  among  the  Egyptians,  Exod.  8:  3.  Gen.  41:  8. 

Note  II.  Gesenius  renders  the  word  t^nttiti)  overseers,  rulers, 
or  officers.    In  support  of  his  rendering,  he  collates  the  Arabic 

'Jot  0>tcty 
word  Jo-am*  to  preside,  and   Axim**  an  overseer.    But  the  Ara- 


92 


§  86.   THE  EXTENSION  OF  ALPHABETICAL  WRITING. 


bic  word 


5.u»  /  3 

to  write j  and  Jel^k^ 


a  scribe,  and  the  Syriac 


'f^M  a  icriting,  are  nearer  as  regards  form  to  the  Hebrew,  than 
those  which  are  collated  by  Gesenius. 

§  86.  THE  EXTENSION  OF  ALPHABETICAL  WRITING. 

Letters,  which  had  thus  become  known  at  the  earliest  period, 
were  communicated  by  means  of  the  Phenician  merchants  and 
colonies,  and  subsequently  by  Egyptian  emigrants,  through  all  the 
East  and  the  West.  A  strong  evidence  of  this  is  to  be  found  in 
the  different  alphabets  themselves,  which  betray  by  their  resem- 
blance a  common  origin.  The  Hebrew  Patriarchs  received  their 
alphabet  from  the  Phenicians  or,  what  is  the  same  thing,  from 
the  Canaanites ;  and  that  their  posterity  preserved  a  knowledge 
of  alphabetical  writing  during  their  abode  in  Egypt,  where  essen- 
tially the  same  alphabet  was  in  use,  is  evident  from  the  fact,  that 
the  Hebrews  while  remaining  there  always  had  public  genealogists, 
Deut.  24:  1 — 3.  17:  18,  19.  The  Law  also  was  ordered  to  be  in- 
scribed on  stones ;  a  fact  which  implies  a  knowledge  of  alphabeti- 
cal writing.  The  writing  thus  engraven  upon  stones  is  designated 
by  its  appropriate  name,  viz.  n^h,  comp.  Exod.  32:  16,  32.  Not  a 
few  of  the  Hebrews  were  able  to  read  and  write,  Judg.  8:  14 ;  yet 
very  many  were  very  illiterate.  Hence  those,  who  were  capable  of 
writing,  wrote  for  others,  when  necessary.  Such  persons  were  com- 
monly priests,  who,  as  they  do  to  this  day  in  the  East,  bear  an  ink- 
horn  in  their  girdle,  Ezek.  9:  2,  3,  11.  In  the  inkhorn  were  the 
materials  for  writing,  and  a  knife  for  sharpening  the  pen,  Jer.  36: 
23.  The  rich  and  noble  had  scribes  of  their  own,  and  readers  also  ; 
whence  there  is  more  frequent  mention  made  of  hearing,  than  of 
reading,  1  K.  4:  3.  2  K.  12:  11.  Is.  29:  18.  Jer.  36:  4.  Rom.  2:  13. 
James  5:  11.  Rev.  1:  3.  The  scribes  took  youth  under  their  care, 
who  learnt  from  them  the  art  of  writing.  Some  of  the  scribes  seem 
to  have  held  public  schools  for  instruction  ;  some  of  which  under  the 
care  of  Samuel  and  other  prophets  became  in  time  quite  illustrious, 
and  were  called  the  schools  of  the  prophets,  1  Sam.  19:  16.  et  seq. 
2  K.  2:  3,  5.  4:  38.  6:  1.  The  disciples  in  these  schools  were  not 
children  or  boys,  but  young  men,  who  inhabited  separate  edifices, 
as  is  the  case  in  the  Persian  academies.    They  were  taught  mu- 


§  87.  MATERIALS  AND  INSTRUMENTS  OF  WRITING.  93 


sic  and  singing,  without  doubt  writing  also,  the  Mosaic  law,  and 
poetry.  They  were  denominated  in  reference  to  their  instructors 
the  sons  of  the  prophets,  teachers  and  prophets  being  sometimes 
called  fathers.  After  the  captivity  there  were  schools  for  instruc- 
tion either  near  the  synagogues  or  in  them,  of  which  we  shall  speak 
hereafter. 

§  87.  Materials  and  Instruments  of  Writing. 

I.  Materials  from  the  vegetable  kingdom. 

1.  The  leaves  of  trees. 

2.  The  bark  of  trees,  from  which  in  the  process  of  time  a  sort 
of  paper  was  manufactured. 

3.  A  table  of  wood,  hnb,  nival,  Is.  8:  1.  Ezek.  37:  16.  Luke  1: 
63.  In  the  East,  these  tables  were  not  covered  with  wax  as  they 
were  in  the  West ;  or  at  any  rate  very  rarely  so. 

4.  Linen.  Linen  was  used  for  the  object  in  question  at  Rome. 
Linen  books  are  mentioned  by  Livy.  Cotton  cloth  also,  which  was 
used  for  the  bandages  of  Egyptian  mummies,  and  inscribed  with 
hieroglyphics,  was  one  of  the  materials  for  writing  upon. 

5.  The  paper  made  from  the  reed  papyrus,  which,  as  Pliny  has 
shown  in  his  Natural  History,  XIII.  21 — 27,  was  used  before  the 
Trojan  war. 

II.  Materials  from  the  animal  kingdom. 

The  shins  of  animals.  They  were  but  poorly  prepared  for  the 
purpose,  until  some  improved  methods  of  preparation  were  invented 
at  Pergamus,  during  the  reign  of  Eumenes,  about  200  years  before 
Christ.  Hence  the  skins  of  animals,  prepared  for  writing,  are  call- 
ed in  Latin  pergamena,  in  English  parchment  to  this  day,  from  the 
city  Pergamus.  They  are  sometimes  denominated  in  Greek,  ^utyt- 
Pqum,  2  Tim.  4:  13. 

III.  Materials  from  the  mineral  kingdom. 

1.  Tables  of  lead,  n^B>,  Job  19:  24. 

2.  Tables  of  brass,  dtXtoi,  ycdv,a7.  Of  all  the  materials,  brass  was 


94  §  87.   MATERIALS  AND   INSTRUMENTS  OF  WRITING. 


considered  among  the  most  durable,  and  was  employed  for  those  in- 
scriptions, which  were  designed  to  last  the  longest,  1  Mac.  8:  22. 
14:  20—27. 

3.  Stones  or  rocks,  upon  which  public  laws,  &lc.  were  written. 
Sometimes  the  letters  engraved  were  filled  up  with  lime,  Exod. 
24:  12.  31:  18.  32:  19.  34:  1.  et  seq.  Deut.  27:  1—9.  comp.  Josh. 
8:  32.  et  seq.  Job  19:  24. 

4.  Tiles.  The  inscriptions  were  made  upon  the  tiles  first,  and 
afterwards  they  were  baked  in  the  fire.  They  are  yet  to  be 
found  in  the  ruins  of  Babylon  ;  others  of  later  origin  are  to  be 
found  in  many  countries  in  the  East. 

5.  The  sand  of  the  earth,  in  which  the  children  in  India  to  this 
day  learn  the  art  of  writing,  and  in  which  Archimedes  himself  de- 
lineated his  mathematical  figures,  comp.  John  8:  1 — 8.  If  in 
Ezekiel  3:  1,  and  in  Revelation  10:  9,  we  are  informed  that  books 
were  eaten,  we  must  remember,  that  the  descriptions  are  figurative, 
and  that  they  were  eaten  in  vision ;  and  consequently  are  not  at 
liberty  to  draw  the  conclusion  from  these  passages,  that  any  sub- 
stance was  used  as  materials  for  writing  upon,  which  was  at  the 
same  time  used  for  food.  The  representations  alluded  to  are  sym- 
bolic, introduced  to  denote  a  communication  or  revelation  from  God. 

Instruments  used  in  writing. 

The  instrument,  commonly  used  for  this  purpose,  was  the  style, 
Heb.  t3*lH  .  1.  When  it  was  necessary  to  write  upon  hard 
materials,  as  tables  of  stone  and  brass,  the  style  was  made  of  iron, 
and  sometimes  tipped  with  diamond,  Jer.  17:  1. 

2.  The  letters  were  formed  upon  tablets  of  wood,  (when  they 
were  covered  with  wax,)  with  a  style  sharpened  at  one  end,  broad 
and  smooth  at  the  other ;  by  means  of  which,  the  letters,  when 
badly  written,  might  be  rubbed  out  and  the  wax  smoothed  down. 
Wax,  however,  was  but  rarely  used  for  the  purpose  of  covering 
writing  tables  in  such  warm  regions.  When  this  was  not  the  case, 
the  letters  were  painted  on  the  wood  with  a  black  tincture  or  ink. 

3.  On  linen,  cotton  cloth,  paper,  skins,  and  parchment,  the  let- 
ters were  painted  with  a  very  small  brush,  Heb.  perhaps  tt'-ift , 
afterwards  with  a  reed,  which  was  split.  The  orientals  use  this 
elegant  instrument  to  the  present  day  instead  of  a  pen.  The  knife, 
with  which  the  reed  was  split,  was  called  'isn&rt  "l^ft,  Jer.  36:  23. 


§  88.   RESPECTING  BOOKS. 


<J5 


Ink,  called  ,  is  spoken  of  in  Num.  5:  23.  as  well  known 
and  common,  comp.  Jer.  36:  18.  and  was  prepared  in  various  ways, 
which  are  related  by  Pliny,  XVI.  6.  XXX.  25.  The  most  simple, 
and  consequently  the  most  ancient  method  of  preparation,  was  a 
mixture  of  water  with  coals  broken  to  pieces,  or  with  soot,  with 
an  addition  of  gum.  The  ancients  used  other  tinctures  also  ;  partic- 
ularly, if  we  may  credit  Cicero  de  Nat.  Deor.  II.  20.  and  Persius  III. 
11.  the  ink  extracted  from  the  cuttle  fish,  nb^ri,  although  their  as- 
sertion is  in  opposition  to  Pliny.  The  Hebrews  went  so  far  as  to 
write  their  sacred  books  in  gold,  as  we  may  learn  from  Josephus, 
Antiq.  XII.  2,  11.  compared  with  Pliny  XXXIII.  40. 


§  88.  Respecting  Books,  E^nDO  *"|DD. 

Books,  (which  are  mentioned  as  very  well  known  as  early  as 
Job  19:  23.  Num.  21:  14.  Exod.  17:  14,)  were  written  most  an- 
ciently on  skins,  on  linen,  on  cotton  cloth,  and  the  reed  papyrus  ; 
and  subsequently  on  parchment.  The  leaves  were  written  over 
in  small  columns,  called  ninW,  Jer.  36:  23.  If  the  book  were 
large,  it  was  of  course  formed  of  a  number  of  skins,  of  a  number 
of  pieces  of  linen  or  cotton  cloth,  or  of  papyrus,  or  parchment, 
connected  together.  The  leaves  were  rarely  written  over  on 
both  sides,  Ezek.  2:  9.  Zech.  5:  1.  Whether  the  lines  were  writ- 
ten povGTQoqridov,  as  in  the  Sigean  inscription,  and  in  the  Etruscan 
inscriptions,  might  yet  be  determined,  if  the  stones  mentioned  Josh. 
8:  32.  could  be  found.  The  question,  whether  there  was  any 
space  between  the  words,  has  been  discussed  in  my  Introduction  to 
the  Old  Testament,  T.  V.  p.  1.  §  98. 

Books  being  written  upon  very  flexible  materials,  were  rolled 
round  a  stick  ;  and,  if  they  were  very  long,  round  two,  from  the 
two  extremities.  The  reader  unrolled  the  book  to  the  place 
which  he  wanted,  avumv^ctg  to  (ji(3Xiop,  and  rolled  it  up  again 
when  he  had  read  it,  mv£ag  to  (5l§Mov,  Luke  4:  17 — 20  ;  whence 
the  name  rfrafc  a  volume,  or  thing  rolled  up,  Ps.  40:  7.  Is.  34:  4. 
Ezek.  2:  9.'  2  K.  19:  14.  Ezra  6:  2.  The  leaves  thus  rolled 
round  the  stick,  which  has  been  mentioned,  and  bound  with  a 
string,  could  be  easily  sealed,  Is.  29:  11.  Dan.  12:  4.  Rev.  5:  I/  6: 
7.    Those  books,  which  were  inscribed  on  tablets  of  wood,  lead, 


96  §  90.    ON  POETRY. 

brass,  or  ivory,  were  connected  together  by  rings  at  the  back, 
through  which  a  rod  was  passed  to  carry  them  by. 

Note.  The  orientals  appear  to  take  a  pleasure  in  giving  trop- 
ical or  enigmatical  titles  to  their  books.  The  titles  prefixed  to 
the  fifty-sixth,  sixtieth,  and  eightieth  psalms,  appear  to  be  of  this 
description.  And  there  can  be  no  doubt,  that  David's  elegy  upon 
Saul  and  Jonathan,  1  Sam.  1:  18.  is  called  n$D  or  the  bow,  in  con- 
formity with  this  peculiarity  of  taste. 

§  89.   Concerning  Epistles. 

Epistles,  which  occur  under  the  same  Hebrew  word  with 
books,  viz.  ^DD ,  are  mentioned  the  more  rarely,  the  further  you 
go  back  into  antiquity.  An  epistle  is  first  mentioned  2  Sam.  11:  14. 
et  seq.  Afterwards  there  is  more  frequent  mention  of  them,  and 
sometimes  an  epistle  is  meant,  when  literally  a  messenger  is  spok- 
en of,  as  in  Ezra  4:  15 — 17.  In  the  East  letters  are  commonly 
sent  unsealed.  In  case,  however,  they  are  sent  to  persons  of  dis- 
tinction, they  are  placed  in  a  valuable  purse,  which  is  tied,  closed 
over  with  clay  or  wax,  and  then  stamped  with  a  signet,  see  Is.  29: 
11.  Neh.  6:  5.  Job  38:  14.  The  most  ancient  epistles  begin  and 
end  without  either  salutation  or  farewell,  but  under  the  Persian 
monarchy  the  salutation  was  very  prolix.  It  is  given  in  an  abridg- 
ed form  in  Ezra  4:  7 — 10.  5:  7.  The  apostles  in  their  epistles 
used  the  salutation  customary  among  the  Greeks,  but  they  omit- 
ted the  usual  farewell  at  the  close,  viz.  yctiQtiv,  and  adopted  a 
benediction  more  conformable  to  the  spirit  of  the  Christian  relig- 
ion. Paul,  when  he  dictated  his  letters,  wrote  the  benediction  at 
the  close  with  his  own  hand,  2  Thess.  3:  17.  He  was  more  accus- 
tomed to  dictate  his  letters  than  to  write  them  himself. 

§  90.    On  Poetry. 

Poetry  had  its  origin  in  the  first  ages  of  the  world,  when  un- 
disciplined feelings  and  a  lively  imagination  naturally  supplied 
strong  expressions,  gave  an  expressive  modulation  to  the  voice, 
and  motion  to  the  limbs  ;  hence  poetry,  music  and  dancing  were 
contemporaneous  in  origin.    As  far  back  as  the  time  of  Moses,  po- 


§91.  CHARACTER  OF  THE  HEBREW  POETRY.  97 

etry,  not  only  among  the  Hebrews,  but  also  among  some  other  na- 
tions, had  reached  a  great  degree  of  perfection,  Exod.  xv.  Deut. 
xxxii.  Num.21:  24,  et  seq.  comp.  also  the  book  of  Job.  It  after- 
wards flourished  with  great  honour  among  the  Hebrews  for  almost 
1000  years.  The  design  of  it  was  not  merely  to  excite  pleas- 
ure, but  also  to  preserve  historical  narrations,  and  that  in  such  a 
way,  that  they  might  be  sung  on  special  occasions;  but  it  was  more 
particularly  the  object  of  this  art,  to  declare  in  the  most  affecting 
manner  the  praises  of  the  Deity,  and  to  excite  the  people  to  good 
and  to  praiseworthy  works ;  see  the  books  of  Psalms,  Job,  Proverbs, 
and  Ecclesiastes ;  comp.  also  Gen.  3:  24.  4:  23.  9:  25— 29. 

§  91.  Character  of  the  Hebrew  Poetry. 

Hebrew  poetry,  like  the  genuine  poetry  of  all  other  nations, 
is  characterised  by  ardent  feelings,  splendid  thoughts,  a  great  va- 
riety of  beautiful  images,  strength  of  expression,  condensation,  and 
elegance.  But  it  is  distinguished  in  a  number  of  particulars  from 
the  poetry  of  occidental  nations. 

I.  The  metaphors,  comparisons,  &c.  are  more  bold  and  unusu- 
al ;  a  point,  which  is  capable  of  receiving  much  light  from  a  colla- 
tion of  Arabic  poems. 

II.  The  ornaments,  by  which  a  subject  is  enriched  in  Hebrew 
poetry,  are  derived  from  the  state  of  things,  as  they  exist  in  the 
East,  especially  Palestine  ; 

(1.)  from  the  natural  objects  of  that  region,  from  Lebanon  and 
its  cedars,  from  Carmel,  from  the  oaks  of  Bashan,  from  the  gar- 
dens, the  vineyards,  and  the  forests,  which  enrich  the  larjd,  and 
from  the  animals,  viz.  the  oxen,  the  lions,  and  the  gazelles,  &c. 
that  tread  upon  its  surface  ; 

(2.)  from  the  occupations  of  husbandmen  and  shepherds ; 

(3.)  from  the  history  of  the  nation  ; 

(4.)  from  the  manners  exhibited  in  common  life,  even  from  its 
vices,  as  drunkenness,  fornication,  and  adultery  ; 

(5.)  from  oriental  mythology,  which,  in  a  great  degree,  though 
not  in  all  respects,  corresponds  with  the  Greek  and  Roman.  We 
find,  for  instance,  mention  made  of  the  chamber  of  the  sun,  Ps.  19: 
5,  6.  but  then  there  is  this  difference ;  the  orientals  do  not  con- 
vey him  on  a  chariot,  like  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  but  make 
13 


98  §91.   CHARACTER  OF  THE  HEBREW  POETRY. 

him  fly  with  wings,  Ps.  139:  9.  Mai.  4:  2.  The  thunders  are 
borne  on  chariots,  but  these  chariots  are  not  drawn  by  horses,  but 
by  cherubim,  tPS*H3  ,  monsters  that  are  symbolic  of  the  clouds, 
Ezek.  Is  2— 28.  Ps.'lS:  10.  99:  1.  We  find  mention  made  of  a 
golden  age,  Is.  2:  4.  11:  6—9.  24:  23.  30:24—28.  60: 19,20.  65: 
4 — 25.  66:  1 — 5 ;  of  the  infernal  regions  also,  slieol  or  hades, 
blflWZJ ,  ccdijg,  into  which  descend  not  only  soldiers,  warlike  heroes 
and  emperors,  even  all  who  die,  but  also  by  a  figure  of  speech, 
conquered  nations  and  states,  and  even  trees,  the  symbols  of  states. 
The  warriors  repose  in  this  wide  abode  on  couches,  with  their  ar- 
mour placed  beneath  their  head,  Is.  14:  9—20.  Ezek.  26:  20.  31: 
14—18.  32:  7,  8.  17:  30.  Matt.  16:  18.  We  find  mention  likewise 
of  the  rivers  of  hades,  Ps.  18:  4 — 6.  2  Sam.  22:  5  ;  and  of  a  politi- 
cal heaven,  which  can  be  shaken,  and  the  moon  and  the  stars  there- 
of be  obscured  or  cast  down  with  great  confusion  and  overthrow, 
Hag.  2:  6,  21.  Is.  24:  21—23.  34:  4.  65:  17.  Amos  8:  9,  10. 
Matt.  24:  29. 

III.  The  poems  in  the  Hebrew  language  may  have  been  meas- 
ured by  means  of  a  certain  number  of  syllables  or  words,  but  we 
have  reason  to  believe,  that  the  rhythm  consisted  essentially  and 
chiefly  in  the  parallelism.  The  parallelism,  which  is  sometimes 
synonymous  and  sometimes  antithetical,  and  sometimes  shows  it- 
self merely  in  the  construction,  independent  of  the  sense,  consists 
in  many  cases  of  only  two  members,  see  Ps.  114:  1 — 8;  in  other 
instances  there  are  three  members,  see  Hos.  6:  1,2;  in  other 
instances  again  there  are  four  members,  the  first  answering  to  the 
third,  and  the  second  to  the  fourth,  see  Deut.  32:  42.  Sometimes 
the  parallelism  displays  itself  in  five  verses  or  members,  the  two 
first  and  the  two  last  being  parallel,  and  the  middle  one  unequal, 
Is.  31:  4.  or  the  first  being  parallel  to  the  third,  and  the  second 
to  the  fourth,  and  the  fifth  being  unequal,  see  Ps.  19:  8 — 10.  In 
some  instances  the  poetry  may  be  called  irregular,  i.  e.  incapable 
of  being  reduced  to  the  more  common  forms  .of  parallelism,  Ps. 
113:  5,  6.  Micah  I:  4.  These  traits  in  the  Hebrew  poetry,  when 
well  understood,  afford  very  considerable  aid  in  the  interpretation 
and  criticism  of  the  Bible,  as  for  instance  in  such  passages  as  Ps. 
77:  18,  19.  139:  20.  Is.  47:  11.  49:  6,  16.  One  may  find,  in  the 
parallelisms  in  various  places,  a  similarity  in  the  cadences,  which 
gives  to  them  a  more  than  ordinary  musical  effect,  and  seems  to 


§  93.   USES  OF  MUSIC  AMONG  THE  HEBREWS. 


99 


be  the  result  of  art,  see  Judg.  14:  18.  Prov.  7:  13—15.  29:  17.  Is. 
26:  20,  21.  40:  24.  49:  8.  51:  1,  2—5,  8,  53:  6,  7.  Zech.  11:  1. 

§  92.  On  Music. 

Music  is  coeval  with  poetry.  Musical  instruments  were 
the  invention  of  Jubal,  Gen.  4:  21.  and,  as  early  as  Gen.  31: 
27,  we  are  introduced  to  a  whole  choir.  Afterwards  music  and 
poetry  went  hand  in  hand,  and  with  equal  step.  The  poet  him- 
self sung  his  own  poems  and  accompanied  his  voice  with  instru- 
ments. Both  music  and  poetry  were  esteemed  of  great  conse- 
quence, and  without  doubt  as  long  as  poetry  was  cultivated,  mu- 
sic was  none  the  less  so.  The  music  of  the  Hebrews  may  be 
thought  to  have  been  too  loud  and  noisy,  but  a  person's  opinion  on 
a  point  of  that  kind  will  depend  very  much  on  his  own  personal 
habits  and  experience. 

§  93.  Uses  op  Music  among  the  Hebrews. 

The  Hebrews  insisted  on  having  music  at  marriages,  on  anni- 
versary birthdays,  on  the  days  which  reminded  them  of  victories 
over  their  enemies,  at  the  inauguration  of  their  kings,  in  their 
public  worship,  and  when  they  were  coming  from  afar  to  attend 
the  great  festivals  of  their  nation,  Is.  30:  29.  In  the  tabernacle 
and  the  temple,  the  Levites  were  the  lawful  musicians,  but  on  oth- 
er occasions  any  one  who  chose  might  use  musical  instruments. 
There  was  however,  this  exception ;  the  holy  silver  trumpets 
were  to  be  blown  only  by  the  priests,  who,  by  the  sounding  of 
them,  proclaimed  the  festival  days,  assembled  the  leaders  of  the 
people,  and  gave  the  signal  for  battle,  and  for  the  retreat,  Num.  1:  1 
— 10.  David,  in  order  to  give  the  best  effect  to  the  music  of  the 
tabernacle,  divided  the  four  thousand  Levites  into  twenty  four 
classes,  who  sung  psalms,  and  accompanied  them  with  music. 
Each  of  these  classes  was  superintended  by  a  leader,  hS3J3  ,  plac- 
ed over  it ;  and  they  performed  the  duties,  which  devolved  upon 
them,  each  class  a  week  at  a  time  in  succession,  1  Chron.  16:  5.  23: 
4,5.  25:  1—31.  comp.  2  Chron.  5:  12,  13.  The  classes  collec- 
tively, as  a  united  body,  were  superintended  by  three  directors. 
This  arrangement  was  subsequently  continued  by  Solomon  after 


100 


§  94.    STRINGED  INSTRUMENTS. 


the  erection  of  the  temple,  and  was  transmitted  till  the  time  of 
the  overthrow  of  Jerusalem.  It  was  indeed  sometimes  interrupted 
during  the  reign  of  the  idolatrous  kings,  but  was  restored  by  their 
successors,  2  Chron.  5:  12 — 14.  29:  27.  35:  15.  It  was  even  con- 
tinued after  the  captivity,  Ezra  3:  10.  Neh.  12:  45 — 47.  1  Mac.  4: 
54.  13:  51.  It  should  be  remarked,  however,  that  neither  mu- 
sic nor  poetry  attained  to  the  same  excellence  after  the  captivity, 
as  before  that  period. 

§  94.  Stringed  Lvstruments. 

I.  The  harp,  "ii33  .  This  was  the  most  ancient  of  this  class  of 
instruments,  Gen.  4: 21.  It  was  sometimes  called  sheminith,  rWEU*, 
or  eight-stringed.  Ps.  6:  1.  12:  1.  1  Chron.  15:  21.  although  as  we 
may  gather  from  the  coins  or  medals  of  the  Maccabean  age,  there 
were  some  harps,  which  were  furnished  with  only  three  strings. 
The  harp,  therefore,  was  of  two  kinds,  one  only  of  which  is  distin- 
guished by  a  separate  name,  viz.  that  called  sheminith,  unless  per- 
chance separate  names  should  be  found  for  both  in  the  Greek, 
the  three-stringed  harp  being  called  xi&cigcc,  the  other  mvvqcc, 
for  these  two  words  appear  to  be  used  with  some  distinction  of 
this  kind  in  1  Mac.  4:  54.  Josephus  in  his  Jewish  Antiquities,  VII. 
10.  3.  assigns  ten  strings  to  the  harp,  an  evidence  that  in  his  time 
the  number  of  them  had  been  increased.  The  strings  of  this  in- 
strument, it  is  lawful  to  suppose,  were  originally  swept  by  the 
hand,  but  in  Josephus'  time,  it  was  played  with  a  small  bow  or 
fret;  which  act  is  denominated  in  Hebrew  by  the  words  toSF),  |53, 

,  HEn ,  and  even  ^nl .  This  instrument,  viz.  the  ancient 
harp,  seems  to  have  been  called  by  the  Babylonians  ^FCCS»  and 
^tp:DS  Dan.  3:  5,  7,  10,  15. 

II.  The  nablum  or  psaltery,  ^55 1,  vafila,  vuvXcc.  It  is  first 
mentioned  in  the  psalms  of  David.  In  Psalms  33:  2.  and  144:  9. 
it  is  called  ^iiDS  a  ten-stringed  instrument;  but  in  Ps.  92:  3. 
it  is  distinguished  from  it.  Josephus,  Antiq.  VII.  10.  3.  assigns 
to  it  twelve  strings ;  which,  taken  in  connexion  with  the  fact  above 
stated,  leaves  us  to  conclude,  that  it  sometimes  had  ten  and  some- 
times twelve  strings.  It  was  not  played  with  a  bow  or  fret,  but 
with  the  fingers ;  the  act  of  playing  it  is  expressed  in  Hebrew  by 
the  word  ^73 1.    It  resembled  in  form  a  right  angled  triangle  or  the 


§  95.   WIND  INSTRUMENTS. 


101 


Greek  Delta  inverted  y.  The  body  of  it  was  of  wood  and  hollow, 
and  was  enclosed  with  a  piece  of  leather  tensely  drawn.  The 
chords  were  extended  on  the  outside  of  the  leather,  and  were  fixed 
at  one  end  into  the  transverse  part  of  the  triangular  body  of  the  in- 
strument. Such  is  its  form  at  the  present  day  in  the  East,  but  it 
has  only  five  strings  in  its  modern  shape,  2  Sam.  6:  5.  1  K.  10:  12. 
There  was  another  instrument  of  this  kind  used  in  Babylonia  ;  it 
was  triangular  in  form,  in  Greek  it  is  called  oufApvitri,  in  Hebrew, 
fi03D  and  [t*!33to|  ;  it  had  originally  only  four,  but  subsequently 
twenty  strings,  Dan.  3:  5,  7,  10,  15. 

The  chords  of  stringed  instruments  are  denominated  t^SE ,  Ps. 
150:  4.  At  first  they  were  the  usual  sort  of  strings  twisted  from 
flax  or  some  like  substance,  but  subsequently  were  manufactured 
from  the  entrails  of  sheep.  Chords  of  the  last  kind  are  mentioned 
by  Homer,  as  a  recent  invention. 

§  95.    Wind  Instruments. 

I.  The  organ,  (as  it  is  called  in  the  English  version,)  Heb.  nay , 
uggab,  Gen.  4:  21.  It  may  be  called  the  ancient  shepherd's  pipe, 
corresponding  most  nearly  to  the  Gvgty'^  or  the  pipe  of  Pan  among 
the  Greeks.  It  consisted  at  first  of  only  one  or  two,  but  after- 
wards of  about  seven  pipes  made  of  reeds  and  differing  from  each 
other  in  length.  The  instrument,  called  mashroJcitha,  ttn^p/nM, 
used  in  Babylon,  Dan.  3:  5.  was  of  a  similar  construction. 

II.  M>h  halil,  rhb'1*"]'?  nehiloth,  and  ap3  nekeb,  are  wind  instru- 
ments resembling  the  one  just  described,  made  of  various  materi- 
als, such  as  wood,  reeds,  horns,  and  bones.  As  far  as  we  may 
be  permitted  to  judge  from  the  three  kinds  of  pipes  now  used  in 
the  East,  the  Hebrew  instrument  called  nehiloth  is  the  one  that  is 
double  in  its  structure,  halil  is  perhaps  the  one  of  simpler  form, 
having  a  single  stem  with  an  orifice  through  it,  while  ncJceb  answers 
to  the  one  without  an  orifice,  Is.  5:  12.  30:  29.  Jer.  4S:  36.  Ps. 
5:  1.   Ezek.  28:  13. 

III.  ppjtejgq  D,or  according  to  the  marginal  reading  arab^q ,  Dan. 
3:  5,  10,  was  a  wind  instrument  made  of  reeds,  by  the  Syrians  call- 
ed sambonja,  by  the  Greeks  samponja,  and  by  the  Italians  zampog- 
na.    According  to  Servius,  it  was  of  a  crooked  shape. 

IV.  The  horn  or  crooked  trumpet,  "p  j3  .  This  was  a  very  an- 


102  §  96.    DIFFERENT  SORTS  OF  DRUMS. 

cient  instrument.  It  was  made  of  the  horns  of  oxen,  which  were 
cut  off  at  the  smaller  extremity,  and  thus  presented  an  orrfice, 
which  extended  through.  In  progress  of  time  rams'  horns  were 
hollowed  and  employed  for  the  same  purpose.  This  instrument 
was  called  also  "iBilB  shophar.  as  we  may  learn  both  from  Josephus 
and  Jerome.  It  is  probable,  that  in  some  instances,  it  was  made  of 
brass  fashioned  so  as  to  resemble  a  horn.  It  was  greatly  used  in 
war,  and  its  sound  resembled  thunder. 

V.  The  straight  trumpet,  STlS^H  •  This  instrument  was 
straight,  a  cubit  in  length,  hollow  throughout,  and  at  the  larger  ex- 
tremity shaped  so  as  to  resemble  the  mouth  of  a  small  bell.  In  times 
of  peace,  when  the  people  or  the  rulers  were  to  be  assembled  to- 
gether, this  trumpet  was  blown  softly,  which  was  expressed  by  the 
Hebrew  word  ypn  .  When  the  camps  were  to  move  forward  or  the 
people  to  march  to  war,  it  was  sounded  with  a  deeper  note  ;  this 
was  expressed  by  the  Hebrew  verb  ^'liTJ,  and  by  the  phrase  $pj?\ 

§  96.    Different  sorts  of  Drums. 

I.  t^Sfi,  P]n,  rendered  in  the  English  version,  tabret  and  tim- 
brel, Gen.  31:  27.  It  consisted  of  a  circular  hoop  either  of  wood 
or  brass,  three  inches  and  six  tenths  wide,  was  covered  with  a 
skin  tensely  drawn,  and  hung  round  with  small  bells.  It  was  held 
in  the  left  hand,  and  beaten  to  notes  of  music  with  the  right. 
The  ladies  through  all  the  East,  even  to  this  day,  dance  to  the 
sound  of  this  instrument,  Exod.  15:  20.  Job  17:  6.  21:  12.  2  Sam. 
6:  5. 

II.  The  cymbal,  B^SfcbS,  nV?i2ft  .  There  were  two  kinds  of 
cymbals  formerly,  as  there  are  to  this  day,  in  the  East.  The  cym- 
bal, called  JWin  ^b'Zb'S.',  consisted  of  two  flat  pieces  of  metal  or 
plates ;  the  musician  held  one  of  them  in  his  right  hand,  the  oth- 
er in  his  left,  and  smote  them  together,  as  an  accompaniment  to 
other  instruments.  This  cymbal  and  the  mode  of  using  it  may  be 
often  seen  in  modern  armies  and  military  trainings.  The  second 
kind  of  cymbals,  5J5T,z5  ^Sbss,  Ps.  150:  5.  consisted  of  four  small 
plates  attached,  two  to  each  hand,  which  the  ladies,  as  they  danc- 
ed, smote  together.  But  rh^SS ,  Zech.  14:  20.  [Eng.  vers,  bells,] 
are  not  musical  instruments,  as  some  suppose,  nor  indeed  bells, 


§  96.  DIFFERENT  SORTS  OF  DRUMS. 


103 


but  concave  pieces  or  plates  of  brass,  which  were  sometimes  at- 
tached to  horses  for  the  sake  of  ornament. 

III.  B*23?573 ,  menaaneim,  2  Sam.  6:  5 ;  the  word  is  derived 
from  5713 ,  to  move  or  to  be  shaken.  We  may  suppose,  therefore, 
it  was  an  instrument  corresponding  to  the  si strum,  by  which  word 
Jerome  in  his  Latin  version  has  rendered  it.  If  this  were  the 
case,  we  may  suppose  also,  that  like  the  sistrum,  (in  Greek  ctloxgov, 
from  oel(x)  to  shake,)  it  was  a  rod  of  iron  bent  into  an  oblong  shape, 
or  square  at  two  corners  and  curved  at  the  others,  and  furnished 
with  a  number  of  moveable  rings,  so  that  when  shaken  or  struck 
with  another  rod  of  iron,  it  emitted  the  sound  desired.  The  in- 
strument used  by  the  women,  which  occurs  under  the  word  t3v«2fcU3 , 
1  Sam.  18:  6,  probably  differed  from  the  more  common  sistrum  only 
by  being  of  a  triangular  form. 

Note. — The  names  of  musical  instruments  which  are  very  lit- 
tle known,  are  as  follows. 

I.  "p^lt,  higgaion,  Ps.  9:  16.  92:4;  perhaps  this  word  was 
used  to  designate  some  sort  of  song  or  poem. 

II.  rPna  ,  gittith,  Ps.  8: 1.  81:  1.  84:  1.  derived  from  ,  a  wine 
press ;  an  instrument,  which  was  played  at  the  treading  out  of 
the  grapes.  Some  suppose,  it  derived  its  name  from  Gath,  a  city 
of  the  Philistines. 

III.  fsb  nifrb?  ,  almnth  labben,  Ps.  9:  1  ;  a  better  reading  of  the 
Hebrew  would  be  "jib  rrtttb^ ,  for  Ben  was  the  name  of  a  musician 
in  the  time  of  David,  1  Chron.  15:  18.'  What  the  meaning  of  the 
word  mfcVg ,  is,  is  not  very  clear  ;  perhaps  it  was  a  kind  of  harp, 
and  hence,  1  Chron.  15:  20.  is  interchanged  with  iWJQitf,  a  harp 
of  eight  strings. 

IV.  'pmT?  ,jeduthun,  Ps.  39:  1.  67:  1,  an  instrument  thus  de- 
nominated from  some  musician  of  that  name. 

V.  Fibnfa  mahalath,  Ps.  88:  1.  53:  1,  perhaps  an  instrument  like 
the  shepherd's  pipe  ;  comp.  the  Ethiopic  word  mahlet,  which  in 
Gen.  4:  21.  answers  to  the  Greek  xidaQa.  Some  other  words 
and  phrases,  such  as  shushan-eduth,  Ps.  60:  1.  appear  to  be  enig- 
matical inscriptions  of  the  psalms,  to  which  they  are  prefixed. 


104  §  97.  ON  DANCING. 

§  97.  On  Dancing. 

The  Mohammedans  esteem  dancing  a  sport  unworthy  the  dignity 
of  a  man,  and  accordingly  leave  it  to  the  women.  It  is  practised 
in  such  an  indecorous  manner  among  the  modern  orientals,  that 
they  would  be  still  nearer  the  truth,  if  they  should  pronounce  it 
an  art  unworthy  to  be  indulged  in  by  either  sex.  It  was  different 
anciently.  Among  the  Greeks  it  was  a  sort  of  pantomime,  a  mimic 
representation  of  the  common  actions  of  life,  and,  in  some  instan- 
ces, of  deeds  of  war.  It  was  accordingly  admitted  among  the 
gymnastic  sports.  The  dancers  danced  to  the  notes  of  the  tim- 
brel ;  they  exhibited  many  inflections  of  the  body  and  many  ges- 
ticulations with  the  hands  ;  they  danced,  beating  the  floor  in  a  cir- 
cle, following  the  one  they  had  chosen  for  a  leader,  with  regular 
and  artificial  pulsations  of  the  feet,  Exod.  15:  20.  Judg.  11:  34. 
1  Sam.  18:  6 — 7.  Jer.  31:  4,  13.  Sometimes  men  who  were  singers 
or  musicians,  took  a  part  in  these  dances ;  in  this  case  the  singers 
went  forward,  those  who  played  on  instruments  followed,  and  the 
dancing  women  girded  them  on  both  sides,  Ps.  68:  26.  The  dance 
was  called  in  Hebrew  biflft;  it  was  practised  on  the  national  fes- 
tivals, and  made  part  of  the  sacred  worship.  The  nobles  and  the 
princes  of  the  people  engaged  in  this  ceremony,  but  did  not  min- 
gle in  it  with  the  common  multitude.  This  was  the  ground  of  the 
reproach,  which  Michal  threw  out  against  David,  who  danced  be- 
fore the  ark  in  company  with  the  rest  of  the  people,  2  Sam.  6:  16 
— 23.  In  the  later  periods  of  the  Jewish  history,  the  kings  and 
great  men  appear  to  have  been  rather  the  spectators,  than  the  par- 
ties in  dances,  see  Matt.  6:  21 — 25. 

Note. — The  art  of  oratory  never  flourished  in  the  East.  Paul, 
accordingly,  when  he  appeared  among  the  Greeks  who  estimated 
eloquence  very  highly,  although  it  was  at  that  time  degenerate  and 
declining,  was  not  listened  to  with  that  interest,  with  which  he 
might  otherwise  have  been.  Paul,  however,  displays,  in  his  speech- 
es recorded  in  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  a  good  arrangement  and 
no  little  skill  in  the  art  of  persuasion. 


105 


CHAPTER  VI. 

ON  THE  SCIENCES. 

§  98.  The  Origin  of  the  Sciences. 

When  the  arts  had  been  reduced  by  long  practice  and  medita- 
tion to  fixed  and  definite  rules,  they  were  succeeded  by  the  sci- 
ences ;  which  in  fact  are  nothing  more  than  the  reduction,  into  a 
more  regular  and  philosophic  form,  of  those  rules  and  theories, 
which  have  been  ascertained  and  approved  by  inquiry  and  prac- 
tice. We  are  able  to  discover  the  beginnings,  the  indistinct  ves- 
tiges of  the  sciences  in  very  remote  periods  ;  and  in  some  nations 
more  strikingly  than  in  others.  The  Egyptians  and  Babylonians 
excelled  .  in  scientific  knowledge  all  others.  The  Arabians  also 
are  favourably  mentioned  in  this  respect,  1  K.  4:  30 ;  also  the 
Edomites,  Jer.  49:  7.  The  Hebrews  became  renowned  for  their 
intellectual  culture  in  the  time  of  David,  and  especially  of  Solo- 
mon, who  is  said  to  have  surpassed  all  others  in  wisdom  ;  a  cir- 
cumstance, which  was  the  ground  of  the  many  visits,  which  were 
paid  to  him  by  distinguished  foreigners,  1  K.  5:  9—14.  His  ex- 
ample, which  was  truly  an  illustrious  one,  was  beyond  question 
imitated  by  other  kings.  The  literature  of  the  Hebrews  was  lim- 
ited chiefly  to  ethics,  religion,  the  history  of  their  nation,  and  nat- 
ural history ;  on  which  last  subject,  Solomon  wrote  many  treatises 
no  longer  extant.  The  Hebrews  made  but  little  progress  in  sci- 
ence and  literature  after  the  time  of  Solomon.  During  their  cap- 
tivity, it  is  true,  they  acquired  many  foreign  notions,  with  which 
they  had  not  been  previously  acquainted ;  and  they  subsequent- 
ly borrowed  much,  both  of  truth  and  of  falsehood,  from  the  phi- 
losophy of  the  Greeks.  The  author  of  the  book  of  Wisdom,  with 
some  others  of  the  Jewish  writers,  has  made  pretty  good  use  of 
the  Greek  philosophy.  It  is  clear,  notwithstanding  this,  that  the 
Jews  after  the  captivity  fell  below  their  ancestors  in  respect  to 
history ;  as  the  published  annals  of  that  period  are  not  of  a  kin- 
dred character,  with  those  of  the  primitive  ages  of  their  country. 
14 


106  $99.   HISTORY,  GENEALOGY,  AND  CHRONOLOGY. 


§  99.  History,  Genealogy,  and  Chronology. 

That  the  art  of  historical  writing  was  anciently  much  cultivated 
in  the  East,  the  Bible  itself  is  an  ample  testimony  ;  for  it  not  only 
relates  the  prominent  events,  from  the  creation  down  to  the  fifth 
century  before  Christ,  but  speaks  of  many  historical  books,  which 
have  now  perished  ;  and  also  of  many  monuments,  erected  in  com- 
memoration of  remarkable  achievements  and  furnished  with  ap- 
propriate inscriptions.  These  monuments  are  denominated  by  va- 
rious names,  as  !r?2i£73  ,  *P ,  "p~*2T  •  The  Babylonians  also,  the  As- 
syrians, the  Persians,  and  Tyrians,  had  their  Historical  Annals. 
Among  the  Egyptians,  there  was  a  separate  order,  viz.  the  Priests, 
one  part  of  whose  duty  it  was,  to  write  the  history  of  their  coun- 
try. In  the  primitive  ages  the  task  of  composing  annals  fell  in 
most  nations  upon  the  priests,  but  at  a  later  period  the  king  had 
his  own  secretaries,  whose  special  business  it  was  to  record  the 
royal  sayings  and  achievements.  The  prophets  among  the  He- 
brews recorded  the  events  of  their  own  times,  and,  in  the  earliest 
periods,  the  genealogists  interwove  many  historical  events  with 
their  accounts  of  the  succession  of  families.  Indeed,  it  should  not 
be  forgotten,  that  ancient  history  generally  partakes  more  of  a 
genealogical,  than  of  a  chronological  character.  Hence  the  Hebrew 
phrase  for  genealogies,  nilbin  *VSI9  ,  is  used  also  for  history,  Gen. 
6:  9.  10:  1  ;  and  hence  no  epoch,  more  ancient  than  that  of  Na- 
bonassar,  is  any  where  found.  In  the  Bible,  however,  this  defect, 
in  regard  to  a  regular  chronological  system,  is  in  a  manner  com- 
pensated by  the  insertion  in  various  places  of  definite  periods  of 
time,  and  by  chronological  genealogies.  In  giving  a  concise  ac- 
count of  the  genealogy  of  a  person,  the  Hebrews,  as  well  as  the 
Arabs,  took  the  liberty  to  omit,  according  to  their  own  pleasure, 
one  or  more  generations,  Ruth  4:  18,  22.  Ezra  7:  1 — 5.  Matt,  h  8. 
It  was  considered  so  much  of  an  honor,  to  have  a  name  and  a  place 
in  these  family  annals,  that  the  Hebrews,  from  their  first  exis- 
tence as  a  nation,  had  public  genealogists,  denominated  ^Eftc , 

Not  only  the  Hebrews,  but,  if  we  may  credit  Herodotus  and 
Diodorus  Siculus,  the  Egyptians  also,  assigned  a  certain  period  to 
a  generation.    According  to  their  estimation,  three  generations 


§  100.  ARITHMETIC,  MATHEMATICS,  ETC.  107 


made  a  hundred  years.  In  the  time  of  Abraham,  however,  when 
men  lived  to  a  greater  age,  a  hundred  years  made  a  generation. 
This  is  clear  from  Gen.  15:  13,  16.  and  from  the  circumstance,  that 
Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob  dwelt  two  hundred  and  fifteen  years  in 
the  land  of  Canaan,  and  yet  there  were  only  two  generations. 

§  100.  Arithmetic,  Mathematics,  Astronomy,  and  Astrology. 

I.  Arithmetic.  The  more  simple  methods  of  arithmetical  cal- 
culation are  spoken  of  in  the  Pentateuch,  as  if  they  were  well 
known.  The  merchants  of  that  early  period  must,  for  their  own 
convenience,  have  been  possessed  of  some  method  of  operating 
by  numbers.  Arid  that  they  were  able  to  do  it,  to  some  consider- 
able extent,  may  be  argued  from  the  fact,  that  they  had  separate 
words,  viz.  to-j ,  r"DS"">  ,  for  so  large  a  number  as  10,000,  Gen.  24: 
60.  Lev.  26:  8.  Deut.  32:  30. 

II.  Mathematics.  By  this  we  understand  geometry,  mensura- 
tion, navigation,  &,c.  As  far  as  a  knowledge  of  them  was  abso- 
lutely required  by  the  condition  and  employments  of  the  people, 
we  may  well  suppose  that  knowledge  to  have  actually  existed ; 
although  no  express  mention  is  made  of  them. 

III.  Astronomy.  The  interests  of  agriculture  and  navigation  re- 
quired some  knowledge  of  astronomy.  An  evidence,  that  an  at- 
tempt was  made  at  a  very  early  period,  to  regulate  the  year  by 
the  annual  revolution  of  the  sun,  may  be  found  in  the  fact,  that 
the  Jewish  months  were  divided  into  thirty  days  each,  see  Gen. 
7:  11.  S:  4.  In  astronomy,  the  Egyptians,  Babylonians,  and  Phe- 
nicians  exhibited  great  superiority.  We  are  informed,  there  were 
magicians  or  enchanters  in  Egypt,  Exod.  7: 11.  Lev.  20:  27.  19:  31. 
Deut.  18:  10.  denominated  in  Hebrew  fi^BiSStt  ,  because  they  com- 
puted eclipses  of  the  sun  and  moon,  and  pretended  to  the  people, 
that  they  produced  them  by  the  efficacy  of  their  own  enchant- 
ments. Some  of  the  constellations  are  mentioned  by  name,  Job 
9:  9.  38:  31,  32.  Is.  13:  10.  Amos  5:  8.  2  K.  23:  5. 

IV.  Astrology.  It  is  by  no  means  a  matter  of  wonder,  that  the 
Hebrews  did  not  devote  greater  attention  to  astronomy,  since  the 
study  of  astrology,  which  was  intimately  connected  with  that  of  as- 
tronomy, and  was  very  highly  estimated  among  the  neighbouring 
nations,  Is.  47:  9.  Jer.  27:  9.  50:  35.  Dan.  2:  13,  48.  was  interdict- 
ed to  the  Hebrews,  Deut.  18:  10.  Lev.  20:  27.    Daniel,  indeed, 


108  §  101.  DIVISION  OF  THE  DAY  AND  NIGHT. 

studied  the  art  of  astrology  at  Babylon,  but  he  did  not  practise  it, 
Dan.  1:  20.  2:  2.  The  astrologers,  (and  those  wise  men  mention- 
ed in  Matt.  2:  1,  et  seq.  appear  to  have  been  such,)  divided  the 
heavens  into  apartments  or  habitations,  to  each  one  of  which 
apartments,  they  assigned  a  ruler  or  president.  This  fact  devel- 
opes  the  origin  of  the  word,  Etil£t6ov\,  b^a,  or  the  lord  of 
the  (celestial)  dwelling,  Matt.  10:  25.  12:24,27.  Mark  3:  22.  Luke 
11:  15—19. 

§  101.  Division  of  the  Day  and  Night. 

The  Hebrews,  in  conformity  with  the  Mosaic  law,  reckoned 
the  day  from  evening  to  evening.  The  natural  day,  i.  e.  the  por- 
tion of  time  from  sunrise  to  sunset,  was  divided  by  the  Hebrews, 
as  it  is  now  by  the  Arabians,  into  six  unequal  parts. 

These  divisions  were  as  follows  : 

I.  'IfcVti,  also  P)^3,  the  break  of  day.  The  portion  of  time  was 
at  a  recent  period  divided  into  two  parts,  in  imitation  of  the  Per- 
sians ;  the  first  of  which  began,  when  the  eastern,  the  second, 
when  the  western  division  of  the  horizon  was  illuminated.  The 
authors  of  the  Jerusalem  Talmud  divided  it  into  four  parts,  the 
first  of  which  was  called  in  Hebrew  1h|ll  r}feK,  which  occurs  in 
Ps.  22:  1.  and  corresponds  to  the  phrase  Muv  tiqmi  in  the  New 
Testament,  Mark  16:  2.  John  20:  1. 

II.  Ip.'z,  the  morning  or  sunrise. 

III.  E'rn  ch,  the  heat  of  the  day.  It  begins  about  nine  o'clock, 
Gen.  18:  1.  1  Sam.  11:  11. 

IV.  ,  midday. 

V.  t3T?n  rpn,  the  cool  of  the  day,  literally  the  wind  of  the  day. 
This  expression  is  grounded  in  the  fact,  that  a  wind  commences 
blowing  regularly  for  a  few  hours  before  sunset,  and  continues  till 
evening,  Gen.  3:  8. 

VI.  the  evening.  It  was  divided  into  two  parts,  fi^S'iy ; 
the  first  of  which  began  according  to  the  Karaites  and  Samaritans 
at  sunset,  the  second,  when  it  began  to  grow  dark.  But  accord- 
ing to  the  Rabbins,  the  first  commenced  just  before  sunset,  the 
second  precisely  at  sunset.  The  Arabians  agree  with  the  Karaites 
and  Samaritans ;  and  in  this  way  the  Hebrews  appear  to  have  com- 
puted previous  to  the  captivity. 


§  101.  DIVISION  OF  THE  DAY  AND  NIGHT.  109 

Hours,  rt^tt) .  The  mention  of  them  occurs  first  in  Dan.  3:  6, 
15.  5:  5.  Hours  were  first  measured  by  gnomons,  which  merely 
indicated  the  meridian  ;  afterwards,  by  the  hour-watch,  GKia&rjgov  ; 
and  subsequently  still,  by  the  clepsydra,  or  instrument  for  measur- 
ing time  by  means  of  water.  The  hour  watch  or  dial,  otherwise 
called  the  sun-dial,  is  mentioned  in  the  reign  of  king  Hezekiah, 
2  Kgs.  20:  9,  10.  Is.  38:  8.  Its  being  called  "  the  sun-dial  of  Ahaz," 
renders  it  probable,  that  Ahaz  first  introduced  it  from  Babylon, 
whence  also  Anaximenes  the  Milesian  brought  the  first  skiatheron 
into  Greece.  This  instrument  was  of  no  use  during  the  night, 
nor  indeed,  during  a  cloudy  day.  In  consequence  of  this  defect, 
the  clepsydra  was  invented,  which  was  used  in  Persia,  as  late  as 
the  17th  century,  in  its  simplest  form. 

The  clepsydra  was  a  small  circular  vessel,  constructed  of  thin- 
ly beaten  copper  or  brass,  and  having  a  small  perforation  through 
the  bottom.  It  was  placed  in  another  vessel  filled  with  water. 
The  diameter  of  the  hole,  in  the  bottom  of  the  clepsydra,  was 
such,  that  it  filled  with  water  in  three  hours,  and  sunk.  It  was 
necessary,  that  there  should  be  a  servant  to  tend  it ;  who  should 
take  it  up,  when  it  had  sunk,  pour  out  the  water,  and  place  it  again 
empty,  on  the  surface  of  the  water  in  the  vase. 

The  hours  of  principal  note,  in  the  course  of  the  day,  were 
the  third,  the  sixth,  and  the  ninth.  These  hours,  it  would  seem, 
were  consecrated  by  Daniel  to  prayer,  Dan.  6:  10.  comp.  Acts  2: 
15.  3:  1.  10:  9.  The  day  was  divided  into  twelve  hours,  which  of 
course  varied  in  length,  being  shorter  in  the  winter  and  longer  in 
the  summer,  John  11:9.  In  tjie  winter,  therefore,  the  clepsydras 
were  covered  internally  with  wax,  that  the  water  might  subside 
from  them  more  rapidly.  The  hours  were  numbered  from  the 
rising  of  the  sun,  so  that  at  the  season  of  the  equinox,  the  third 
corresponded  to  the  ninth  of  our  reckoning,  the  sixth  to  our 
twelfth,  and  the  ninth  to  3  o'clock  in  the  afternoon.  At  other 
seasons  of  the  year,  it  is  necessary  to  observe  the  time,  when  the 
sun  rises,  and  reduce  the  hours  to  our  time  accordingly.  We  ob- 
serve, therefore,  that  the  sun  in  Palestine,  at  the  summer  solstice, 
rises  at  five  of  our  time,  and  sets  about  seven.  At  the  winter  sols- 
tice, it  rises  about  seven  and  sets  about  five. 

Before  the  captivity,  the  night  was  divided  into  three  watches. 
The  first,  which  continued  till  midnight,  was  denominated  viao 


110 


§  102.   OF  WEEKS. 


rnn^dN  the  commencing  or  first  watch,  Lam.  2:  19.  The  second 
was  denominated  rtjteTOq  rnS'-pN  the  middle  Watch,  and  continu- 
ed from  midnight,  till  the  crowing  of  the  cock,  Judg.  7:  19.  The 
third,  called  np.zrj  rnb'litf  the  morning  watch,  extended  from  the 
second  to  the  rising  of  the  sun.  These  divisions  and'  names  ap- 
pear to  have  owed  their  origin  to  the  watches  of  the  Levites  in  the 
tabernacle  and  temple,  Exod.  14:  24.  1  Sam.  11:  11.  In  the  time 
of  Christ  however,  the  night,  in  imitation  of  the  Romans,  was  di- 
vided into  four  watches.  According  to  the  English  mode  of  reck- 
oning they  were  as  follows. 

I.  Oqi,  the  evening,  from  twilight  to  nine  o'clock. 

II.  Mioovuxuov,  the  midnight,  from  nine  to  twelve. 

III.  ' A).txvo(jo(f.o)vtu,  the  cock-croicing,  from  twelve  to  three. 

IV.  Hyoit ,  from  three  o'clock  till  day-break. 

The  asssertions  of  the  Talmudists  in  opposition  to  this  statement 
are  not  to  be  regarded. 

§  102.  Op  Weeks. 

A  period  of  seven  days,  under  the  usual  name  of  a  week,  Miflj , 
is  mentioned  as  far  back  as  the  time  of  the  deluge,  Gen.  7:  4,  10. 
8:  10,  12.  also  Gen.  29:  27,  28.  It  must  therefore,  be  considered 
a  very  ancient  division  of  time,  especially,  as  the  various  nations, 
among  whom  it  has  been  noticed,  for  instance  the  Nigri  in  Africa, 
(see  Oldendorp's  Gesch.  der  Mission,  I.  308.)  appear  to  have  re- 
ceived it  from  the  sons  of  Noah.  The  enumeration  of  the  days 
of  the  week  commenced  at  Sunday.  Saturday  was  the  last  or 
seventh,  and  was  the  Hebrew  sabbath,  or  day  of  rest.  The  Egyp- 
tians gave  to  the  days  of  the  week  the  same  names,  that  they 
assigned  to  the  planets.  From  the  circumstance,  that  the  sabbath 
was  the  principal  day  of  the  week,  the  whole  period  of  seven 
days  was  likewise  called  n3*3 ,  Syriac  \&£±m  ,  in  1  he  New  Testa- 
ment, oapfiaiov  and  odfiftaict.  The  Jews  accordingly,  in  desig- 
nating the  successive  days  of  the  week,  were  accustomed  to  say, 
the  first  day  of  the  sabbath,  i.  e.  of  the  week,  the  second  day  of  the 
sabbath,  viz.  Sunday,  Monday,  &c.  Mark  16:  2,  9.  Luke  24:  1. 
John  20:  1,  19.  In  addition  to  the  week  of  days,  the  Jews  had 
three  other  seasons,  denominated  weeks,  Lev.  25:  1 — 17.  Deut. 
16:  9,  10. 


§  103.  OF  THE  MONTHS  AND  THE  YEAR. 


Ill 


I.  The  week  of  weeks.  It  was  a  period  of  seven  weeks  or  forty 
nine  days,  which  was  succeeded  on  the  fiftieth  day  by  the  feast  of 
pentecost,  Greek  Ttevitjxoozt]  ,ffiy,  Deut.  16;  9,  10. 

II.  The  week  of  years.  This  was  a  period  of  seven  years,  dur- 
ing the  last  of  which,  the  (and  remained  unfilled,  and  the  people 
enjoyed  a  sabbath  or  season  of  rest. 

III.  The  week  of  seven  sabbatical  years.  It  was  a  period  of 
forty-nine  years,  and  was  succeeded  by  the  year  of  jubilee,  Lev.  25: 
1—22.  26:  34. 

§  103.  Of  the  Months  and  the  Year. 

.  The  lunar  changes  without  doubt  were  first  employed  in  the 
measurement  of  time.  Weeks,  however,  were  not,  as  some  sup- 
pose, suggested  by  these  changes,  since  four  weeks  make  only 
twenty-eight  days,  while  the  lunar  period  is  twenty-nine  and  a 
half.  Nor  is  it  rational  to  suppose,  that  the  changes  of  the  moon 
first  suggested  the  method  of  computation  by  years.  Years  were 
regulated  at  first  by  the  return  of  summer  or  autumn.  But  when 
in  the  progress  of  time  it  was  discovered,  that  the  ripe  fruits,  by 
which  the  year  had  been  previously  limited,  statedly  returned  af- 
ter about  twelve  lunar  months,  or  three  hundred  and  fifty-four 
days,  the  year  was  regulated  by  those  months,  and  restricted  to 
that  number  of  days.  In  the  course  of  seventeen  years,  however, 
it  was  seen,  that,  on  the  return  of  the  same  month,  all  the  appear- 
ances of  nature  were  reversed.  Hence,  as  is  evident  from  the 
history  of  the  deluge,  an  attempt  was  made  to  regulate  the  months 
by  the  motion  of  the  sun,  and  to  assign  to  each  of  them  thirty  days  ; 
but  it  was,  nevertheless,  observed,  after  ten  or  twenty  years,  that 
there  was  still  a  defect  of  five  days. 

Moses  did  not  make  any  new  arrangement  in  regard  to  the  lu- 
nar months  of  the  Hebrews,  nor  the  year,  which  was  solar,  but  in 
order  to  secure  a  proper  reduction  of  the  lunar  to  the  solar  year, 
he  obligated  the  priests,  to  present  at  the  altar  on  the  second  day  of 
the  passover,  or  the  sixteenth  day  after  the  first  new  moon  in  April, 
a  ripe  sheaf.  For  if  they  saw  on  the  last  month  of  the  year,  that 
the  grain  would  not  be  ripe,  as  expected,  they  were  compelled  to 
make  an  intercalation,  which  commonly  happened  on  the  third  year. 
After  their  departure  from  Egypt,  there  existed  among  the 


112  §  103.  OF  THE  MONTHS,  AND  THE  TEAR. 


Hebrews  two  modes  of  reckoning  the  months  of  the  year  ;  the 
one  civil,  the  other  sacred.  The  beginning  of  the  civil  year  was 
reckoned  from  the  seventh  month,  or  Tishri,  i.  e.  the  first  new- 
moon  in  October.  The  commencement  of  the  sacred  year  was 
reckoned  from  the  month  Nisan,  or  the  first  new-moon  in  April, 
because  the  Hebrews  departed  from  Egypt  on  the  fifteenth  day  of 
that  month,  Exod.  12:  2.  The  prophets  use  this  reckoning.  The 
civil  year,  which  was  the  more  ancient,  was  used  only  in  civil  and 
agricultural  concerns.  The  Jewish  Rabbins  say,  that  March  and 
September,  instead  of  April  and  October,  were  the  initial  months, 
of  these  two  years.  That  they  were  so  at  a  late  period  is  admit- 
ted, but  the  change  was  probably  owing  to  the  example  of  the  Ro- 
mans, who  began  their  year  with  the  month  of  March.  The  Jews, 
being  pleased  with  their  example  in  this  respect,  or  overruled  by 
their  authority,  adopted  the  same  practice.  That  this  is  the  most 
probable  statement,  is  evident  also  from  the  fact,  that  the  position 
of  the  Rabbins  is  opposed  not  only  by  Josephus,  but  by  the  usage 
of  the  Syriac  and  Arabic  languages  ;  from  the  fact  also,  that  the  pre- 
scribed observances  of  the  three  great  festival  days  will  not  agree 
with  the  months  of  March  and  September,  as  has  been  shown  by 
Michaelis,  see  Commentat.  de  Mensibus  Hebraeorum  in  Soc.  Reg. 
Goett.  1763—1768,  p.  10.  et  seq. 

Months,  WCSsmi  sometimes  also  called  t3"Minft,  from  the  circum- 
stance of  their  commencing  with  the  new-moon,  anciently  had  no 
separate  names,  with  the  exception  of  the  first,  which  was  called 
Abib,  i.  e.  "  the  month  of  the  young  ears  of  corn,"  Exod.  13:  4. 
23:  15.  34:  18.  Deut.  16:  1.  During  the  captivity,  the  Hebrews 
adopted  the  Babylonian  names  for  their  months.  They  were  as 
follows ; 

I.  fD"»: — Nisan,  reckoned  from  new-moon  of  April,  Neh.  2:  1. 

II.  Tn — Zif  or  Ziv,  also  called  n^N, —      of  May,  1  K.  6:  1. 

III.  "p/p— Sivan,  of  June,  Est.  8:  9. 

IV.  nan — Tammuz,  of  July. 

V.  32* — Ab,  of  August. 

VI.  ^b«— Elul,  of  Sept.  Neh.  6:  15. 

VII.  'n'iSn— Tishri,  also  tftjiy^rt  rTV  ,      of  Oct.  1  K.  8:  2. 

VIII.  b*l'3- — Bul,  also  fjttjrj-ja,  of  Nov.  1  K.  6:  38. 

IX.  Kislev,  of  Dec.  Neh.  1:  !. 

X.  natt—  Tebeth,  of  Jan.  Est.  2:  16. 


§104.   SURVEYING,  THE  MECHANIC  ARTS,  ETC.  113 


XI.  tto'ij  — Shebat,  of  February,  Zech.  1:  7. 

XII.  TIN  —  Adar,  of  March,  Est.  3:  7. 

The  first  month  here  mentioned,  Nisan,  was  originally  called 
Abib.    The  intercalary  month  is  denominated  in  Hebrew  "Tltt* 

Note.  The  division  of  the  year  into  six  parts  has  already  been 
mentioned  §  19.  and  need  not  be  repeated  here  ;  but  we  cannot 
avoid  saying  a  few  words  on  a  subject,  connected  with  the  present 
one,  viz.  the  longevity  of  the  antediluvians.  Certain  critics  have 
put  their  skill  into  requisition  to  convert  the  hundreds  of  their  years 
into  tens,  or  into  quarters  of  years,  or  into  months,  or  into  sum- 
mers and  winters.  Certainly  they  forget,  that  the  orientals  of  the 
earliest  period,  as  well  as  the  modern  Arabs,  not  only  had  a 
knowledge  of  the  proper  solar  year,  but  divided  it  both  into  months 
and  into  six  periods  of  two  months  each.  Clearly  then,  if  the  au- 
thor of  the  first  part  of  Genesis  had  meant  to  say,  that  the  antedilu- 
vians lived  so  many  months  or  other  less  periods  of  time,  instead  of 
so  many  years,  he  would  have  said  so,  in  the  terms  commonly  used 
to  express  those  minor  divisions.  Besides,  the  attempt,  to  reduce 
the  years  of  the  antediluvians  to  months  especially,  will  make  them, 
in  some  instances,  the  fathers  of  children  at  five  years  of  age. 
What  some  of  the  ancients  say,  in  regard  to  a  year  much  shorter 
than  the  solar  one,  is,  as  Diodorus  Siculus  expressly  assures  us, 
nothing  more  than  a  mere  conjecture,  originated,  to  account  for 
the  great  number  of  years,  which  the  Egyptians  and  other  nations 
attributed  to  their  ancestry. 


§  104.  Surveying,  the  Mechanic  Arts,  and  Geography. 

I.  Surveying.  Measures  of  length  are  mentioned,  Gen.  6:  15, 16. 
A  knowledge  of  the  method  of  measuring  lands  is  implied  in  the  ac- 
count given  Gen.  47:  20 — 27.  Mention  is  made,  in  the  books  of  Job 
and  Joshua,  of  a  line  or  rope  for  the  purpose  of  taking  measurements, 
*)£  ,  bnfr .  It  was  brought  by  the  Hebrews  out  of  Egypt,  where, 
according  to  the  unanimous  testimony  of  antiquity,  surveying  first 
had  its  origin,  and,  in  consequence  of  the  inundations  of  the  Nile, 
was  carried  to  the  greatest  height.  It  was  here,  as  we  may  well 
conclude,  that  the  Hebrews  acquired  so  much  knowledge  of  the 
principles  of  that  science,  as  to  enable  them,  with  the  aid  of  the 
15 


114  §  MEDICINE. 

measuring  line  abovementioned,  to  partition  and  set  off  geograph- 
ically the  whole  land  of  Canaan.  The  weights  used  in  weighing 
solid  bodies,  Gen.  23:  15,  16.  provided  they  were  similar  to  each 
other  in  form,  imply  a  knowledge  of  the  rudiments  of  stereometry. 

II.  The  Mechanic  Arts.  No  express  mention  is  made  of  the  me- 
chanic arts;  but  that  a  knowledge  of  them,  notwithstanding,  ex- 
isted, may  be  inferred  from  the  erection  of  Noah's  ark  and  the 
tower  of  Babel  ;  also  from  what  is  said  of  the  Egyptian  chariots, 
Gen.  41:  43.  45:  19.  50:  9.  Exod.  14:  6,  7;  and  from  the  instru- 
ments used  by  the  Egyptians  in  irrigating  their  lands,  Deut.  11:  10. 
It  is  implied  in  the  mention  of  these,  and  subsequently  of  many  oth- 
er instruments,  that  other  instruments  still,  not  expressly  named, 
but  which  were  of  course  necessary  for  the  formation  of  those 
which  arc  named,  were  in  existence. 

III.  Geography.  Geographical  notices  occur  so  frequently  in 
the  Bible,  that  it  is  not  necessary  to  say  much  on  this  point,  see 
Gen.  10:1— 30.  12:4—15.  14:1—16.  2S:  2— 9.  49:13,&,c.  Per- 
haps, however,  it  deserves  to  be  repeated,  that,  in  the  time  of 
Joshua,  the  whole  of  Palestine  was  subjected  to  a  geographical 
division,  Josh.  18:  9.  It  is  evident  then,  from  their  geographical 
knowledge,  as  well  as  from  other  circumstances  already  mention- 
ed, that  there  must  have  existed  among  the  Hebrews  the  rudiments, 
if  nothing  more,  of  mathematical  science. 

§  105.  Medicine. 

At  Babylon  the  sick,  when  they  were  first  attacked  with  a  dis- 
ease, were  left  in  the  streets,  for  the  purpose  of  learning  from 
those  who  might  pass  them,  what  practices,  or  what  medicines 
they  had  found  of  assistance,  when  afflicted  with  a  similar  disease. 
This  was  perhaps  done  also  in  other  countries.  The  Egyptians 
carried  their  sick  into  the  temples  of  Serapis ;  the  Greeks  carried 
theirs  into  those  of  Esculapius.  In  both  of  these  temples,  there 
were  preserved  written  receipts  of  the  means  by  which  vari- 
ous cures  had  been  effected.  With  the  aid  of  these  recorded 
remedies,  the  art  of  healing  assumed  in  the  progress  of  time  the 
aspect  of  a  science.  It  assumed  such  a  form,  first,  in  Egypt,  and 
at  a  much  more  recent  period,  in  Greece  ;  but  it  was  not  long  be- 
fore those  of  the  former  were  surpassed  in  excellence  by  the  phy- 


§  105.  MEDICINE. 


115 


sicians  of  the  latter  country.    That  the  Egyptians,  however,  had 
no  little  skill  in  medicine,  may  be  gathered  from  what  is  said  in 
the  Pentateuch  respecting  the  marks  of  leprosy.    That  some  of 
the  medical  prescriptions  should  fail  of  bringing  the  expected  re- 
lief, is  nothing  strange,  since  Pliny  himself  mentions  some,  which 
are  far  from  producing  the  effects,  he  ascribes  to  them.  Physicians, 
fc\S;?n,  NSH,  are  mentioned  first  in  Gen.  50:  2.  Exod.  21:  19.  Job 
13:  4.   Some  acquaintance  with  chirurgical  operations  is  implied  in 
the  rite  of  circumcision,  Gen.  17:  11— ;14.    There  is  ample  evi- 
dence, that  the  Israelites  had  some  acquaintance  with  the  inter- 
nal structure  of  the  human  system,  although  it  does  not  appear, 
that  dissections  of  the  human  body  for  medical  purposes  were 
made  till  as  late  as  the  time  of  Ptolemy.    That  physicians  some- 
times undertook  to  exercise  their  skill  in  removing  diseases  of  an 
internal  nature,  is  evident  from  the  circumstance  of  David's  play- 
ing upon  the  harp,  to  cure  the  malady  of  Saul,  1  Sam.  16:  16.  The 
art  of  healing  was  committed  among  the  Hebrews,  as  well  as 
among  the  Egyptians,  to  the  priests ;  who,  indeed,  were  obliged, 
by  a  law  of  the  state,  to  take  cognizance  of  leprosies,  Lev. 
13:  1 — 14,  57.  Deut.  24:  8,  9.    Reference  is  made  to  physicians 
who  were  not  priests,  and  to  instances  of  sickness,  disease,  healing, 
&c.  in  the  following  passages,  1  Sam.  16:  16.  1  K.  1:  2 — 4.  15:  23. 
2K.  8:  29.  9:  15.  Is.  1:  6.  Jer.  8:  22.  Ezek.  30:  21.   Prov.  3:  18. 
11:  30.  12:  18.  16:  15.  29:  1.    The  probable  reason  of  king  Asa's 
not  seeking  help  from  God,  but  from  the  physicians,  as  mentioned 
2  Chron.  16:  12.  was,  that  they  had  not  at  that  period  recourse  to 
the  simple  medicines  which  nature  offered,  but  to  certain  super- 
stitious rites  and  incantations  ;  and  this,  no  doubt,  was  the  ground 
of  the  reflection  which  was  cast  upon  him.    The  balm  or  balsam, 
"■"iJfc,  ^Sfc,  was  particularly  celebrated  as  a  medicine,  Jer.  8:  22. 
46:  11.  51:  8.     That  mineral  baths  were  deemed  worthy  of  no- 
tice may  be  inferred  from  Gen.  36:  24.  [see  Gesenius  on  the  word 
D^ttV]    About  the  time  of  Christ,  the  Hebrew  physicians  both 
made  advancements  in  science,  and  increased  in  numbers,  Mark  5: 
26.  Luke  4:  23.  5:  31.  8:  43.  Josephus,  Antiq.  XVII.  6.  5.  It  ap- 
pears  from  the  Talmud,  Shabbath,  p.  110,  that  the  Hebrew  phy- 
sicians were  accustomed  to  salute  the  sick  by  saying,  "  Arise  from 
your  disease."  '  This  salutation  had  an  effect  in  the  mouth  of  Je- 
sus, Mark  5:  41.    According  to  the  Jerusalem  Talmud,  a  sick  man 


116  §  106.   PHYSICS,  NATURAL  HISTORY,  ETC. 

was  judged  to  be  in  a  way  of  recovery,  who  began  to  take  his  usual 
food,  comp.  Mark  5:  43. 

§  106.  Physics,  Natural  History,  and  Philosophy. 

Physics,  or  natural  philosophy,  has  secured  but  little  attention 
in  the  East.  A  knowledge  of  the  animal,  vegetable,  and  mine- 
ral kingdoms,  or  the  science  of  natural  history,  was  always  much 
more  an  object  of  interest.  We  are  informed  in  1  Kgs.  4:  33.  that 
Solomon  himself  had  given  a  description  of  the  animal  and  vegeta- 
ble kingdoms. 

Traces  of  philosophy,  strictly  so  called,  i.  e.  the  system  of  pre- 
vailing moral  opinions,  may  be  found  in  the  book  of  Job,  in  the 
3?th,  39th,  and  73d  Psalms,  also  in  the  books  of  Proverbs  and  Ec- 
clesiastes,  but  chiefly  in  the  apocryphal  book  of  Wisdom,  and  the 
writings  of  the  son  of  Sirach.  During  the  captivity,  the  Jews  ac- 
quired many  new  notions,  particularly,  from  the  Mehestani,  and 
appropriated  them,  as  occasion  offered,  to  their  own  purposes. 
They  at  length  became  acquainted  with  the  philosophy  of  the 
Greeks,  which  makes  its  appearance  abundantly  in  the  book  oi 
Wisdom.  After  the  captivity,  the  language,  in  which  the  sacred 
books  were  written,  was  no  longer  vernacular.  Hence  arose  the 
need  of  an  interpreter  on  the  sabbatic  year,  a  time,  when  the 
whole  law  was  read ;  and  also  on  the  sabbath  in  the  synagogues, 
which  had  been  recently  erected,  in  order  to  make  the  people 
understand  what  was  read.  These  interpreters  learnt  the  He- 
brew language  at  the  schools.  The  teachers  of  these  schools, 
who,  for  the  two  generations  preceding  the  time  of  Christ,  had 
maintained  some  acquaintance  with  the  Greek  philosophy,  were 
not  satisfied  with  a  simple  interpretation  of  the  Hebrew  idiom,  as 
it  stood,  but  shaped  the  interpretation,  so  as  to  render  it  conform- 
able to  their  philosophy.  Thus  arose  contentions,  which  gave 
occasion  for  the  various  sects  of  Pharisees,  Sadducees,  and  Essenes. 
In  the  time  of  our  Saviour,  divisions  had  arisen  among  the  Phari- 
sees themselves.  No  less  than  eighteen  nice  questions,  if  we  may 
believe  the  Jewish  Rabbins,  were  contested,  at  that  period,  be- 
tween the  schools  of  Hillel  and  Shammai.  One  of  which  ques- 
tions was  an  inquiry,  "  What  cause  was  sufficient  for  a  bill  of  di- 
vorce ?"    If  the  Shammai  and  Hillel  of  the  Talmud  are  the  same 


§  106.  PHILOSOPHY. 


117 


with  the  learned  men  mentioned  in  Josephus,  viz.  Sameas  and 
Pollio,  who  flourished  thirty-four  years  before  Christ,  then  Sham- 
mai  or  Sameas  is  undoubtedly  the  same  with  the  Simeon,  who  is 
mentioned  Luke  2:  25 — 35.  and  his  son  Gamaliel,  so  celebrated 
in  the  Talmud,  is  the  same  with  the  Gamaliel,  mentioned  Acts 
5:  34.  22:  3. 

Anciently  learned  men  were  denominated  among  the  Hebrews 
tffl&bri ,  as  among  the  Greeks  they  were  called  oocfoi,  i.  e.  wise 
men.  In  the  time  of  Christ  the  common  appellative  for  men  of 
that  description  was  ygajupaTtug ,  in  the  Hebrew  HEpD  ,  ascribe. 
They  were  addressed  by  the  honorary  title  of  Rabbi  3^  ,  *3>1 , 
i.  e.  great  or  master.  The  Jews,  in  imitation  of  the  Greeks,  had 
their  seven  wise  men,  who  were  called  Rabboni,  ]Sn  .  Gamaliel 
was  one  of  the  number.  They  called  themselves  the  children  of 
wisdom  ;  an  expression,  which  corresponds  very  nearly  to  the  Greek 
qdoooqog,  Matt.  11:  19.  Luke  7:  35.  The  heads  of  sects  were 
called  fathers,  Matt.  12:  27.  23:  1—9.  The  disciples,  tPyjflfcfi, 
were  denominated  sons  or  children.  The  Jewish  teachers,  at 
least  some  of  them,  had  private  lecture  rooms,  but  they  also  taught 
and  disputed  in  synagogues,  in  temples,  and  in  fact,  wherever  they 
could  find  an  audience.  The  method  of  these  teachers  was  the 
same  with  that,  which  prevailed  among  the  Greeks.  Any  disci- 
ple, who  chose,  might  propose  questions,  upon  which  it  was  the 
duty  of  the  teachers  to  remark  and  give  their  opinions,  Luke  2: 
46.  The  teachers  were  not  invested  with  their  functions  by  any 
formal  act  of  the  church  or  of  the  civil  authority  ;  they  were  self- 
constituted.  They  received  no  other  salary  than  some  voluntary 
present  from  the  disciples,  which  was  called  an  honorary,  Tip,r\, 
honorarium,  1  Tim.  5:  17.  They  acquired  a  subsistence  in  the 
main  by  the  exercise  of  some  art  or  handicraft.  That  they  took 
a  higher  seat  than  their  auditors,  although  it  was  probably  the 
case,  does  not  follow,  as  is  sometimes  supposed,  from  Luke  2:  46. 
According  to  the  Talmudists  they  were  bound  to  hold  no  conversa- 
tion with  women,  and  to  refuse  to  sit  at  table  with  the  lower  class 
of  people,  John  4:  27.  Matt.  9:  11.  The  subjects,  on  which  they 
taught  were  numerous,  commonly  intricate,  and  of  no  great  con- 
sequence ;  of  which  there  are  abundant  examples  in  the  Talmud. 


118 


§  106.   ACADEMICAL  DEGREE. 


Note. — A  sort  of  academical  degree  was  conferred  on  the  pu- 
pils in  the  Jewish  seminaries,  which,  after  the  destruction  of  Jeru- 
salem, were  established  at  Babylon  and  Tiberias.  The  circum- 
stances, attending  the  conferring  of  this  degree,  are  described  by 
Maimonides,  Jad  chazaka,  Lib.  VI.  4,  as  follows. 

I.  The  candidate  for  the  degree  was  examined,  both  in  re- 
spect to  his  moral  character  and  his  literary  acquisitions. 

II.  Having  undergone  this  examination  with  approbation,  the 
disciple  then  ascended  an  elevated  seat,  Matt.  23:  2. 

III.  A  writing  tablet  was  presented  to  him  to  signify,  that  he 
should  write  down  his  acquisitions,  since  they  might  escape  from 
his  memory,  and,  without  being  written  down,  be  lost. 

IV.  A  key  was  presented  to  signify,  that  he  might  now  open 
to  others  the  treasures  of  knowledge,  Luke  11:  52. 

V.  Hands  were  laid  upon  him  ;  a  custom  derived  from  Num. 
27:  18. 

VI.  ,  A  certain  power,  or  authority,  was  conferred  upon  him, 
probably  to  be  exercised  over  his  own  disciples. 

VII.  Finally,  he  was  saluted,  in  the  school  of  Tiberias,  with 
the  title  of  Rabbi,  3n  ,  in  the  school  of  Babylon,  with  that  of  Mas- 
ter, ~)72  . 


119 


CHAPTER  VII. 

OF  COMMERCE. 

§  107.  Antiquity  of  Commerce. 

Merchandize,  in  its  various  branches,  was  carried  on  in  the 
East,  at  the  earliest  period  of  which  we  have  any  account ;  and  it 
was  not  long  before  the  traffic  between  nations,  both  by  sea  and 
land,  was  very  considerable.  Accordingly  frequent  mention  is 
made  of  public  roads,  fording  places,  bridges,  and  beasts  of  bur- 
den ;  also  of  ships  for  the  transportation  of  property,  of  weights, 
measures,  and  coin,  both  in  the  oldest  parts  of  the  Bible,  and  in 
the  most  ancient  profane  histories,  Gen.  10:  4 — 5.  12:  5.  23:  16. 
37:  25,  26.  42:  1—5.  Judg.  5:  17.  Exod.  20:  23.  25:  4.  Deut.  3: 
14.  19:  3.  Josh.  13:  2.  12:  5.  13:  13.  1  Sam.  27:  8—10.  2  Sam. 
3:  3.  13:  37.  15:  8. 

§  108.  Commerce  of  the  Phenicians,  Arabians,  and  Egyptians. 

The  Phenicians  anciently  held  the  first  rank,  as  a  commercial 
nation.  They  were  in  the  habit,  either  themselves  in  person  or 
by  their  agents,  of  purchasing  goods  of  various  kinds  throughout 
all  the  East.  They  then  carried  them  in  ships  on  the  Mediterra- 
nean, as  far  as  the  shores  of  Africa  and  Europe,  brought  back  in 
return  merchandize  and  silver,  and  disposed  of  these  again  in  the 
more  Eastern  countries.  The  first  metropolis  of  the  Phenicians 
was  Sidon ;  afterwards  Tyre  became  the  principal  city.  Tyre 
was  built  two  hundred  and  forty  years  before  the  temple  of  Solo- 
mon, or  twelve  hundred  and  fifty  one  before  Christ.  The  Phenicians 
had  ports  of  their  own  in  almost  every  country,  the  most  distin- 
guished of  which  were  Carthage,  and  Tarshish  or  Tartessus  in 
Spain.  The  ships  from  the  latter  place  undertook  very  distant 
voyages ;  hence  any  vessels,  that  performed  distant  voyages,  were 
called  ships  of  Tarshish,  UPaHft  ni*3N.  Something  is  said  of  the 
commerce  of  the  Phenicians  in  the  27th  and  28th  chapters  of  Eze- 
kiel,  and  the  23d  chapter  of  Isaiah. 


120 


§  109.   MERCANTILE  ROUTS. 


The  inhabitants  of  Arabia  Felix  carried  on  a  commerce  with 
India.  They  carried  some  of  the  articles,  which  they  brought 
from  India,  through  the  straits  of  Babelmandeb  into  Abyssinia  and 
Egypt ;  some  they  transported  to  Babylon  through  the  Persian 
gulf  and  the  Euphrates ;  and  some  by  the  way  of  the  Red  Sea  to 
the  port  of  Eziongeber.  They  thus  became  rich,  though  it  is 
possible,  their  wealth  may  have  been  too  much  magnified  by  the 
ancients.  The  eminence  of  the  Egyptians,  as  a  commercial  na- 
tion, commences  with  the  reign  of  Necho  and  his  successor  Psam- 
meticus.  Their  commerce,  nevertheless,  was  not  great,  till  Alex- 
ander had  destroyed  Tyre  and  built  Alexandria. 


§  109.  Mercantile  Routs. 

The  Phenicians  sometimes  received  the  goods  of  India  by  way 
of  the  Persian  gulf,  where  they  had  colonies  in  the  islands  of 
Dedan,  Arad,  and  Tyre.  Sometimes  they  received  them  from 
the  Arabians,  who  either  brought  them  by  land  through  Arabia 
or  up  the  Red  Sea  to  Eziongeber.  In  the  latter  case,  having 
landed  them  at  the  port  mentioned,  they  transported  them  through 
the  country  by  the  way  of  Gaza  to  Phenicia.  The  Phenicians 
increased  the  amount  of  their  foreign  goods  by  the  addition  of 
those  which  .they  themselves  fabricated,  and  were  thus  enabled 
to  supply  all  parts  of  the  Mediterranean.  The  Egyptians  former- 
ly received  their  goods  from  the  Phenicians,  Arabians,  Africans, 
and  Abyssinians  ;  in  all  of  which  countries,  there  are  still  the  re- 
mains of  large  trading  towns.  But  in  a  subsequent  age,  they  im- 
ported goods  from  India  in  their  own  vessels,  and  eventually  car- 
ried on  an  export  trade  with  various  ports  on  the  Mediterranean. 
Oriental  commerce,  however,  was  chiefly  carried  on  by  land.  Ac- 
cordingly vessels  are  hardly  mentioned  in  the  Bible,  except  in  Ps. 
107:  23 — 30.  and  in  passages,  where  the  discourse  turns  upon 
the  Phenicians,  or  upon  the  naval  affairs  of  Solomon  and  Jehosh- 
aphat.  The  two  principal  routs  from  Palestine  into  Egypt,  were 
the  one  along  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean  from  Gaza  to  Pe- 
lusium,  and  the  other  from  Gaza  by  the  way  of  mount  Sinai  and  the 
Elanitic  branch  of  the  Red  Sea. 


§  110.   METHOD  OF   CARRYING  GOODS  BY  LAND.  121 

§  110.  Method  of  carrying  goods  by  land. 

Chariots  were  anciently  in  use  among  the  inhabitants  of  the 
East.  The  merchants,  notwithstanding,  transported  their  goods 
upon  camels ;  animals,  which  are  patient  of  thirst,  and  are  easily 
supported  in  the  deserts.  For  the  common  purpose  of  security 
against  depredations,  the  oriental  merchants  travelled  in  company, 
as  is  common  in  the  East  at  the  present  day.  A  large  travelling 
company  of  this  kind  was  called  a  caravan  or  carvan,  rnk , 
i~rh"]N.  A  smaller  one  was  called  Jcafile  or  kajle,  n^bfr ,  Greek 
Gvlodia,  Job  6:  18—20.  Gen.  37:  25.  Is.  21:  13.  Jer.  9:  2.' Judg.  5: 
6.  Luke  2:  44.  The  furniture  carried  by  the  individuals  of  a  cara- 
van consisted  of  a  mattress,  a  coverlet,  a  carpet  for  sitting  upon,  a 
round  piece  of  leather,  which  answered  the  purpose  of  a  table,  a 
few  pots  and  kettles  of  copper  covered  with  tin,  also  a  tin-plated 
cup,  which  was  suspended  before  the  breast  under  the  outer  gar- 
ment, and  was  used  for  drinking,  1  Sam.  26:  11,  12,  16;  leathern 
bags  for  holding  water,  tents,  lights,  and  provisions  in  quality  and 
abundance,  as  each  one  could  afford.  Ezek.  12:  3.  Every  car- 
avan had  a  leader  to  conduct  it  through  the  desert,  who  was  ac- 
quainted with  the  direction  of  its  rout,  and  with  the  cisterns  and 
fountains.  These  he  was  able  to  ascertain,  sometimes  from  heaps 
of  stones,  sometimes  by  the  character  of  the  soil,  and  when  other 
helps  failed  him,  by  the  stars,  Num.  10:  29—32.  Jer.  31:  21.  Is.  21: 
14.  When  all  things  are  in  readiness,  the  individuals,  who  compose 
the  caravan,  assemble  at  a  distance  from  the  city.  The  command- 
er of  the  caravan,  who  is  a  different  person  from  the  conductor  or 
leader,  and  is  chosen  from  the  wealthiest  of  its  members,  appoints 
the  day  of  their  departure.  A  similar  arrangement  was  adopted 
among  the  Jews,  whenever  they  travelled  in  large  numbers  to 
the  city  of  Jerusalem.  The  caravans  start  very  early,  some- 
times before  day.  They  endeavour  to  find  a  stopping  place  or 
station  to  remain  at  during  the  night,  which  shall  afford  them  a 
supply  of  water,  Job  6:  15 — 20.  They  arrive  at  their  stopping 
place  before  the  close  of  the  day,  and  while  it  is  yet  light,  prepare 
every  thing,  that  is  necessary  for  the  recommencement  of  their 
journey.  In  order  to  prevent  any  one  from  wandering  away  from 
the  caravan  and  getting  lost  during  the  night,  lamps  or  torch- 
es are  elevated  upon  poles  and  carried  before  it.  The  pillar  of 
16 


122  §111.   COMMERCE  OF  THE  HEBREWS. 

fire  answered  this  purpose  for  the  Israelites,  when  wandering  in 
the  wilderness.  Sometimes  the  caravans  lodge  in  cities ;  but 
when  they  do  not,  they  pitch  their  tents  so  as  to  form  an  encamp- 
ment, and  during  the  night  keep  watch  alternately  for  the  sake  of 
security.  In  the  cities  there  are  public  inns,  called  khanes  and 
caravansaries,  in  which  the  caravans  are  lodged  without  expense. 
They  are  large,  square  buildings,  in  the  centre  of  which  is  an 
area  or  open  court.  Caravansaries  are  denominated  in  the  Greek 
of  the  New  Testament  navdoyjlov,  'aoltuXvgiq,  and  aatctkv^a, 
Luke  2:  7.  10:  34.  The  first  mention  of  one  in  the  Old  Testament 
is  in  Jer.  41:  17,  EmE3  rvna.  It  was  situated  near  the  city  of 
Bethlehem. 

§  111.  Commerce  of  the  Hebrews. 

Moses  enacted  no  laws  in  favour  of  commerce,  although  there 
is  no  question,  that  he  saw  the  situation  of  Palestine  to  be  very 
favorable  for  it.  The  reason  of  this  was,  that  the  Hebrews  who 
were  designedly  set  apart  to  preserve  the  true  religion,  could  not 
mingle  with  foreign  idolatrous  nations  without  injury.  He,  there- 
fore, merely  inculcated  good  faith  and  honesty  in  buying  and  sell- 
ing, Lev.  19:  36,  37.  Deut.  25:  13—16 ;  and  left  all  the  other  in- 
terests of  commerce  to  a  future  age.  By  the  establishment,  how- 
ever, of  the  three  great  festivals,  he  gave  occasion  for  some  mer- 
cantile intercourse.  At  these  festivals  all  the  adult  males  of  the 
nation  were  yearly  assembled  at  one  place.  The  consequence 
was,  that  those,  who  had  any  thing  to  sell,  brought  it ;  while 
those,  who  wished  to  buy  articles,  came  with  the  expectation  of 
having  an  opportunity.  As  Moses,  though  he  did  not  encourage,  did 
not  interdict  foreign  commerce  ;  Solomon,  at  a  later  period,  not 
only  carried  on  a  traffic  in  horses,  as  already  stated,  but  sent  ships 
from  the  port  of  Eziongeber  through  the  Red  Sea  to  Ophir,  (probably 
the  coast  of  Africa,)  and  also  had  commercial  intercourse  even  with 
Spain,  1  K.  9:  26.  2  Chron.  9:  21.  This  traffic,  although  a  source  of 
emolument,  appears  to  have  been  neglected  after  the  death  of  Solo- 
mon. The  attempt  made  by  Jehoshaphat  to  restore  it,  was  frustrated 
by  his  ships  being  dashed  upon  the  rocks  and  destroyed,  1  K.  22:  48, 
49.  2  Chron.  20:  36.  Joppa,  though  not  a  very  convenient  one, 
was  properly  the  port  of  Jerusalem  ;  and  some  of  the  large  ves- 


I 


§  113.   MEASURES  OF  LENGTH.  123 

sels,  which  went  to  Spain,  sailed  from  it,  Jonah  1:3.  In  the  age  of 
EzekieJ,  the  commerce  of  Jerusalem  was  so  great,  that  it  gave  oc- 
casion of  envy  even  to  the  Tyrians  themselves,  Ezek.  26:  2.  After 
the  captivity,  a  great  number  of  Jews  became  merchants,  and  trav- 
elled for  the  purpose  of  traffic  into  all  countries.  About  the  year 
150  B.  C,  prince  Simon  rendered  the  port  at  Joppa  more  conven- 
ient, than  it  had  hitherto  been.  In  the  time  of  Pompey  the  Great, 
there  were  so  many  Jews  abroad  on  the  ocean,  even  in  the  char- 
acter of  pirates,  that  king  Antigonus  was  accused  before  him  of 
having  sent  them  out  on  purpose.  A  new  port  was  built  by  Herod 
at  Cesarea. 

§  112.  Weights  and  measures. 

Commerce  could  not  be  carried  on  without  coin,  nor  without  a 
system  of  weights  and  measures.  Weights  and  measures  were 
regulated  at  a  very  early  period  in  Asia.  Regulations  in  regard 
to  them  as  far  as  concerned  the  Hebrews  were  made  by  Moses, 
and  measures  and  weights  to  serve  as  models,  both  for  form  and 
contents,  were  deposited  in  the  tabernacle.  All  the  duties  in  re- 
gard to  this  subject  devolved,  among  the  Jews  as  well  as  among 
the  Egyptians,  upon  the  priests.  After  the  time  of  Solomon  the 
models  for  weights,  &,c.  were  deposited  in  the  temple  ;  consequent- 
ly, when  the  temple  was  destroyed,  they  perished  with  it.  The 
Hebrews,  while  in  captivity,  used,  as  might  be  expected,  the 
weights  and  measures  of  their  masters.  The  prophet  Ezekiel  is 
a  proof  of  this,  who  speaks  of  cubits  and  weights,  evidently  the 
same  with  those  in  use  after  the  captivity.  The  weights  and  meas- 
ures of  the  Jews,  therefore,  are  to  be  distinguished  into  those 
before,  and  those  after  the  captivity.  Whenever  they  are  men- 
tioned by  the  Alexandrine  translators,  or  by  Josephusy  they  belong 
to  the  latter  period.  The  amount  and  extent  of  weights  and  meas- 
ures before  the  captivity  cannot  be  accurately  determined. 

§  113.  Measures  of  Length. 

Almost  all  nations  have  taken  their  measures  of  length  from 
the  parts  of  the  human  body,  and  what  their  extent  was  among  the 
Jews  before  the  captivity  can  be  learnt  only  by  a  reference  to  those 
parts.  v 


124 


§  113.   MEASURES  OF  LENGTH. 


I.  *3itfi$ ,  a  finger  or  digit.  Its  length  was  about  the  breadth 
of  a  finger.  [According  to  the  tables,  appended  to  the  third  vol- 
ume of  Home's  Introduction  to  the  Scriptures,  which  are  taken 
chiefly  from  Dr.  Arbuthnot,  the  Jewish  digit  is  0  9 12th  of  an  En- 
glish inch.] 

II.  tW& ,  nob,  a  palm  or  four  digits,  otherwise  called  a  hand- 
breadth,  1  K.  7:  26.  comp.  2  Chron.  4:  5:  Jer.  52:  21. 

III.  rnt ,  a  span,  viz.  from  the  end  of  the  thumb  to  the  end  of 
the  little  finger,  or  three  palms,  Exod.  28:  16.  39:  9.  1  Sam.  17:  4. 

IV.  H72tt  ,  a  cubit.  It  extended  from  the  elbow  to  the  wrist, 
Ezek.  41:  8.  or  four  palms,  about  the  sixth  part  of  the  height  of 
the  human  body,  Deut.  3:  11.  1  Sam.  17:  4.  Ezekiel,  chap.  40:  5. 
43:  13.  mentions  a  cubit  of  five  palms,  i.  e.  the  extent  from  the 
elbow  to  the  knuckles.  This  appears  to  have  been  the  Babylonian 
or  new  cubit,  of  which  mention  is  made  in  2  Chron.  3:  3.  comp. 
Herodot.  I.  178.  and  Solinus  56.  2. 

V.  1733  ,  a  measure  which  was  probably  the  length  of  a  man's 
arm,  Judg.  3:  16. 

VI.  nap,  a  measuring  reed  of  six  cubits,  or  the  length  of  the 
human  body.  Ezekiel,  chap.  40:  5,  mentions  a  Babylonian  reed  of 
a  little  more  than  six  cubits  in  length. 

VII.  N0',"3 ,  a  Chaldaic  word,  Greek  aiadiov,  a  stadium  or 
furlong.  It  was  a  Greek  measure  adopted  by  the  Jews,  and  was 
one  hundred  and  twenty-five  geometrical  paces  in  extent,  or  the  six 
hundredth  part  of  a  degree,  making  one  hundred  and  forty  five 
English  paces,  four  feet,  and  six  tenths,  John  6:  19.  11:  18.  Rev. 
14:  20.  21:  16.  The  Egyptian  furlong  was  sixty  seven  fathoms 
and  two  feet. 

VIII.  "Odog  aa/?/?arou,  a  sabbath  day's  journey ,  viz.  seven  hun- 
dred and  twenty-nine  English  paces  and  three  feet,  Acts  1:  12. 
This  measure  is  a  sort  of  Jewish  invention  founded  on  Exod.  16:  29. 

IX.  MiKiov,  a  Roman  mile,  being  eight  furlongs,  or  a  thousand 
geometrical  paces,  Matt.  5:  41. 

X.  y"\Nil  Pleas',  «  little  way,  Gen.  35:  16.  2  K.  5:  19;  ac- 
cording to  the  Septuagint  a  horse's  race,  lnTi6dgof.iog,  i.  e.  as  the 
Arabians  inform  us,  a  parasang,  by  which  word  the  phrase  is  trans- 
lated in  the  Peshito.    It  was  about  four  English  miles. 

XI.  Di*n  tfiffif  a  day's  journey.    It  is  sometimes  greater  and 


§  114.   HOLLOW  MEASURES.  125 

sometimes  less,  varying  from  twenty  to  thirty  miles,  see  Herodot. 
V.  53. 

§  114.  Hollow  Measures. 

I.  y^p,  a  handful,  a  measure  not  accurately  defined,  Lev.  2: 
2.  5:  12." 

II.  1Kb,  an  omer,  used,  as  appears  from  Exod.  16:  16,  18,  22, 
32,  33,  36,  in  the  measurement  of  dry  articles.  It  contained  the 
portion,  which  was  assigned  to  each  individual  for  his  daily  food. 
It  corresponded  to  the  #o7^£,  the  choenix  of  the  Greeks,  and  held 
five  pints  and  one  tenth  English  corn  measure  ;  [see  Home's  In- 
trod.  to  the  Scriptures,  Vol.  III.  App.  no.  II.] 

III.  SlG"W ,  ncfij ,  an  ephah,  the  Egyptian  oiqi,  a  measure  for 
dry  articles.  It  contained,  as  we  learn  from  Exod.  16:  36,  ten 
omers.  The  genuineness  of  that  passage  is,  indeed,  somewhat 
doubtful,  but  at  any  rate  it  is  very  ancient,  since  it  is  found  in  all 
the  ancient  versions,  even  the  Samaritan  itself.  It  held  three  pecks 
and  three  pints.  The  bath,  a  measure  for  liquids,  was  of  the  same 
size.  Josephus,  however,  Antiq.  VIII.  2.  §  9.  makes  a  bath  equal 
to  seventy-two  Itoxat,  an  attic  measure  holding  a  pint.  If  this 
be  true,  it  was  the  j  same  in  capacity  with  the  pexQrizrjQ,  a  firkin, 
which  was  an  Attic  measure,  commonly  represented  equal  to  sev- 
enty-two Ztarai,  or  nine  English  gallons,  John  2:  6. 

IV.  rtNO,  a  seah.  It  appears  to  be  merely  the  Hebrew  name 
of  that  measure,  which  was  called,  by  a  word  of  Egyptian  origin, 
ephah,  comp.  Gen.  18:  6.  with  Judg.  6: 19.  2  K.  7: 16,  18.  and  1  Sam. 
25:  18.  It  is  thought  by  some  to  be  the  third  part  of  an  ephah. 
This  measure  occurs  in  the  New  Testament,  under  the  word 
ocaov,  derived  from  the  Hebrew  &*fjftO.  Josephus,  Antiq.  IX.  2. 
remarks  in  regard  to  this  measure,  that  it  contained  (xodtov  koli 
ijficov  haliy.ov  an  Italian  bushel  and  a  half,  i.  e.  a  peck  and  a  half 
English. 

V.  *M2n,  a  homer,  used  both  for  liquids  and  dry  articles  ;  also 
called  13,  a  kor.  It  held  ten  ephahs  ;  consequently  the  lethek, 
^nb, ,  which  was  half  its  size,  held  five  ephahs. 

VI.  ijp  f  a  kab.  It  appears  to  have  been  used  for  dry  articles 
merely,  2  K.  6:  25.  From  the  passage  in  Kings,  it  is  clear,  that 
it  was  a  measure  of  small  dimensions.^ 


120  §  115.  WEIGHTS  AND  MONEY. 

VII.  *pft ,  a  hin  ;  used  for  liquids.  A  third,  half,  and  fourth 
part  of  a  hin  are  mentioned.  It  is  supposed  to  be  the  sixth-part 
of  a  bath,  which  agrees  sufficiently  well  with  those  places,  where  it 
occurs. 

VIII.  «  log,  the  twelfth  part  of  a  hin. 

IX.  l-i-^D,  a  pur  ah.  The  connexion  in  Is.  63:  2,  requires  this 
word  to  be  rendered  wine-vat,  but  in  Hag.  2:  11,  it  appears  to  be 
the  name  of  an  unknown  Persian  measure. 

X.  xtozriQ,  the  Roman  sextarius,  containing  the  forty-eighth 
part  of  an  amphora. 

XI.  Modiog,  the  Roman  bushel,  used  for  dry  articles,  contain- 
ing a  peck  in  English  measure. 

XII.  MngrjirjQ,  a  Greek  measure,  a  third  part  larger  than  the 
Roman  amphora,  being  a  Roman  foot  and  a  half  in  length,  breadth 
and  height. 

§  125.  Weights  and  Money. 

In  oriental  countries,  as  far  back  as  the  time  of  Abraham,  the 
value  of  goods  was  estimated  at  a  certain  quantity  of  silver,  the  puri- 
ty of  which  was  taken  into  account  by  the  merchant,  Gen.  23:  16. 
But  there  is  no  trace  of  stamped  silver  or  coin,  previous  to  the 
captivity.  Nor  indeed  was  it  at  that  early  period  divided  into 
pieces  of  a  certain  size.  It  was  commonly  weighed  out  in  bal- 
ances, D^Tfefa ,  O^f*  though  its  weight  was  sometimes  ascertain- 
ed by  means  of  an  instrument  for  weighing,  answering  to  the  mod- 
ern steel-yards.  Merchants  were  accordingly  in  the  habit  of 
carrying  about  with  themselves  balances  and  weights  in  a  sort  of 
pouch  or  bag.  The  weights  were  stones ;  hence  they  are  called 
fc^N,  words  which  commonly  mean  stones,  Lev.  19:36. 

DeuTt"  25:  13— 18.  Prov.  11:  1.  16:  11.  Mic.  6:  11.  Persons  who 
were  disposed  to  be  fraudulent,  sometimes  carried  two  sets  of 
weights,  a  heavier  and  a  lighter  set,  fitfi  fltf,  using  sometimes 
the  one  and  sometimes  the  other,  as  best  suited  their  interest. 

Gold,  even  so  late  as  the  time  of  David,  was  not  used  as  a 
standard  of  value,  but  was  considered  merely  as  a  very  precious 
article  of  commerce,  and  was  weighed  like  other  articles.  The 
oldest  weight,  that  is  mentioned,  is  denominated  in  Hebrew 
JTti^p  .    The  same  word  is  applied  also  to  a  piece  of  silver  or 


§116.  WEIGHTS  AND  MONEY. 


127 


gold,  but  the  amount  or  quantity  designated  by  it,  is  in  both  cases 
unknown,  Gen.  33:  19.  Josh.  24:  32.  Job  42:  IL  In  the  time  of 
Moses,  the  weight  most  in  use  was  the  shekel,  ^pxd  ,  its  half,  9$fyt 
and  its  twentieth  part,  SfMi.  An  hundred  shekels  made  a  mina, 
i"i:72,  fiiva,  2  Chron.  9:  16.  comp.  1  Kgs.  10:  17:  and  thirty  minae 
or  three  thousand  shekels  made  a  talent  ""133,  Exod.  38:  25,  26. 
The  Greek  talent  varied  in  different  countries  ;  the  Athenian  was 
estimated  at  six  thousand  drachms. 

§  116.  Weights  and  Money  before  the  Captivity. 

The  Jewish  Rabbins,  in  their  statements  in  regard  to  weights, 
estimate  them,  like  the  modern  Persians,  according  to  the  num- 
ber of  grains  of  barley,  to  which  they  are  equivalent.  That  is  to 
say,  they  make  a  grain  of  barley  the  smallest  weight.  This  is 
the  method  of  the  Rabbins.  The  ancient  Hebrews  undoubtedly, 
as  well  as  certain  nations  of  profane  antiquity,  selected  a  seed  of 
pulse,  (siliqua,)  as  the  representative  of  the  smallest  weight,  with 
which  they  were  acquainted.  The  Hebrew  name  for  this  weight 
is  rna  .  Fannius,  a  contemporary  with  Augustus,  says  that  six 
such  seeds  made  a  scruple,  and  three  scruples  a  drachm.  Hence, 
a  drachm  contained  eighteen  siliguae,  or  Hebrew  gcrahs,  which  Ei- 
senschmid,  in  his  treatise  on  weights  and  measures,  p.  23,  finds 
equal  to  eighty  seven  or  eight  Parisian  grains.  Consequently 
twenty  of  them,  which  are  equivalent  to  a  shekel,  would  be  equal 
to  ninety  six  or  seven  Parisian  grains,  or  about  ten  pennyweights, 
English  valuation. 

Beside  the  common  legal  or  sacred  shekel,  there  was  another 
in  the  time  of  the  kings,  called  "  the  king's  shekel."  The  hair  of 
Absalom  was  weighed  with  this  sort  of  shekel,  and  amounted  to 
two  hundred  of  them.  The  heaviest  head  of  hair,  that  has  been 
found  in  England,  weighed  five  ounces.  Absalom's  we  may  well 
suppose,  could  not  have  weighed  more  than  ten.  This  supposi- 
tion would  lead  us  to  the  conclusion,  that  the  royal  did  not  amount 
to  more  than  the  fourth,  perhaps  not  to  more  than  the  fifth  or  sixth 
part  of  the  legal  shekel. 

Gold  was  dealt  out  by  the  weights,  which  have  been  mention- 
ed, but  its  value,  for  instance  the  value  of  a  gerah  or  shekel  of 
gold,  cannot  be  accurately  estimated,  because  we  do  not  know 


128  §11 T.   WEIGHTS  AND  MONEY. 

precisely  what  its  worth  was,  when  compared  with  that  of  silver. 
The  shekel  used  in  weighing  gold  was  the  royal  one.  The  diffi- 
culty of  ascertaining  the  true  worth-  of  any  quantity  of  gold  men- 
tioned in  the  scriptures  is  increased  by  the  circumstance,  that  the 
gold  itself  possessed  different  degrees  of  purity ;  in  some  instances 
it  was  adulterated  and  in  other  instances  more  fine  than  usual. 

§  117.  Weights  and  Money  after  the  Captivity. 

During  the  captivity  of  the  Jews  and  after  their  return  from  it, 
they  made  use  of  the  weights  and  the  coin  of  other  nations.  Eze- 
kiel,  accordingly,  chap.  45:  12,  mentions  foreign  manehs  of  differ- 
ent weight,  viz.  of  fifteen,  of  twenty,  and  of  twenty  five  shekels. 
The  coin,  which  the  Jews  used  at  this  period,  was  the  Persian,  Gre- 
cian, and  Roman.  It  was  not  till  the  time  of  the  Maccabean  prin- 
ces, that  they  had  a  mint  of  their  own,  and  coined  gold  and  silver 
for  themselves.  The  most  ancient  coin  of  which  we  have  any 
knowledge,  is  the  Persian  gold  coin,  called  the  daric,  dagetaog, 
fl&3*n  ,  ^i^N , 1  Chron.  29:  7.  Ezra  2:  69.  8: 27.  Neh.  7:  70, 72. 

The  name  does  not  take  its  origin  from  Darius  the  king,  but  from 
/    /  /  / 

the  Persian  word  fpfo  or  of^fo  a  ^ng  >'  a  word,  which  was  ap- 
plied to  the  coin  in  question  in  order  to  signify,  that  it  was  stamp- 
ed by  the  royal  authority,  and  to  distinguish  it  from  any  coin,  that 
might  be  stamped  and  put  in  circulation  by  private  merchants. 
The  impression  on  this  coin  exhibits  on  one  side  of  it  the  repre- 
sentation of  a  king  ;  on  the  reverse  an  archer,  holding  in  his  left 
hand  a  bow  and  in  his  right  hand  an  arrow,  and  having  upon  his 
head  an  acuminated  tiara.  Suidas,  the  scholiast  of  Aristophanes, 
eywhjg,  V.  598,  and  Harpocration  represent  the  daric  as  equal 
in  weight  to  twenty  drachms.  ["  According  to  Dr.  Bernard,  the 
daric  weighed  two  grains  more  than  the  English  guinea ;  but  as 
it  was  very  fine  and  contained  little  alloy,  it  may  be  reckoned 
worth  about  twenty  five  shillings  English  money,"  Rees'  Cyclop. 
Art.  Daric] 

A  coin,  very  much  in  circulation  among  the  Greeks,  was  the 
stater,  oxaxriQ,  Matt.  17:  26,  equal  in  weight  to  the  shekel  of  the 
Hebrews.  It  was  otherwise  called  tetradrachmon,  zaTQadQayjiov, 
because  it  weighed  four  drachms  ;  it  amounted  to  two  shillings, 
seven  pence  English.    This  coin  exhibits  on  one  side  the  head  of 


§117.  WEIGHTS  AND  MONEY. 


129 


Minerva,  and  on  the  reverse  an  owl  together  with  a  short  in- 
scription. It  appears,  therefore,  from  the  above,  that  a  drachma, 
dQct'/W,  was  the  fourth  part  of  the  stater.  It  was,  however,  of 
different  value  in  different  places  ;  the  Alexandrian,  for  instance,  be- 
ing of  double  the  amount  of  the  Grecian.  The  drachma,  although 
it  was  in  real  value  about  a  seventh  part  more,  was  nevertheless 
considered,  in  common  mercantile  exchange,  as  equal  to  the  Ro- 
man denarius,  i.  e.  seven  pence  two  farthings  English.  The  coin 
exhibited  on  one  side  the  Roman  goddess  of  victory,  and  on  the 
reverse  a  chariot  drawn  by  four  horses.  At  a  recent  period  the 
reverse  exhibited  the  head  of  Cesar,  Matt.  22:  19. 

The  Jewish  prince,  Simon,  1  Mac.  15:  16.  struck  off  a  curren- 
cy under  the  denomination  of  shekels,  which  weighed  a  stater 
each,  or,  according  to  F.  Mersenne's  estimate,  two  hundred 
and  sixty  eight  grains.  The  value  of  this  shekel  in  English 
money  was  two  shillings,  three  pence  and  three  farthings.  When 
it  was  coined  in  gold,  its  value  was  l£.  16s.  6d.  Of  those  shekels 
which  remain,  those  only  are  considered  genuine,  which  have  in- 
scriptions upon  them  in  the  Samaritan  character.  Some,  that  have 
such  inscriptions,  may  have  been  struck  off  at  comparatively  a 
recent  period  in  imitation  of  those,  that  were  really  ancient.  The 
inscriptions  on  them  are  various. 

The  Roman  as,  acoagiov,  weighed  nine  pennyweights  and 
three  grains  ;  its  value  was  three  farthings  and  one  tenth.  It  was 
a  brass  coin,  and  anciently  exhibited  on  one  side  a  figure  of  Janus, 
but  latterly  the  head  of  Cesar.  The  representation  on  the  re- 
verse was  the  stern  of  a  ship,  Matt.  10:  29.  Luke  12:  6.  A  quar- 
ter part  of  an  as  was  called  quadrans,  xodQCivrrjg.  The  Greek 
coin  called  Xenxov  was  of  very  small  value,  being  the  fourth  part 
of  a  quadrans,  Matt.  5:  26.  Mark  12:  42. 

The  weight  denominated  Vtrga  varied  in  different  countries. 
Many  kinds  of  merchandise  were  sold  according  to  the  litra  of  the 
particular  country,  from  which  they  were  brought.  Its  amount, 
therefore,  cannot  be  stated,  John  12:  3.  19:  39. 

Note. — It  ought  to  be  remarked,  that  silver  and  gold  ancient- 
ly were  more  scarce  than  at  present,  and  consequently  of  greater 
value.    Its  value  in  the  fourth  century  before  Christ  was  to  its 
value  in  England  in  the  year  1780,  as  ten  to  one.    So  that 
17 


130 


§  117.  WEIGHTS,  MEASURES,  ETC. 


four  hundred  and  forty  grains  of  silver  would  purchase  as  much 
at  the  last  mentioned  period,  as  four  thousand  four  hundred  would 
at  the  first. 

Note — [The  translator  has  thought  it  best,  in  a  number  of 
the  last  *sections,  to  substitute  the  English  modes  of  reckoning 
weights  and  measures,  &c.  instead  of  the  German  and  Parisian, 
which  are  so  frequently  referred  to  by  Dr  Jahn.  This,  which  he 
was  bound  to  do  in  justice  to  the  English  reader,  will  account  for 
the  peculiar  aspect,  which  the  translation  wears,  in  the  sections 
mentioned,  in  comparison  with  the  original.  The  following  ta- 
bles, which  are  not  in  the  original,  are  taken  from  the  third  vol- 
ume of  Home's  Introduction  to  the  Scriptures,  App.  no.  II.  We 
are  there  informed,  that  they  are  extracted  chiefly  from  Dr  Ar- 
buthnot's  "  Tables  of  ancient  Coins,  Weights,  and  Measures."] 


TABLES 

OF  WEIGHTS,  MEASURES,  AND  MONEY,  MENTIONED  IN  THE  BIBLE. 

1.  Jewish  weights  reduced  to  English  troy  weight. 


lbs.  oz.  pen.  gr. 

The  gerah,  one-twentieth  of  a  shekel   ....      0  0      0  12 

The  beka,  half  a  shekel       *                                         0  0      5  0 

The  shekel  0  0  10  0 

The  maneh,  60  shekels                                                 2  6      0  0 

The  talent,  50  manehs  or  3000  shekels        ...    125  0  0  0 


2.  Scripture  measures  of  length  reduced  to  English  measure. 

Eng.  feet.  inch. 

A  digit   0  0  912 

 4  I  A  palm   0  3  648 

12  I     3  I  A  span   '0  10-944 

24  I     6  I     2  I  A  cubit   1  9-888 

96  I   24  I     8  I  4  I  A  fathom   7  3-552 

144  I   36  I   12  I   6  1  1-5  |  Ezekiel's  reed   10  11  328 

192  I  48  I   16  I  8  I    2~j   1-3  |  An  Arabian  pole                  •  14  7-104 


1920  I  480  I  160  I  80  I  20  j  13  3  j  10  1  Aschoenus  or  meas.  line   .    145  11-04 


§117.  WEIGHTS,  MEASURES,  ETC. 


131 


3.  The  long  Scripture  measures. 


Eng.  miles,  paces,  feet. 

A  cubit   0  0  1-824 

400  I  A  stadium  or  furlong   0  145  4  6 

2000  I     5  I  A  sabbath  day's  journey   0  729  3  0 

4000  I   10  1  2  I  An  eastern  mile   1  403  10 

12000  I   30  I   6  I   3  I  A  parasang       ■       .       ...       ;  4  153  3-0 

96000  I  240  I  48  j  24  I  8  1  A  day's  journey  .       .       .       .  33  172  4-0 


4.  Scripture  measures  of  capacity  for  liquids ,  reduced  to  English 
wine  measure. 

Gal.  pints. 

Acaph  0  0625 

1-3  I  A  log   0  0-833 

5-3  I     4  I  A  kab   0  8-333 

16    I   12  j     3  1  A  hin  12 

32    I  24  I     6[  2  1  A  seah      .      .      .       :      ...      2  4 

"96    j"  72  j   18  1  ~6~~|   3  |  A  bath  or  ephah  7  4 

960    j  720  I  180  I  60  f  20  |  10~|  A  kor  or  coros,  chomer  or  homer      75  5 


5.  Scripture  measures  of  capacity  for  things  dry,  reduced  to 


English  corn  measure. 

Pecks,  gal.  pints. 

A  gachal   0  0  01416 

20  I  A  kab  .       .      .      ...       .       .      .       .       .  0  0  2  8333 

36  I     1-8  I  An  omer  or  gomer   0  0  5-1 

120  I     6    j     3-3  I  A  seah   10  1 

360  j  "18~T  10    I   3  1  An  ephah   3  0  3 

1800  1  90    I  50    I  15  I  5  I  A  letek    .       .      M      .      .  16  0  0 

3600  j  180    j  100    j  30  j  10  I  2  I  A  chomer,  homer,  or  kor  .  32  0  1 


6.  Jewish  money  reduced  to  the  English  standard. 

£    s.  d. 

A  gerah   0    0  1-2687 

10  I  A  beka   0   1  1-6875 

20  1  2  I  A  shekel        .    '   0   2  3-375 

1200  1  120  I    50  1  A  maneh,  or  mina  Hebraica        .       .      5  14  0-75 

60000  I  6000—3000  |  60  |  A  talent   342   3  9 

A  solidus  aureus,  or  sextula,  was  worth    .       .       .       .       0  12  0-5 

A  siclus  aureus,  or  gold  shekel,  was  worth       .       .       .       1  16  6 

A  talent  of  gold  was  worth      ......  5475   0  0 


In  the  preceding  table,  silver  is  valued  at  5s.  and  gold  at  £4  per  ounce. 


132 


«5»  118.  MATERIALS  OP  CLOTHS. 


7.  Roman  money,  mentioned  in  the  New  Testament,  reduced  to  the 
English  standard. 

,  £  s.  d.  far. 

A  mite  (Iznrov  or  daaagiov)  .       ...  0  0  0  Of 

A  farthing  (xudgavziig,)  about  .       .       .  0  0  0  1} 

A  penny  or  denarius  (devuQLOv)  .       .       .  0  0  7  3 

A  pound  or  mina         .  .       .  3  2  6  0 

CHAPTER  VIII. 
ON  CLOTHING. 

§  118.  Materials  op  which  clothes  were  made. 

Our  first  parents  in  the  first  instance  protected  themselves 
with  the  leaves  of  the  fig-tree ;  afterwards,  with  the  skins  of  ani- 
mals. Subsequently  some  method,  as  we  may  suppose,  was  dis- 
covered for  matting  together  the  hair  of  animals  and  making  a 
sort  of  felt  cloth.  Later  still  the  art  of  weaving  was  introduced, 
and  a  web  was  formed  by  combining  the  hair  of  animals  with 
threads  drawn  from  wool,  cotton,  or  flax.  At  any  rate  the  art^  of 
manufacturing  cloths  by  spinning  and  weaving  is  of  very  great  an- 
tiquity, Gen.  14:23.  31:18,19.  37:3.  38:28.  41:42.  45:  22.  Job 
7:  6.  31:  20.  The  Egyptians  were  very  celebrated  for  such  man- 
ufactures. The  Israelites,  while  living  among  them,  learnt  the 
art,  and  even  excelled  their  teachers,  1  Chron.  4:  21.  While 
wandering  in  the  Arabian  wilderness,  they  prepared  the  materi- 
als for  covering  the  tabernacle,  and  wrought  some  of  them  with 
embroidery.  Cotton  cloth  was  esteemed  most  valuable,  next  to 
that,  woollen  and  linen.  That  which  was  manufactured  from  the 
hair  of  animals,  was  esteemed  of  least  value.  Of  silk  there  is  no 
mention  made  at  a  very  early  period,  unless  perchance  it  be  in 
Ezekiel   16:  10,  13.  under  the  word  ij&ta     This,  however,  is 


§  119.   COLOURS  OF  CLOTHS. 


133 


clear,  that  Alexander  found  silks  in  Persia,  and  it  is  more  than 
probable,  that  the  Median  dress,  which  we  find  was  adopted  by 
the  Persians  under  Cyrus,  was  silk.  Silk  was  not  introduced 
among  the  nations  of  Europe,  till  a  late  period. 


§  119.  Colours  of  Cloths. 

White  was  esteemed  the  most  appropriate  colour  for  cotton 
cloth,  and  purple  for  the  others.  On  festival  days  the  rich  and 
powerful  robed  themselves  in  white  cotton,  which  was  consider- 
ed the  most  splendid  dress.  It  was  denominated  in  the  earlier 
Hebrew  by  the  synonymous  words  and  ^3  ,  and  after  the  cap- 
tivity by  another  synonyme,  viz.  yia  ,  the  Greek  (ivooog .  The  ful- 
lers, tPpnb,  had  discovered  the  art,  a  singular  one,  it  is  true,  of 
communicating  a  very  splendid  white  to  cloth  by  the  aid  of  alkali 
and  urine.  Hence,  lest  their  shops  should  communicate  a  fetid- 
ness to  the  atmosphere,  where  it  might  be  of  injury,  they  lived 
out  of  the  city,  Is.  7:  3.  Cotton  cloth  coloured  purple  was  de- 
nominated in  Hebrew  "JJM'lN  and  tl73j?"i ,  and  in  Chaldaic  flS'lN  . 
It  was  coloured  by  the  blood  taken  from  a  vein  in  the  throat  of  a 
certain  shell-fish.  The  colour  was  very  highly  esteemed,  seemed 
to  be  a  medium  hue  between  brown  and  pure  red,  and  was  very 
bright ;  it  was  essentially  the  same  with  the  celebrated  Tyrian 
purple.  Kings  and  princes  were  clothed  with  this  purple,  Luke 
16:  19.  Rev.  18:  12. 

The  scarlet  colour  so  called,  first  mentioned  in  Gen.  38.  28. 
and  occurring  frequently  afterwards  was  very  much  admired.  It 
was  a  different  colour  from  the  shell-fish  purple,  and  was  extract- 
ed from  the  insects  or  their  eggs,  found  on  a  species  of  oak ;  and 
thence  in  Hebrew  it  is  called  shift,  which  means  a  worm  or  in- 
sect. The  cotton  cloth  was  dipped  into  this  colour  twice  ;  hence 
the  application  of  the  Hebrew  words  *>2iti  and  ^:u5  nybin,  twice- 
dyed.    This  colour  is  sometimes  called  ^jaSs,  2  Chron.  2:  14. 

3:  14.  from  the  Persian  word  \\  ^ — >  which  is  the  origin  of  the 
French  word  carmoisin. 

The  hyacinth  or  dark  blue  colour,  FI^FI*  was  extracted  from 
the  cuttle-fish,  which  bears  in  Hebrew  the  same  name  with  the 
colour  itself,  and  was  highly  esteemed,  especially  among  the  As- 
syrians, Ezek.  23:  6. 


134 


§  120.  THE  TUNIC. 


Black  colour  was  used  for  common  wear,  and  particularly  on 
occasions  of  mourning. 

Party-coloured  cloths,  d^OS  n?.ri3  ,  were  highly  esteemed,  Gen. 
37:  3,  23.  2  Sam.  13:  18. 

As  far  back  as  the  time  of  Moses"  we  find,  that  cloths  were  em- 
broidered, sometimes  with  the  coloured  threads  of  cotton  and  linen, 
and  sometimes  with  threads  of  gold.  When  the  work  was  embroi- 
dered on  both  sides,  the  Hebrew  word  for  fabrics  of  that  kind  ap- 
pears in  the  dual  form,  viz.  trnEp4")  .  Some  of  the  passages  in  re- 
lation to  embroiderers  and  embroidery  are  as  follows,  Exod.  25:  36. 
35:  35.  Judg.  5:  30.  Ps.  45:  9.  Ezek.  16:  10. 

What  the  nature  of  that  garment  was,  which  is  interdicted  to 
the  Hebrews  in  Lev.  19:  19.  and  Deut.  22:  11.  is  uncertain.  It  is 
said  to  be  a  mixed  garment  of  wool  and  linen,  but  that  does  not 
decide  the  point.  Josephus  says,  an  opinion  prevailed  in  his  time, 
that  the  garments  in  question  were  embroidered  ones,  which  be- 
longed to  the  priests,  but  the  fact  is,  the  law  was  universal,  and  in- 
terdicted them  to  priests,  as  well  as  to  all  others.  Perhaps  the 
warp  was  of  wool  and  the  woof  of  linen,  a  common  mode  of  man- 
ufacturing in  the  East  even  to  this  day,  according  to  the  testimony 
of  Aryda.  The  garments  may  have  been  interdicted  to  the  He- 
brews on  account  of  their  being  so  common  a  dress  among  the 
heathen. 

§  120.  The  Tunic. 

This  was  the  most  simple,  and,  as  we  may  conjecture  from 
that  circumstance,  the  most  ancient  garment.  It  is  a  common  ar- 
ticle of  dress  in  the  East  to  this  day,  and  is  called  in  Arabic 
ahram,  dN'intt .  It  was  a  piece  of  cloth  commonly  linen,  which 
encircled  the  whole  body,  was  bound  with  a  girdle,  and  descend- 
ed to  the  knees.  It  occurs  in  the  Bible  jirst,  under  the  Hebrew 
word  narD,  afterwards,  under  the  word  JTVUftj  which  usually 
means  a  girdle.  Those,  who  are  clothed  with  a  tunic  merely, 
are  sometimes  said  to  be  naked,  Job  24:  7,  10.  Is.  20:  2 — 4.  Mic. 
1:  8.  John  21:  7.  As  the  fore-part  of  the  tunic  was  liable  to  be 
elevated  with  the  wind,  the  wearer  had  on  also  an  under  garment 
called  in  Hebrew  d^oasft  ,  which  in  the  time  of  Moses  reached 
only  from  the  loins  to  the  knees,  Exod.  28:  42  ;  but  in  progress  of 


§  121.  THE  GIRDLE. 


135 


time  it  was  extended  down  to  the  ankles.  Moses  in  Exod.  28:  42. 
commands  the  priests  to  wear  under  garments  of  this  description, 
on  account  of  their  convenience  in  performing  the  sacrifices. 
Hence  it  may  be  inferred,  that  they  were  not  used  by  the  people 
generally,  which  is  found  to  be  the  state  of  the  case  at  this  day  in 
various  countries  of  the  East.  If  Strabo  in  page  734  means  to  say, 
that  the  Persians  wore  three  pair  of  them,  he  certainly  speaks  of  a 
recent  period  in  their  history.  Mention  is  made  of  an  upper  pair 
of  this  garment  in  Dan.  3:  21.  called  in  Hebrew  ^3^0  in  Persian 

jl^b*  shalvar,  in  Syriac  V— r-*  m  Arabic  Jty*-    The  orientals, 

whether  clad  in  the  garment  in  question  or  not,  when  they  find 
it  necessary  to  emit  urine,  seek  an  obscure  place,  and  in  a  sitting 
posture  discharge  themselves  upon  the  earth ;  with  the  excep- 
tion that  the  meanest  and  lowest  of  the  populace  defile  the  walls. 
Hence  the  peculiar,  proverbial  expressions,  which  occur  in  1  Sam. 
25:  22,  34,  &c,  are  to  be  considered,  as  denoting  the  very  lowest 
class  of  people.  The  tunic,  which  at  first  only  covered  the  body, 
was  extended  afterwards  up  round  the  neck,  was  supplied  with 
short  sleeves,  and  eventually  with  long  ones,  covering  the  whole 
arm.  At  first  it  set  close  to  the  body,  but  was  afterwards  made  loose 
and  flowing.  The  Babylonians,  Egyptians,  and  Persians  were  clad 
with  another  tunic  externally  to  the  one  described,  and  commonly 
more  precious,  which  we  learn  was  worn  also  by  the  Jews,  Matt. 
10:  10.  Luke  9:  3. 

§  121.  The  Girdle,  "tfan  . 

The  tunic,  when  it  was  not  girded,  impeded  the  person  who 
wore  it  in  walking.  Those,  consequently,  who  perhaps  at  home 
were  ungirded,  went  forth  girded,  2  K.  4:  29.  9:  1.  Is.  5:  27.  Jer.  1:  /7. 
1$.  John  21:  7.  Acts  12:  8.  There  were  formerly  and  are  to  this 
day  two  sorts  of  girdles  in  Asia ;  the  one,  a  common  one  of  leather, 
six  inches  broad  and  furnished  with  clasps,  with  which  it  is  fasten- 
ed round  the  body,  ^ojvrj  degfiativfj,  2  K.  1:8.  Matt.  3:  4.  Mark 
1:  6;  the  other,  a  valuable  one  of  cotton  or  flax,  and  sometimes 
indeed  of  silk  or  some  embroidered  fabric,  a  hand's  breadth  broad, 
and  supplied  likewise  with  clasps  by  which  it  was  fastened  over  the 
fore-part  of  the  body,  Jer.  13:  1.  The  girdle  was  bound  round 
the  loins,  whence  the  expressions,  "  The  girdle  of  the  loins,  and 


136 


§  122.   OF  UPPER  GARMENTS. 


gird  up  your  loins,"  1  K.  18:  46.  Prov.  21:  17.  Is.  11:  5.  Jer.  1: 
17.  The  girdle  worn  by  females,  was  sometimes  ornamented 
with  bosses ;  they  wore  stomachers  also  for  ornament,  Hebrew 
b"VPr)D .  The  Arabians  carry  a  knife  or  poniard  in  the  girdle. 
This  was  the  custom  likewise  among  the  Hebrews,  2  Sam.  20:  8 — 
10  ;  a  fact,  which  admits  of  confirmation  from  the  ruins  of  Perse- 
polis.  The  girdle  also  answered  the  purpose  of  a  pouch,  to  carry 
money  and  other  necessary  things,  1  Sam.  25:  13.  2  Sam.  18:  11. 
Matt.  10:  9.  Mark  6:  8. 

§  122.  Of  Upper  Garments. 

The  garment  immediately  over  the  tunic  was  denominated 
^rbfttfj,  also  Greek  l^axiov;  it  was  very  simple,  and  of  course 
we  may  suppose  very  ancient.  It  was  a  piece  of  cloth  nearly 
square,  of  different  sizes,  five  or  six  cubits  long  and  five  or  six  feet 
broad  and  was  wrapped  round  the  body.  When  the  weather 
was  serene,  it  was  more  conveniently  worn  over  the  shoulders 
than  by  being  wrapped  round  the  body.  The  two  corners, 
which  were  drawn  over  the  shoulders,  were  called  the  skirts,  or 
as  it  is  in  the  Hebrew,  the  wings  of  the  garment,  Hag.  2:  12. 
Zech.  8:  23.  Frequently  this  garment  was  hung  over  the  left 
shoulder,  where  it  accordingly  hung  lengthwise,  partly  over  the 
back  and  partly  over  the  breast,  and  was  fastened  by  the  two 
corners  under  the  right  cheek.  While  it  answered  the  purposes 
of  a  cloak,  it  was  so  large,  that  burdens,  if  necessary,  might  be 
carried  in  it,  Exod.  12:  34.  2  K.  4:  39.  The  poor  wrapped  them- 
selves up  wholly  in  this  garment  at  night,  spread  their  leathern 
girdle  upon  a  rock  and  rested  their  head  upon  it,  as  is  customary 
to  this  day  in  Asia.  Moses,  therefore,  enacted  as  a  law  what  had 
before  existed  as  a  custom,  that  the  upper  garment,  when  given 
as  a  pledge,  should  not  be  retained  over  night,  Job  22:  6.  24: 
7.  Exod.  22:  25,  26.  Deut.  24 :  13.  In  the  time  of  Christ  the 
creditors  did  not  take  the  upper  garment  or  cloak,  which  it 
was  not  lawful  for  them  to  retain,  but  the  coat  or  tunic,  which 
agrees  with  the  representation  of  Jesus  in  Matt.  5:  40.  There 
having  occurred  an  instance  of  the  violation  of  the  sabbath,  Num. 
15:  32 — 41,  Moses  enacted  a  law,  that  there  should  be  a  fringe 
upon  the  four  corners  of  this  garment  together  with  a  blue  rib- 
band, to  remind  the  people  of  his  statutes,  Matt.  9:  20.  Luke  8:  44. 


§  122.  OF  UPPER  GARMENTS. 


137 


There  were  other  upper  garments  worn  among  the  Hebrews  as 
follows, 

I.  ^273 ,  meil,  a  garment  of  cotton,  which  extended  below  the 
knees,  open  at  the  top  so  as  to  be  drawn  over  the  head,  and  having 
holes  for  the  insertion  of  the  arms. 

II.  TICK ,  ephod.  It  consisted  of  two  parts,  the  one  of  which 
was  suspended  over  the  back,  the  other  over  the  forepart  of  the 
body,  both  pieces  being  united  by  a  clasp  or  buckle  on  the  should- 
ers. In  the  time  of  Josephus  the  ephod  had  sleeves,  a  circumstance 
which  is  not  mentioned  by  Moses,  Exod.  28:  6,  7.  Joseph.  Antiq. 
Bk.  III.  ch.  7.  5.  According  to  the  Mosaic  law  the  ephod  and 
meil  were  appropriately  garments  of  the  high  priest,  but  we  learn 
that  they  were  sometimes  worn  by  other  illustrious  men,  Job  29: 
14.  1  Sam.  18:  4.  2  Sam.  6:  14.  Ezek.  26:  16.  We  may  infer  from 
2  Sam.  6:  14.  and  1  Chron.  15:  27.  that  na  "riDN  and  ftt  ^JPtt  , 
[rendered  in  the  English  version,  a  linen  ephod,  and  a  fine  linen 
robe,]  were  convertible  expressions  for  the  same  thing ;  still  there 
is  no  doubt,  that  there  were  two  kinds  of  ephods. 

III.  Uh&Q ,  a  hat  or  turban,  as  may  be  seen  to  this  day  on  the 
ruins  of  Persepolis.  Garments  of  fur  appear  to  have  been  used  in 
the  East,  although  the  climate  was  warm.  We  undoubtedly  hear 
of  them  under  the  word  rn^N  .  The  phrase  ^U)  rnii*  means 
a  garment  of  hair,  worn  commonly  by  poor  people  and  prophets, 
2K.  1:  8.  2:  8.  13:  14.  Zech.  13:  4.  Heb.  11:  37.  There  were 
certain  garments  of  hair,  which  were  precious  and  were  worn  by 
the  rich  and  princes,  Josh.  7:  21,  24.  1  K.  19:  13,  19.  Jonah  3: 
6.  The  words  "p-jo  and  oivdwv,  though  the  same,  signified  differ- 
ent things ;  was  a  precious  tunic  of  cotton,  Judg.  14:  12,  13, 
19.  Prov.  31:  24.  Is.  3:  23.  but  aovdcov  was  a  sort  of  coverlet,  un- 
der which  the  people  slept  at  night,  Mark  14:  51,  52.  15:  46.  Luke 
23:  53.  XXafivg  is  the  name  of  a  robe,  common  among  the  Greeks, 
which  extended  down  to  the  knees,  and  was  fastened  over  the 
breast,  but  the  %kot[ivs  KOMtlvrj,  which  is  mentioned  Matt.  27:  28. 
and  Mark  15:  17.  called  in  common  speech  nogcpvQu  or  the  pur- 
ple, was  a  red  robe  of  the  Roman  military,  nearly  of  the  same 
length  with  the  Greek  robe.  The  word  ylaiivq  is  not  to  be  collat- 
ed in  this  case  with  the  Heb.  tribi? ,  for  the  n^n  ■'Elba  mentioned 
in  Ezek.  27:  24.  were  not  Grecian  robes,  but  blue  cloths,  brought 
from  Arabia.    The  cloak,  mentioned  2  Tim.  4:  13.  in  Greek  yelo- 

18 


138 


§  123.   SANDALS  AND  SHOES. 


vrjg  or  qpadovrjg,  was  a  Roman  garment,  meant  for  protection 
against  the  rain,  and  to  be  worn  on  journies.  It  was  closed 
throughout  except  an  open  neck,  by  which  it  was  admitted  over 
the  head  and  supported  on  the  shoulders. 

§  123.  Sandals  and  Shoes. 

At  first  in  order  to  prevent  the  feet  from  being  cut  by  sharp 
rocks,  or  burnt  by  the  hot  sand,  or  injured  by  pinching  cold,  small 
pieces  of  wood  or  leather  were  bound  to  the  bottom  of  the  feet. 
Sandals  of  this  kind  are  still  seen  in  the  East ;  afterwards  shoes 
were  made,  and  greaves,  as  may  be  seen  on  the  ruins  of  Persepo- 
lis,  and  as  is  related  by  Strabo.  Originally  no  covering  of  the 
foot  was  used  at  all,  but  sandals,  D^bsa  ,  oavdctXia,  VTiodrji-iara  ; 
which  were  bound  round  the  feet  with  leather  thongs,  Tp"T£  , 
tftdvxeg,  Gen.  14:  23.  Exod.  12:  11.  Is.  5:  27.  Judith  10:  4.  Matt. 
3:  11.  10:  10.  Mark  1:  7.  6:  9.  John  1:  27.  These  sandals  were 
held  at  a  very  low  price,  Amos  2:  6.  8:  6.  Matrons  sometimes 
wore  elegant  ones,  Judith  10:  3.  16:  11.  How  precious  the 
sandal  was,  mentioned  in  Ezek.  16:  10.  of  badger's  skin,  is  not  clear. 
The  people  put  off  their  sandals  when  they  entered  a  house,  and 
put  them  on  when  they  left  it.  Whence  the  phrases,  to  loose  one's 
sandals  from  off  his  feet,  &c.  Exod.  3:  5.  Deut.  25:  9.  Is.  20:  4. 
Ruth  4:  7,  8.  Ezek.  24:  7.  To  loose  and  to  bind  on  sandals  was 
the  business  of  the  lowest  servants.  Disciples  performed  this  of- 
fice, however,  for  their  teachers  ;  but  the  Rabbins  advised  them 
not  to  do  it  before  strangers,  lest  they  should  be  mistaken  for  ser- 
vants. The  business  of  a  servant  recently  purchased  was  to  loose 
and  carry  about  his  master's  sandals ;  whence  the  expressions 
in  Mark  1:  7.  and  Matt.  3:  11.  to  "  loose  one's  shoes,"  and  "  to  bear 
them"  are  proverbial  and  mean  the  same  thing.  As  the  wearers  did 
not  have  on  stockings,  their  feet  became  dusty  and  soiled  ;  accord- 
ingly when  they  had  laid  aside  their  sandals  and  entered  a  house, 
they  washed  their  feet ;  which  also  was  the  office  of  the  lowest  ser- 
vants. In  some  instances  where  the  guests  were  very  distinguished 
men,  the  master  of  the  family  performed  this  office,  Gen.  18:  4. 
Luke  7:  44.  The  poor  sometimes  went  barefoot ;  the  more  rich 
and  honoured  never,  except  in  case  of  mourning,  2  Sam.  15:  30. 
Jer.  2:  25.    In  contracts  the  seller  gave  his  sandals  to  the  buyer 


§  125.   OF  THE  HAIR. 


139 


in  confirmation  of  the  bargain.  Hence,  "  a  man  without  sandals" 
became  proverbial  expressions,  implying  the  reproach  of  prodigality, 
Deut.  25:  9.  Ruth  4:  7. 

§  124.  The  Beard, 

The  beard  was  considered  a  great  ornament  among  the  He- 
brews, as  it  is  to  this  day,  among  oriental  nations.  No  one  was 
allowed  to  touch  it  except  for  the  purpose  of  kissing  it.  To 
pluck  or  to  shave  the  beard,  or  to  mar  it  any  way,  was  consider- 
ed a  great  disgrace,  1  Chron.  19:  3 — 5.  2  Sam.  10:  4 — 10.  Hence 
the  beard  is  used  tropically  for  the  distinguished  men  of  any  peo- 
ple, and  the  shaving  of  the  beard  was  considered  a  mark,  and  us- 
ed tropically  as  a  representation  of  servitude,  Is.  7:  20.  The 
beard  was  preserved  in  different  ways  by  different  people,  2  Sam. 
19:  24.  The  Hebrews  alone  were  forbidden  to  shave  the  beard, 
i.  e.  as  the  phrase  is  to  be  interpreted,  to  round  the  corners  of 
the  beard  where  it  joins  the  hair  of  the  head,  Lev.  19:27  ;  because 
the  Arabian  tribes  by  shaving  off  or  rather  rounding  the  beard, 
where  it  connects  with  the  hair  of  the  head,  devoted  themselves 
to  a  certain  deity,  who  held  the  place  among  them,  that  Bacchus 
did  among  the  Greeks.  Herod,  III.  8.  Jer.  9:  26.  25:  23.  49:  32. 
To  pull  out  or  cut  off  the  beard  was  an  indication  of  great  grief, 
and  mourning  ;  every  ornament  whatever  at  such  a  time  being  laid 
aside.  This,  however,  must  be  done  by  the  person  himself.  If  a 
stranger  should  undertake  to  pull  out  his  beard,  it  would  be  the 
greatest  insult. 

§  125.  Of  the  Hair,  ^tstfp. 

Anciently  the  Egyptians  alone,  and  some  of  the  Arabians  were  in 
the  habit  of  shaving  their  beards  ;  the  Hebrews  and  other  nations 
let  them  grow.  Sometimes  indeed  they  applied  the  razor,  with 
the  exception  of  the  Nazarites,  to  whom  shaving  was  absolutely 
interdicted,  Num.  6:  5.  Judg.  13:  7.  16:  17.  1  Sam.  1:  11.  2  Sam. 
14:  26.  Is.  7:  20.  Ezek.  5:  1.  Baldness  was  a  source  of  contempt, 
2  K.  2:  23  ;  a  heavy  head  of  hair  was  esteemed  a  great  ornament, 
2  Sam.  14:  26.  Cant.  5:  11 ;  the  hair  was  combed  and  set  in  order, 
Is.  3:  24.  and  anointed,  especially  on  festival  occasions,  Ps.  23:  5. 
92:  10.  133:  2.  2  Sam.  14:  2.  Ruth  3:  3.  Prov.  21:  17.  The  oint- 
ment used  was  the  very  precious  oil  of  olives,  mixed  with  spices, 


140 


§  126.  COVERINGS  FOB  THE  HEAD. 


particularly  spikenard,  which  was  brought  from  India,  but  was 
commonly  adulterated.  The  spikenard,  mentioned  Mark  14:  3, 
vagdog  moTixrj,  seems  to  have  been  pure.  The  colour  of  the  hair 
of  the  people  of  the  East,  is  commonly  black,  rarely  red,  which 
was  esteemed  a  favourite  colour.  Females,  as  is  commonly  the 
case,  let  the  hair  grow  long,  Luke  7:  38.  1  Cor.  11:  6 — 12.  and 
braided  it,  Num.  5:  18.  Judith  10:  3.  1  Peter  3:  3  ;  which  is  clear 
also  from  the  Talmud.  They  interwove  into  their  hair  gems  and 
gold,  2  K.  9:  30. 

§  126.  Coverings  for  the  Head. 

At  first  the  hair  of  the  head  was  its  only  covering.  To  pre- 
vent its  being  dishevelled  by  the  wind,  it  was  at  length  bound 
round  the  head  by  a  fillet,  as  is  now  customary  among  the  servants 
in  the  East,  and  as  may  be  seen  on  the  ruins  of  Persepolis.  Sub- 
sequently a  piece  of  cloth  was  worn  upon  the  head,  which  was 
afterwards  converted  into  mitres  of  different  forms.  There  were 
two  kinds  of  mitres  among  the  ancients ;  the  one  mentioned  in 
Esther  8:  15.  of  fine  linen,  purple  in  colour,  and  enriched  with 
gold  ;  the  other  resembled  a  triangle  in  form,  being  pointed  at 
the  top,  though  not  always  made  in  the  same  way  ;  it  is  denomi- 
nated in  Dan.  3:  21,  fi&a^S  and  in  the  Greek  nvg^aaig  and  xvg- 
(3ao!a.  Josephus  speaks  of  a  piece  of  cloth,  which  was  rolled 
round  the  head  exterior  to  the  mitre,  Antiq.  Bk.  III.  ch.  7.  §  3.  and 
7  ;  but  of  this  article  of  head-dress  it  is  not  clear,  that  there  is  any 
express  mention  made  in  Scripture.  We  must  suppose,  therefore, 
it  was  introduced  at  a  late  period,  certainly  after  the  captivity. 
The  Hebrew  word  Sp322  was  applied  to  the  mitres  in  common 
use  worn  by  both  sexes ;  the  word  ir^tt  to  the  mitres  of  priests, 
which  were  of  greater  height,  Exod.  28:"  40.  29:9.  39:28.  The 
mitre  of  the  high  priest,  called  nsp.Stt  ,  was  distinguished  from  that 
of  the  priests  by  a  plate  of  gold  bound  in  front  of  it.  The  mitres 
worn  by  princes  and  illustrious  men,  were  the  same  with  those  of 
the  priests  and  the  high  priests,  Exod.  28:  4,  37.  29:  6.  39:  31 .  Lev. 
8:  9.  16:  4.  In  the  progress  of  time  new  and  more  elegant  head- 
dresses, called  nfi$S> ,  were  introduced,  and  were  common  to  both 
sexes.  The  phrase  i-ntfBn  m^H  and  the  word  rn'VBli:  mean  a 
head  dress  or  turban  of  much  splendour  ;  the  words  *\V3  and 


§  127.  OF  THE  VEIL. 


141 


mean  a  diadem,  and  not  a  mitre.  Both  men  and  women,  as  is 
now  common  in  the  East,  remained  with  their  heads  covered  both 
at  prayers  and  in  the  temple.  . 

§  127.  Op  the  Veil. 

The  difference  between  the  dress  of  the  men  and  the  women 
was  small.  It  consisted  chiefly  in  the  fineness  of  the  materials  and 
in  the  length  of  the  garment.  The  dress  of  the  hair  in  the  two 
sexes  was  different,  as  already  observed,  and  another  mark  of 
distinction  was,  that  the  women  wore  a  veil.  This  distinction  of 
dress,  small  as  it  was,  was  the  ground  of  the  command,  prohib- 
iting the  assumption  by  one  sex  of  the  dress,  which  was  appro- 
priate to  the  other,  Deut.  22:  5.  All  females,  excepting  maid- 
servants and  others  in  a  low  condition  in  life,  wore  the  veil,  nor 
did  they  ever  lay  it  aside,  except  in  the  presence  of  servants  and 
those  relations,  with  whom  nuptials  were  interdicted,  Lev.  xviii. 
comp.  Koran  24:  34.  33:  54.  This  custom  in  regard  to  the  veil 
still  prevails  in  the  East.  When  journeying,  the  ladies  threw  the 
veil  over  the  hinder  part  of  the  head,  but  if  they  saw  a  man  ap- 
proaching they  restored  it  to  its  original  position,  Gen.  24:  65. 
When  at  home  they  did  not  speak  with  a  guest,  without  being 
veiled  and  in  the  presence  of  maids.  They  never  entered  the 
guest's  chamber,  but  standing  at  the  door,  made  known  to  the  ser- 
vant what  they  wanted,  2  K.  4:  13.  This  is  observed  to  be  the 
case  in  Homer.  It  scarcely  needs  to  be  observed,  that  prostitutes 
went  unveiled.  Tamar,  who  was  one  of  that  class,  assumed  a  veil 
merely  for  the  purpose  of  concealing  herself  from  her  father  in 
law  Judah.  The  position,  which  some  maintain  from  Gen  20: 
16.  viz.  that  virgins  did  not  wear  the  veil,  is  not  clear  from  that 
passage  and  is  the  less  so,  when  the  fact  is  taken  into  considera- 
tion, that  the  custom  of  modern  orientals  is  an  evidence,  that  they 
did.  In  Asia  there  are  various  kinds  of  veils  in  use,  which  cor- 
respond with  those  mentioned  in  the  Bible.  Like  the  matrons  of 
the  East  at  the  present  day,  those  of  antiquity  used  veils  of  four 
kinds. 

I.  V"p  .  It  somewhat  resembled  the  hood  of  the  French  coun- 
try women,  covering  the  top  of  the  head  and  extending  down  behind 
the  back,  Cant.  5:  7.  Is.  3:  23. 


142 


§  128.   STAFF,  SEAL,  AND  RING. 


II.  FB££.    This  covered  the  breast,  neck,  and  chin  to  the  nose, 
Cant.  4:  l'  3.  6:  7.  Is.  47:  2. 

III.  ffcan  .  It  hung  down  from  the  eyes  over  the  face,  [called 
in  the  English  version  mufflers,]  Is.  3:  19. 

IV.  The  fourth  kind  of  veil  received  different  names,  viz. 
riSESE  for  the  fashion  of  the  winter,  and  nnstttt  for  that  of  the 
summer.  It  covered  the  whole  body  from  the  top  of  the  head  to 
the  sole  of  the  foot,  Is.  3:  22.  Ruth  3:  15.  Gen.  38:  14. 

V.  PP$£,  or  the  double  veil,  in  as  much  as  it  fulfilled  the  office 
of  two  other  veils,  covering  the  top  of  the  head,  and  falling  down 
both  behind  and  before.  It  was  so  large,  that  in  many  countries 
the  matrons  who  wore  it  dispensed  with  any  other. 

VI.  D^D^U) ,  a  thin  gauze-like  fabric,  [denominated  in  the 
English  version  a  caul,]  which  was  used  as  a  veil,  comp.  the  cor- 
responding Arabic.  The  phrase,  fi^P:?  niD3  ,  Gen.  20:  16.  prob- 
ably does  not  mean  a  veil ;  perhaps  the  reading  as  Michaelis  con- 
jectures, should  be  d'J^  >  tnat  *s>  tne  ^ne  or  punishment  of 
the  eyes,  viz.  of  Abimelecli.  What  sort  of  a  veil  it  is,  called  in  the 
Greek  of  the  New  Testament  invoice  inl  Ttjg  xecpaXrjg,  is  not 
known,  1  Cor.  11:  10. 

§  128.  Staff,  Seal,  and  Rings. 

The  Hebrews  bore  a  staff,  Sitttt  ,  £>B73  ,  &c.  not  only  the  traveller, 
as  a  help  to  him  on  his  journey,  but  others  also,  who,  like  the  Baby- 
lonians, must  necessarily  have  carried  one  merely  for  ornament, 
and  not  for  any  positive  benefit,  Exod.  12:  11.  Gen.  38:  18,  25. 
The  Hebrews  wore  also  in  imitation  of  the  Babylonians  a  seal 
or  signet,  nnin ,  which  was  suspended  from  the  neck  over  the 
breast,  Gen.  38:  18.  Cant.  8:  6.  Hag.  2:  23.  Sometimes  merely 
the  name  of  the  owner,  and  sometimes  an  additional  sentence  was 
engraved  upon  the  signet.  If  a  door  or  box  was  to  be  sealed,  it 
was  first  fastened  with  some  ligament,  over  which  was  placed 
some  clay  or  wax,  which  then  received  an  impression  from  the 
seal  or  signet.  Frequently  a  ring,  with  some  inscription  upon  it, 
was  used  as  a  seal,  by  a  delivery  or  transfer  of  which,  from  a  mon- 
arch, the  highest  offices  of  the  kingdom  were  created,  Gen.  41: 
42.  Est.  3:  10,  12.  8:  2.  Jer.  22:  24.  Dan.  6:  10.  13:  17.  Rings, 
from  the  circumstance  of  their  being  employed  for  the  same  purpose 
as  seals,  were  called  niS^D ,  which  is  derived  from  a  verb,  signify- 


§  130.  NECKLACES,  BRACELETS,  ETC. 


143 


ing  to  imprint,  and  also  to  seal ;  they  were  worn  commonly  as  an 
ornament  on  a  finger  of  the  right  hand,  Is.  22:  24.  Exod.  35:  22. 
Luke  15:  22.  James  2:  2. 

§  129.  Ladies'  Rings  and  Pendants,  rnSSD,  tP53j3. 

The  ladies  wore  a  number  of  rings  upon  their  fingers,  also 
pendants  in  the  ear  and  nose,  Gen.  24:  22.  Exod.  32:  2,  3.  35:  22. 
Is.  3:  21.  Ezek.  16:  12.  The  rings  were  made  of  silver,  gold,  or 
other  metal  according  to  the  person's  property;  the  pendants,  also, 
which  sometimes,  however,  consisted  of  pearls  merely,  suspended 
by  a  thread.  When  the  pendants  were  of  gold,  they  were  denom- 
inated t»ft3,  when  of  precious  stones,  rrtBHjS ,  Num.  31:  50.  Ezek. 
16:  12.  Ear-pendants  may  be  seen  sculptured  out  on  the  ruins  of 
Persepolis,  for  they  were  worn  by  men  as  well  as  women,  among 
other  nations.  But  this  was  not  often  the  case  among  the  He- 
brews, Pliny  II.  50.  Judg.  8:  24.  The  women  also  wore  rings 
of  silver  and  gold  and  other  materials  around  the  ankles,  Hebrew 
E^tp? .  The  rings  of  the  two  ankles  were  sometimes  connected 
with  each  other  by  a  chain,  called  rni^SZ ;  perhaps  the  chain  was 
comprehended  also  under  the  name  above  given  for  the  rings, 
Is.  3:  18. 

§  130.  Necklaces,  Bracelets,  etc. 

The  dress  of  the  ladies  in  the  East  was  always  expensive,  Gen. 
24:  22,  23,  53.  Num.  31:  50.  Is.  3:  16—26.  Ezek.  16:  10.  et  seq. 
They  wear  at  the  present  day,  as  formerly,  not  only  rings  and 
pendants,  but  necklaces,  bracelets,  &c.  These  ornaments  were 
worn  also  in  some  cases  by  distinguished  men,  as  a  present  from 
the  monarch,  as  may  be  seen  on  the  Persepolitan  figures,  Gen.  41: 
42.  Prov.  3:  3,  22.  6:  21.  Cant.  1 :  11.  Dan.  5:  7.  Necklaces 
and  bracelets  were  made,  sometimes  of  silver  and  gold,  sometimes 
of  a  series  of  Jewels,  sometimes  of  coral,  ti^PSS,  Num.  31:  50. 
Exod.  35:  22.  Three  necklaces  were  commonly  worn,  one  reach- 
ing lower  than  the  other  ;  from  the  one,  that  was  suspended  to 
the  waist,  there  was  hung  a  bottle  of  perfume,  filled  with  amber 
and  musk,  called  in  Is.  3:  20.  ttiso  "^Ffi.  Half-moons  also  of  silver 
and  gold  were  suspended  in  This  way,  as  may  be  inferred  from  the 


I 


144  §  133.   PURSE  AND  NAPKIN. 

5     c  ✓ 

word  troHfiip  itself  comp.   q  With  these  the  Arabians  or- 
namented the  necks  of  their  camels,  Is.  3:  18.  Judg.  8:  21,  26. 

§  131.  Amulets,  rnDtt'nt:. 

The  orientals  from  the  earliest  ages  have  believed  in  the  in- 
fluence of  the  stars,  in  incantations,  and  other  magic  arts.  To 
defend  themselves  against  them,  they  wore  amulets,  which  con- 
sisted of  precious  stones,  gems,  gold,  and  sometimes  of  pieces  of 
parchment,  written  over  with  some  inscription.  The  small  gold 
effigies  of  serpents,  truihb,  which  the  Hebrew  women  carried 
about  in  their  hands  were  amulets,  and  like  the  others,  while  they 
served  to  keep  off  incantations,  served  none  the  less  for  ornament, 
Is.  3:  20.  Exod.  38:  8. 

§  132.  Mirrors,  rnanft,  "Wj. 

Mirrors  were  made  of  molten  brass  polished;  hence  they 
were  called  or  shining.     In  Job  37:  18,  the  heavens  are 

compared  to  a  molten  mirror.  The  ladies  carried  their  mirrors  in 
their  hands.  Their  chambers  were  not  ornamented  with  them, 
but  the  chamber  doors  latterly  were  made  of  a  polished  stone,  in 
which  objects  might  be  obscurely  seen,  1  Cor.  13:  12. 

§  133.  Purse  and  Napkin. 

A  man's  girdle  fulfilled  for  him  all  the  purposes  of  a  purse. 
The  purse  of  a  lady,  which  was  made  of  solid  metal,  sometimes 
of  pure  gold,  and  fashioned  like  a  cone  with  a  border  of  rich  cloth 
at  the  top,  was  suspended  from  the  girdle  which  she  wore ;  these 
purses  were  called  in  Hebrew  HHy^h,  Is.  3:  22.  2  K.  5 :  23. 
Both  sexes  either  wore  napkins  attached  to  their  girdle,  or  bore 
them  upon  the  hand  or  left  arm  :  those  of  the  rich  and  powerful  were 
valuable  and  ornamented  with  embroidery.  They  were  frequently 
employed  to  carry  things  in,  and  were  wrapped  around  the  heads  of 
those  who  had  departed  from  life,  Luke  19:  20.  John  11:  44.  The 
aprons  so  called  in  Acts  19:  12.  were  a  sort  of  napkin,  which  were 
placed  round  the  neck  for  the  purpose  of  receiving  the  sweat. 


§  135.  DRESS  AT  FESTIVALS,  ETC. 


145 


§  134.  Painting  and  Branding  or  Sealing. 

Various  kinds  of  painting  have  been  practised  by  all  nations  in 

all  ages.'  It  is  our  object,  however,  at  the  present  time,  only  to 

speak  of  that  mode  of  painting,  which  in  the  Bible  is  denominated 
5    c  J 

•p© ,  and  in  the  Arabic  Vsri)  .  The  principal  material  used  in 
this  mode  of  painting,  the  object  of  which  is  to  communicate  a 
dark  tint  to  the  eyebrows,  is  a  sort  of  black  lead,  which  is  found 
to  be  used  throughout  all  the  East  as  far  as  India.  It  is  applied  to 
the  eyebrows  by  a  silver  instrument,  so  as  to  give  them  the  appear- 
ance of  being  very  long,  which  is  esteemed  a  great  ornament, 
2  K.  9:  30.  Jer.  4:  30.  Ezek.  23:  40.  The  paint,  which  is  pre- 
pared from  the  ashes  of  the  plant  Alkanet,  and  which  is  used  by 
oriental  matrons  to  communicate  a  yellow  colour  to  the  arms  and 
feet,  and  a  tint  of  redness  to  the  nails,  though  very  ancient,  is  not 
mentioned  in  the  Bible  ;  a  mere  allusion  to  it  occurs  in  Jer.  2:  22, 
under  the  word  EPD3  .  The  red  paint  in  use  among  the  Roman 
matrons,  which  was  spread  upon  the  idols  on  festival  days,  is  men- 
tioned in  the  book  of  Wisdom,  13:  14.  A  custom,  which  prevailed 
in  the  East  anciently,  and  which  is  connected  with  this  subject, 
has  been  perpetuated  in  that  region  even  to  our  day  ;  viz.  that 
whoever  visited  a  temple  should  either  devote  himself  to  some 
god,  or  brand  the  image  of  the  temple  or  the  name  of  the  god  on 
his  right  arm.  This  custom  as  far  as  concerned  the  Hebrews  was 
interdicted  in  Lev.  19:28.  but  the  words  ■  branding/  '  marking,'  and 
'sealing,'  frequently  occur  with  a  tropical  signification,  Gal.  6:  17. 
Ephes..l:  13.  Rev.  7:  4,  8.  14:  1—5.  13:  17,  18.  Ezek.  9:  2—12. 

§  135.  Dress  at  festivals  and  on  Occasions  of  Mourning. 

The  festival  dress  was  very  splendid,  it  was  white,  and  as  of- 
ten as  the  festival  returned,  was  newly  washed  and  perfumed  with 
myrrh,  cassia,  and  aloes,  Gen.  27:  27.  Ps.  45:  8.  Cant.  4: 11.  It  was 
worn  on  the  festivals  of  the  family,  of  the  state,  and  of  religion, 
but  when  the  festival  was  over,  it  was  laid  aside.  The  splendid 
garments  of  festivals  were  denominated  in  Hebrew  tl\tlt^  IrflqSa  , 
'iiyp  "^tl ,  &c.  Vast  expense  was  bestowed  upon  them  both  as 
respected  their  quality  and  number,  2K.  5:  5.  Matt.  10:  10.  James 
19 


146 


$  135.  DRESS  AT  FESTIVALS,  ETC. 


5 :  2.  The  mourning  dress,  Hebrew  pfcr  or  sackcloth,  is  well 
known.  It  was  in  truth  a  sack,  which  was  thrown  over  the  person 
and  extended  down  to  the  knees,  but  which,  nevertheless,  had  arm- 
holes  for  the  admission  of  the  arms.    It  derives  its  name  from  the 

Arabic  verb,  to  tear  asunder,  because  in  the  moment  of  the 

person's  grief  it  was  torn  from  the  neck  down  to  the  breast,  and 
sometimes  as  far  as  the  girdle.  The  materials  were  a  coarse  dark 
cloth  of  goat's  hair,  Job  16:  15.  Jonah  3:  5. 

Note.  In  the  book  of  Leviticus,  13:  47 — 59.  we  are  informed 
of  the  leprosy  of  garments  in  the  following  terms  ;  "  the  garment  al- 
so, that  the  plague  of  leprosy  is  in,  xohether  it  be  a  woollen  garment 
or  a  linen  garment,  whether  it  be  in  the  warp  or  woof,  whether  in  a 
skin,  or  any  thing  made  of  skin"  &c.  The  marks  or  indications  of 
the  existence  and  nature  of  this  leprosy  are  also  stated  with  some 
particularity  in  the  verses  referred  to.  What  this  plague,  as  it  is 
termed,  was,  it  is  difficult  to  state  with  much  certainty,  since  the 
conjectures,  which  the  learned  have  hazarded  in  regard  to  it,  are 
by  no  means  satisfactory.  Without  doubt  the  Hebrews  had  ob- 
served certain  destructive  effects  wrought  upon  clothing,  whether 
made  of  wool  and  cotton,  or  leather,  and  not  understanding  their 
origin  or  their  nature,  they  choose  to  call  them  from  certain  re- 
semblances as  much  apparent  as  real,  the  corroding  plague  or 
leprosy,  rntftttt  nans .  Altogether  the  most  probable  conjecture 
in  regard  to  these  effects  is,  that  they  were  merely  the  depredations 
of  certain  little  insects,  which  could  not  be  seen  by  the  naked  eye. 
The  Hebrews  without  doubt,  considered  the  clothes'  leprosy,  as  they 
termed  it,  contagious,  and  consequently  a  serious  and  fearful  evil. 
This  opinion  was  the  ground  of  the  rigid  laws,  which  are  laid  down 
in  respect  to  it  in  Leviticus  12:  47 — 59. 


« 


147 

CHAPTER  IX. 

CONCERNING  FOOD  AND  FEASTS. 

§  136.  Of  Food  in  general. 

At  first,  men  lived  upon  the  fruits  of  trees,  upon  herbs,  roots, 
and  seeds,  and  whatever  else  they  could  find  in  the  vegetable  king- 
dom, that  might  conduce  to  the  support  of  life,  all  which  was  ex- 
pressed in  Hebrew  by  the  word  Eftb,  in  the  broadest  sense  of  the  word, 
Gen.  1:  29.  2:  16.  Afterwards  a  method  was  invented  to  bruise 
grain,  and  to  reduce  it  to  a  mass,  to  ferment  it,  and  bake  it,  and 
thus  to  make  bread,  which  is  also  expressed  by  fihb,  in  the  more 
limited  sense  of  the  word.  Still  later,  not  only  water,  but  milk, 
oil,  and  honey,  were  mingled  with  the  meal,  and  bread  was  made 
of  a  richer  and  more  valuable  kind.  Even  so  early  as  the  time  of 
Abraham,  the  art  of  preparing  bread  was  carried  to  some  degree  of 
perfection.  Before  the  deluge  the  flesh  of  animals  was  convert- 
ed into  food,  as  may  be  inferred  from  the  division  of  animals  into 
clean  and  unclean,  Gen.  7:  2,  8 ;  after  the  deluge  animals  are  ex- 
pressly mentioned,  as  being  slain  for  food,  Gen.  9:  8 — 6.  But 
meat  is  not  so  palatable  and  nutritious  in  warm  climates  as  in  others, 
and  fruits,  consequently,  bread,  olives,  and  milk,  are  the  customary 
food. 

§  137.  Preparation  of  Food  by  Fire. 

Originally  food  of  every  kind  was  eaten  without  being  cooked, 
because  there  was  no  fire.  If  there  had  been  fire,  it  would  have 
been  of  no  consequence  in  this  case,  seeing  that  its  use  in  the 
preparation  of  food  was  unknown.  Men  were  undoubtedly  taught 
by  chance  to  roast  flesh  and  eventually  to  boil  it.  It  was  found 
so  much  more  agreeable,  when  prepared  in  this  way,  that  men 
were  careful  not  to  let  the  fire,  which  they  had  now  found,  be- 
come extinguished.  Their  method  of  obtaining  fire  was,  to  elicit 
sparks  by  the  collision  of  stone  and  flint,  or  by  the  friction  of  pie- 


148  §  138.  OF  MILLS. 

ces  of  wood,  and  afterwards  to  excite  a  blaze.  This  method  of 
obtaining  fire  was  very  ancient,  as  we  may  learn  from  the  etymolo- 
gy of  the  word  tV%f>  ,  Is.  50:  11.  64:  1. 

§  138.  Of  Mills. 

Corn  was  eaten  at  first  without  any  preparation  of  it  at  all ;  the 
custom  of  thus  eating  it  had  not  gone  into  total  desuetude  in  the 
time  of  Christ,  Matt.  12:  1.  Levit.  2:  12.  Deut.  23:  25.  After  the 
uses  of  fire  were  known,  it  was  parched.  Parching  it  became  so 
common,  that  the  words  ^  ,  (  and  iObj?  ,  which  properly  mean 
parched,  mean  also  corn  or  meal,  2  Sam.  17:  28.  Lev.  2:  12,  14. 
Ruth  2:  14,  18.  Some,  who  found  a  difficulty  in  mastication,  broke 
to  pieces  the  kernels  of  corn  with  stones  or  pieces  of  wood ;  this 
suggested  the  idea  of  mortars,  and  eventually  of  mills.  The  mor- 
tar, nil *V2  ,  'iiFpa  ,  was  used  in  the  time  of  Moses  for  bruising  corn, 
also  the  mill,  "prta  ,  Num.  11:  8.  Fine  meal,  i.  e.  corn  or  grain 
ground  or  beaten  fine,  is  spoken  of  as  far  back  as  the  time  of  Abra- 
ham, Gen.  18:  6 ;  hence  mills  and  mortars  must  have  been  known 
before  his  time.  The  mill  common  among  the  Hebrews,  scarce- 
ly differed  at  all  from  that,  which  is  used  at  this  day  in  Egypt  and 
the  East.  It  consisted  of  two  circular  stones,  two  feet  in  diame- 
ter and  half  a  foot  thick.  The  lower  one  was  called  "'Hifrft  and 
nbs ,  Deut.  24:  6.  Job  41:  15,  16 ;  it  exhibited  a  slight  rise  or  ele- 
vation on  the  centre,  and  was  fixed  in  the  floor.  The  upper  one 
was  called  ,  Judg.  9:  53 ;  was  moveable,  and  in  order  to  make 
it  fit  precisely  to  the  nether  one,  was  slightly  hollowed.  In  the 
middle  of  it  was  a  hole,  through  which  the  corn  to  be  ground  was 
admitted.  The  upper  stone  had  a  handle  attached  to  it,  by  which 
it  was  moved  upon  the  lower,  and  the  corn  and  grain  were  in 
this  way  broken.  There  were  sieves  attached  to  the  mill,  which 
separated  the  flour  from  the  bran  ;  the  bran  was  put  into  the 
mill  again  and  ground  over.  The  sieves  were  made  of  reeds ; 
those  made  of  horse  hair  were  a  later  invention,  not  earlier  than  the 
time  of  Pliny. 


§  140.   BAKING  EREAD  IN  AN  OVEN. 


149 


§  139.  Grinding. 

Since  there  were  neither  public  mills  nor  bakers,  except  the 
king's,  Gen.  40:  2.  Hos.  7:  4 — 10.  each  one  by  consequence  owned 
a  mill  himself;  hence  it  was  made  an  infringement  of  the  law,  for 
a  person  to  take  another's  mill  or  millstone,  as  a  pledge,  Deut.  24:  6. 
for  without  his  mill  there  being  no  public  ones,  he  would  have 
been  in  a  bad  situation.  At  first  barley  alone  was  ground,  but  af- 
terwards wheat  more  commonly,  as  the  poor  alone  used  barley. 
Barley  bread  answers  better  in  the  warm  climate  of  the  East,  than 
among  us.  On  the  second  day  it  becomes  insipid  and  rough  to  the 
palate ;  and  this  is  the  case  also  in  warm  climates  with  wheat 
bread.  Hence  the  necessity  of  baking  every  day,  and  hence  also 
the  daily  grinding  at  the  mills  about  evening.  The  sound  of  the 
millstones,  probably  at  this  time,  is  spoken  of  by  the  prophet,  Jer. 
25:  10.  The  mill  was  commonly  turned  by  two  persons,  the  low- 
est maid-servants.  They  sat  opposite  to  each  other,  facing,  the 
one  on  one  side,  the  other  on  the  other  side.  One  took  hold  of 
the  mill  handle  and  impelled  it  half  way  round  ;  the  other  then 
seized  it  and  completed  its  revolution,  Exod.  11:  5.  Job  31:  10,  11. 
Is.  47:  2.  Matt.  24:  41.  The  labour  was  severe  and  menial ;  fre- 
quently enemies,  taken  in  war,  were  condemned  to  perform  it, 
Judg.  16:  21.  Lam.  5:  13. 

§  140.  Baking  Bread  in  an  Oven. 

The  business  of  baking  was  performed  anciently  by  women, 
however  high  their  stations,  Gen.  18:  6.  Lev.  26:  26.  2  Sam.  13: 
6,  8.  Jer.  7:  18,  19.  When  luxury  afterwards  prevailed  among 
them,  the  matrons  and  their  daughters  gave  it  up  to  their  maids, 
1  Sam.  8:  13.  These  maids  were  so  numerous  in  the  palace  of 
David,  that  a  portion  of  bread,  etc.  was  distributed  to  them,  the 
same  as  to  a  large  multitude  of  men,  2  Sam.  6:  19.  In  Egypt 
there  were  king's  bakers  very  early ;  they  make  their  appear- 
ance in  Palestine  also,  but  at  a  much  later  period,  Hos.  7:  4 — 7. 
Jer.  37:  21. 

Kneading  troughs  were  a  sort  of  wooden  trays,  in  which  the 
flour,  being  mingled  with  water,  was  reduced  to  a  solid  mass,  and 


150 


§  140.   BAKING  BREAD  IN  AN  OVEN. 


after  remaining  a  little  time,  was  kneaded,  some  leaven  being  add- 
ed to  it,  Exod.  12:  34.  Deut.  28:  5, 17.  In  case  it  was  necessary  to 
prepare  the  bread  very  hastily,  the  leaven  was  left  out,  Gen.  18:  6. 
19:  3.  Judg.  6:  19.  1  K.  17:  12.  Exod.  12:  15,  34.  13:  3,  7.  Lev. 
2:  11.  Deut.  16:  3.  Amos  4:  5.  The  cakes  when  made  were  round, 
tifib  'tYi1S09  Judg.  8:  5.  and  nine  or  ten  inches  in  diameter.  The 
unleavened  cakes  were  not  thicker  than  a  knife,  but  the  leavened 
were  as  thick  as  a  man's  little  finger.  The  bread  was  not  cut  with 
a  knife  but  broken,  Hebrew  DnD ,  Is.  58:  7.  Lam.  4:  4.  Matt.  14: 
19.  15:  36.  26:  26.  Of  ovens  or  places  for  baking  there  are  four 
kinds ; 

I.  The  mere  sand,  heated  by  a  fire,  which  was  subsequently 
removed.  The  raw  cakes  were  placed  upon  it ;  in  a  little  while 
they  were  turned,  and  afterwards,  to  complete  the  process,  were 
covered  with  warm  ashes  and  coals.  Unless  they  were  turned,  they 
were  not  thoroughly  baked.  This  explains  Hos.  7:  8.  The  ashes 
or  coal-baked  cakes  so  called,  Hebrew  rnas? ,  were  prepared  in  this 
way,  Gen.  18:  6.  19:  3.  1  K.  19:  6. 

II.  The  second  sort  of  oven  was  an  excavation  in  the  earth, 
two  and  a  half  feet  in  diameter,  of  different  depths  from  five  to 
six  feet,  as  we  may  suppose  from  those  which  still  exist  in  Persia. 
This  sort  of  oven  occurs  under  the  word  C'VS ,  and  in  Lev.  11: 
35.  is  mentioned  in  connexion  with  the  word  l^n  .  The  bottom 
is  paved  with  stones  ;  when  the  oven  is  sufficiently  warmed,  the 
fire  is  taken  away,  the  cakes  are  placed  upon  the  warm  stones, 
and  the  mouth  of  the  oven  is  shut. 

III.  A  moveable  oven,  called  IISF),  which  was  besmeared 
within  and  without  with  clay,  being  constructed  of  brick.  A  fire 
was  kindled  within  it,  and  the  dough  was  placed  upon  the  side, 
where  it  baked,  and  was  called,  ^nsni  nEtfft ,  Lev.  2:  4. 

IV.  A  plate  of  iron,  placed  upon  three  stones  ;  the  fire  was 
kindled  beneath  it,  and  the  raw  cakes  placed  on  the  upper  sur- 
face. The  cake  baked  in  this  way  is  perhaps  the  rDWft,  men- 
tioned in  Lev.  2: 5.  6:  14.  Not  only  leavened,  and  unleavened  cakes 
were  baked  in  these  ovens,  but  other  kinds,  which  it  is  not  neces- 
sary to  mention.  We  shall  have  to  pass  by  the  rest  of  the  culinary 
apparatus. 


§  141.   ON  THE  DIFFERENT  KINDS  OF  FOOD. 


J51 


§  141.  On  THE  DIFFERENT  KINDS  OF  FOOD. 

Cooking,  btB2  ,  was  done  by  the  matron  of  the  family,  unless, 
when  intent  on  the  adorning  of  her  person,  she  thought  proper 
to  commit  it  to  the  maid.  Vegetables,  lentils  especially,  which 
are  greatly  esteemed  even  to  this  day  among  the  Orientals,  were 
the/principal  food,  Gen.  25:  30,  34  ;  cakes  also  mixed  with  honey, 
were  frequently  used,  Ezek.  1G:  13.  Flesh  was  not  served  up, 
except  when  a  stranger  was  present,  and  on  the  occasion  of  a 
feast,  Gen.  18:  7.  Deut.  15:  20.  Luke  15:  23.  The  orientals  at 
the  present  day  are  very  sparing  in  the  use  of  flesh  ;  too  long  an 
abstinence  from  it,  however,  produces  a  great  appetite  for  it,  and 
generates  a  disease  also,  which  is  known  among  the  Arabians  un- 

der  the  word  |*y-3,  Num.  11:  4,  12.  As  luxury  increased,  the 
flesh  of  animals  began  to  be  more  used  for  food  ;  venison  and  the 
meat  of  the  "  fatted  calf"  were  peculiarly  esteemed,  also  of  fat- 
ted oxen,  Gen.  IS:  7.  41:  2.  1  Sam.  16:  20.  28:  24.  2  Sam.  6:  13. 
The  flesh  of  the  sheep  and  goat  kind,  particularly  of  lambs  and 
kids,  were  esteemed  the  choicest  dish  of  any,  and  it  was  for  the  es- 
timation in  which  they  were  held  on  this  account,  that  they  were 
so  much  used  in  sacrifices.  In  the  most  ancient  ages  the  animal 
to  be  slain  was  taken  by  the  master  of  the  family  himself,  although 
he  were*a  prince,  and  was  slain.  The  cooking  also  was  done  by 
his  wife,  though  she  were  a  princess,  Gen.  18:  2 — 6.  Judg.  6:  19. 
The  process  of  cooking  seems  to  have  been  very  expeditiously 
performed,  Gen.  27:  3,  4,  9,  10.  All  the  flesh  of  the  slain  ani- 
mal, owing  to  the  difficulty  of  preserving  it  in  a  warm  climate  un- 
corrupted,?was  commonly  cooked  at  once.  This  is  the  custom  at 
the  present  day,  although  the  art  of  drying  and  preserving  it  by 
the  sun  is  known  among  the  Nomades.  The  flesh  when  cooked, 
was  divided  into  small  pieces,  and  a  sauce  was  prepared  for  it  of 
broth  and  vegetables,  in  Hebrew  p*JJ3  ,  Judg.  6:  19,  20.  Is.  65:  4. 


152 


§  142.   OF  ROASTING. 


§  142.  Of  Roasting,  tiDN. 

Roasting  was  the  earliest-  method  of  preparing  the  flesh  of  an- 
imals ;  it  seems  to  have  been  discovered  at  first  by  chance,  as  al- 
ready observed,  and  became  in  time  a  favourite  method  of  cook- 
ing. The  Nomades  of  the  present  day,  following  a  very  ancient 
custom,  divide  the  flesh  to  be  roasted  into  small  pieces,  salt  it, 
and  fix  it  upon  a  wooden  spit.  They  turn  one  part  of  it  to  the 
fire,  and  when  this  is  roasted,  turn  the  other.  Fowls  are  roasted 
whole  on  a  spit,  which  revolves  in  two  or  more  crotched  sticks, 
placed  in  the  ground  on  each  side  of  the  fire.  When  sheep  and 
lambs  are  to  be  roasted  whole,  they  thrust  a  sharp  stick  through 
from  the  tail  to  the  head  of  the  animal,  another  transversely  through 
the  forefeet,  and  roast  it  in  the  oven  described  in  section  140.  No. 
II.  ;  which  mode  of  roasting  is  expressed  in  Arabic  by  the  verb 

meaning  to  crucify.  In  the  countries  of  the  East,  locusts 
are  frequently  roasted  for  the  use  of  the  common  people.  Their 
wings  and  feet  are  taken  off  and  their  intestines  extracted  ;  they 
are  salted,  fixed  upon  a  sharp  piece  of  wood,  placed  over  the 
fire  and  at  length  eaten.  They  are  likewise  prepared  by  boiling 
them.  In  summer  they  are  dried  and  ground,  and  bread  is  made 
of  them.  Sometimes  they  are  salted  and  preserved  in  bottles, 
and  as  occasion  requires,  are  cut  in  pieces  and  eaten,  Lev.  11:  22. 
Matt.  3:  4.  Some  species  of  locusts  are  esteemed  noxious  and 
are,  therefore,  reckoned  among  the  unclean  animals,  Lev.  11:  22. 
The  Heb.  word,  D^iB,  [rendered  in  the  English  version  quails,] 
is  not  to  be  regarded  as  a  name  for  any  species  of  locusts  for  ibtp 
is  to  this  day  in  the  East  the  name  of  a  migratory  bird  of  the  quail 
kind.  They  come  over  the  waters  of  the  ocean,  and  being  weary 
descend  in  great  numbers  on  Arabia  Petrea,  so  as  to  be  easily  tak- 
en by  the  hands,  Diod.  Sic.  I.  61.  Niebuhr's  Travels,  Part  I.  p. 
176.  The  flesh  of  these  birds  is  less  esteemed  on  account  of  their 
living  in  a  measure  upon  grasshoppers,  Num.  11:  32. 

Note.  The  use  of  salt  is  very  ancient,  see  Num.  18:  19,  com- 
pared with  2  Chron.  13:  5.  In  Exod.  30:  35,  a  kind  of  salt  called 
pure  salt  is  distinguished  from  common  salt.    Among  the  orientals 


§  143.  INTERDICTED  FOOD. 


153 


salt  is  the  symbol  of  inviolable  friendship  ;  a  covenant  of  salt,  ac- 
cordingly, means  an  everlasting  or  perpetual  covenant.  It  is  used 
tropically  for  wisdom,  and  for  preservation,  Mark  9:  49,  50.  Coloss. 
4:  6.  and  salt  that  has  lost  its  savour,  on  the  contrary,  for  folly, 
Matt.  5:  13. 

§  143.  Interdicted  Food. 

Some  sorts  of  food  were  interdicted  to  the  Hebrews ;  some  an- 
imals being  unclean  according  to  the  Mosaic  law,  such,  for  in- 
stance, as  were  actually  unpalatable  and  noxious,  or  were  esteemed 
so ;  others  being  set  apart  for  the  altar,  certain  parts  of  which  it 
was  consequently  not  lawful  to  eat.  The  object  of  interdicting 
so  many  sorts  of  food  was  to  prevent  the  Hebrews  from  eating 
with  the  Gentiles,  or  frequenting  their  idolatrous  feasts,  by  means 
of  which  they  might  and  probably  would  have  been  seduced  to 
idolatry.    They  are  reckoned  unclean. 

I.  Quadrupeds,  which  do  not  ruminate,  or  have  cloven  feet. 

II.  Serpents,  and  creeping  insects ;  also  certain  insects  which 
sometimes  fly  and  sometimes  advance  upon  their  feet. 

III.  Certain  species  of  birds,  many  of  the  names  of  which  are 
obscure. 

IV.  Fishes  without  scales  ;  also  those  without  fins. 

V.  All  food,  all  liquids  standing  in  a  vessel,  and  all  wet  seed, 
into  which  the  dead  body  of  any  unclean  insect  had  fallen.  Wa- 
ter in  cisterns,  wells,  and  fountains  could  not  be  contaminated  in 
this  way,  Lev.  11:  1—38. 

VI.  All  food  and  liquids,  which  stood  in  the  tent  or  chamber 
of  a  dying  or  dead  man,  remaining  meanwhile  in  an  uncovered 
vessel,  Num.  19:  15. 

VII.  Every  thing  which  wa3  consecrated  by  any  one  to  idols 
or  gods,  Exod.  34:  15.  It  was  this  prohibition  which  in  the  primi- 
tive church  occasioned  certain  dissensions,  which  Paul  frequently 
remarks  upon,  especially  in  1  Cor.  8:  10. 

VIII.  The  kid  boiled  in  the  milk  of  its  mother,  Exod.  23:  19. 
34:  26.  Deut  14:  21.    The  reason  of  this  law  is  somewhat  obscure. 

.Whether  there  was  some  superstition  on  the  subject,  or  whether 
it  was  meant  as  a  lesson  on  humanity  to  animals,  or  whether  it  is 
to  be  understood  as  a  tacit  commendation  of  oil  in  preference  to 
20 


154 


§  144.  BEVERAGE. 


butter  and  milk,  is  not  clear.  The  consecrated  animal  substance 
which  it  was  not  lawful  to  eat,  was 

I.  Blood,  Lev.  3:  9,  10,  17.  7:  26,  27.  17:  10—14.  19:  26. 
Deut.  12:  16,  23,  25.  15:  23.* 

II.  An  animal  which  died  of  itself,  or  was  torn  to  pieces  by 
wild  beasts,  in  as  much  as  the  blood  remained  in  the  body,  Exod. 
22:  31.  Deut.  14:  21. 

III.  The  fat  covering  the  intestines,  the  large  lobe  of  the  liver, 
the  kidneys  and  the  fat  upon  them,  Exod.  29: 13,22.  Lev.  3:  4,  10, 
15.  4:  9.  9:  10,  19 ;  also  the  fat  tail  of  a  certain  class  of  sheep,  in 
Heb.  n^N ,  Exod.  19:  22.  Lev.  3:  9.  7:  3.  8:  26.  9:  19  ;  all  of 
which  were  devoted  and  set  apart  for  the  altar.  The  Hebrews  ab- 
stained also  from  the  haunches  of  animals ;  the  later  Jews  extended 
this  abstinence  to  the  whole  hind  quarter.  The  custom  originated 
from  the  account  given  in  Gen.  32:  25,  32. 

§  144.  Beverage. 

The  commonalty  among  the  Mohammedans  drink  water ;  the 
rich  and  noble  drink  a  beverage  called  sherbet,  which  was  for- 
merly used  only  in  Egypt,  Gen.  40:  11.  where  ale  or  beer,  £v&og , 
olvog  xgidivoQ,  was  also  used,  though  probably  not  so  far  back 
as  the  time  of  Moses.  The  orientals  frequently  used  wine  to  such 
an  extent  as  to  occasion  ebriety,  from  which  circumstance  many 
tropes  are  drawn.  Is  5:  11—22.  28: 1—11.  49:26.  Jer.  8:  14.  9:  14. 
16:  48.  Deut.  32:  42.  Ps.  78:  65.  etc.  Wine,  although  in  Eastern 
climates  it  is  very  rich,  was  at  times  mixed  with  spices,  espe- 
cially myrrh,  and  this  mixture  was  sometimes  denominated  from  a 
Hebrew  word,  which  signifies  mixed.  But  the  word  in  question, 
viz.  b^lnft ,  for  the  most  part,  means  a  wine  diluted  with  water, 
which  was  given  to  the  buyer  instead  of  good  wine,  and  was  con- 
sequently used  tropically  for  any  kind  of  adulteration,  Is.  1:  22.  2 
Cor.  2:  17.  Wine  in  the  East  was  frequently  diluted  after  it  was 
bought,  as  we  may  infer  from  the  fact,  that  two  Arabic  verbs 
still  remain  which  indicate  the  dilution  of  this  beverage.  The 

words  are,  jgssim*  a°d  ItJdS .    There  is  a  sort  of  wine  called 
,  oiKtgci,  or  strong  drink.    It  was  made  of  dates,  and  of  vari- 
ous sorts  of  seeds  and  roots,  and  was  sufficiently  powerful  at  any 


§  145.   THE  TIME  OF  TAKING  REFRESHMENT.  155 

rate  to  occasion  intoxication.  It  was  drunk,  mixed  with  water. 
From  the  pure  wine  and  sikera,  there  was  made  an  artificial  drink, 
yftft  which  was  taken  at  meals  with  vegetables  and  bread,  Ruth 
2:  14.  It  was  also  a  common  drink,  Num.  6:  3.  and  was  used  by 
the  Roman  soldiers,  Matt.  27:  48.  Further,  there  is  a  wine  called 
by  the  Talmudists  vinegar,  whence  the  passage  in  Matt.  27:  34.  may 
be  explained.  The  vessels  used  for  drinking  were  at  first  horns  ; 
but  the  Hebrews  used  horns  only  for  the  purpose  of  performing 
the  ceremony  of  anointing.    The  other  drinking  vessels  were, 

I.  A  cup  of  brass  covered  with  tin,  in  form  resembling  a 
lily,  though  sometimes  circular  ;  it  is  used  by  travellers  to  this 
day,  and  may  be  seen  in  both  shapes  on  the  ruins  of  Persepolis, 
comp.  1  K.  7:  26. 

II.  The  bowl,  Hebrew  jpaj .  It  resembled  a  lily,  Exod.  25: 
33 ;  although  it  seems  to  have  varied  in  form,  for  it  had  many 
names,  as  oi3,  "123  ,  rttiaj^'.  Those  called,  ,  nil^p,  miDj?, 
had  no  cover,  and  probably  were  of  a  circular  form,  as  the  names 
seem  to  indicate.  The  bowls  of  this  kind,  which  belonged  to  the 
rich  were,  in  the  time  of  Moses,  made  of  silver  and  gold,  as  appears 
from  Num.  7:  12—83.  comp.  1  K.  10:  21.  The  larger  vessels, 
from  which  wine  was  poured  out  into  cups,  were  called  urns, 
hi *$2»,  bottles,  fiftrr,  riJaW,  bS3  ;  small  bottles,  "*>*r;  and  a 
bottle  of  shell,  ^3 ,  with  a  small  orifice. 

§  145.  The  Time  and  Circumstances  of  taking  Refreshment. 

Not  only  the  inhabitants  of  the  East,  generally,  but  the  Greeks 
and  Romans  also,  were  in  the  habit  of  taking  a  slight  dinner  about 
ten  or  eleven  o'clock  of  our  time,  which  consisted  chiefly  of  fruits, 
milk,  cheese,  etc.  Their  principal  meal  was  about  six  or  seven  in 
the  afternoon  ;  their  feasts  were  always  appointed  at  supper-time, 
for  the  burning  heat  of  noon  in  Eastern  climates  diminishes  the 
appetite  for  food  and  suppresses  the  disposition  to  cheerfulness, 
Eccles.  5:  16.  Matt.  3:  26.  Mark  6:  21.  Luke  14:  24.  John  12: 
2.  The  hands  were  washed  before  meals,  as  was  rendered  ne- 
cessary from  the  method  of  eating  :  prayers  also  were  offered,  1 
Sam.  9:  13.  The  form  of  the  short  prayer,  which  in  the  time  of 
Christ,  was  uttered  before  and  after  meals,  has  been  preserved  by 
the  Talmudists.    It  is  as  follows,  "  Blessed  be  thou,  O  Lord,  our 


156  §  146.  TABLE  AND  METHOD  OF  SITTING. 

God,  the  king  of  the  world,  who  hast  produced  this  food,  or  this 
drink,  (as  the  case  may  be,)  from  the  earth  or  the  vine,"  Matt. 
14:  19.  15:  36.  26:27.  Mark  14:22.  1  Cor.  10:  30.  1  Tim.  4:  4,5. 
The  Hebrews  were  not  very  particular  about  the  position,  which 
their  guests  occupied  at  table,  at  least  not  so  much  so  as  the 
Egyptians  were  anciently,  Gen.  43:  32  :  still  etiquette  was  not  wholly 
neglected,  1  Sam.  9:  22.  In  the  time  of  Christ,  the  arrogant  Pha- 
risees, who,  imitating  the  example  of  the  heathen  philosophers, 
wished  to  secure  the  highest  marks  of  distinction,  sought  of  course 
the  most  honourable  seat  at  the  feasts,  Luke  14:  8. 

§  146.  Table  and  Method  op  Sitting. 

The  table  in  the  East,  is  a  piece  of  round  leather,  spread  up- 
on the  floor,  upon  which  is  placed  a  sort  of  stool,  called  ]ftb**p . 
This  supports  nothing  but  a  platter.  The  seat  was  the  floor, 
spread  with  a  mattress,  carpet,  or  cushion,  upon  which  those  who 
ate  sat  with  legs  bent  and  crossed.  They  sat  in  a  circle  round 
the  piece  of  leather  with  the  right  side  towards  the  table,  so  that 
one  might  be  said  to  lean  upon  the  bosom  of  another.  Neither 
knife,  fork,  nor  spoon  was  used,  but  a  cloth  was  spread  round  the 
circular  leather,  to  prevent  the  mats  from  being  soiled,  which  is 
the  custom  in  the  East  to  the  present  day.  In  the  time  of  Christ 
the  Persian  custom  prevailed  of  reclining  at  table.  Three  sat  up- 
on one  mat  or  cushion,  which  was  large  enough  to  hold  that 
number  merely  ;  hence  the  origin  of  the  word  ag^izgiahvog  i.  e. 
the  master  of  the  feast.  The  guests  reclined  upon  the  left  side 
with  their  faces  towards  the  table,  so  that  the  head  of  the  second 
approached  the  breast  of  the  first,  and  the  head  of  the  third  ap- 
proached the  breast  of  the  second.  In  this  mode  of  reclining  we 
see  the  propriety  of  the  expressions,  "  leaning  upon  one's  bosom," 
Luke  7:  36,  38.  16:  22,  23.  John  2:  8.  13:  23.  The  middle  mat  or 
cushion,  and  the  centre  position  on  any  given  mat  was  the  most 
honourable,  and  was  the  one  coveted  by  the  Pharisees,  Luke  14: 
8,  10.  Anciently  females  were  not  admitted  to  the  tables  of  the 
men,  but  had  a  table  set  in  their  own  appropriate  apartment,  Esth. 
1:6,  9.  Babylon  and  Persia  must  however,  be  looked  upon  as  ex- 
ceptions, where  the  ladies  were  not  excluded  from  the  festivals 
of  the  men,  Dan.  5:  2  ;  and  if  we  may  believe  the  testimony  of 


§  148.  OF  FEASTS. 


157 


ancient  authors  at  Babylon  they  were  not  remarkable  for  their 
modesty  on  such  occasions. 

§  147.  Mode  of  Eating. 

The  food  was  conveyed  from  the  dish  to  the  mouth  by  the 
right  hand  ;  this  custom  still  prevails  in  the  East.  Ruth  2: 14.  Prov. 
26:  15.  John  13:  26.  There  was  no  need  of  a  knife  and  fork ;  the 
flesh  hook  or  fork,  mentioned  lSam.2:  12,  £)VQ. ,  having  three 
prongs,  belonging  to  the  cooking  apparatus,  and  not  to  the  table,  and 
was  employed  to  take  the  flesh  out  of  the  pot.  In  ancient  times 
a  separate  portion  seems  to  have  been  assigned  to  each  guest,  and 
he  was  considered  as  much  honoured,  who  received  two  or  more 
portions,  I  Sam.  1:  4,  5.  9:  22 — 24.  At  a  more  recent  period,  all 
the  guests  sitting  or  reclining  at  the  table  ate  from  a  common  dish. 
Drink  was  handed  to  each  one  of  the  guests,  in  the  cups  and  bowls 
already  described,  and  at  a  very  ancient  period  in  a  separate  cup  to 
each  one.  A  cup,  therefore,  is  frequently  used  tropically  for  a 
man's  lot  or  destiny,  Ps.  11:  6.  75:  8.  Is.  51:  22.  Jer.  25:  15,  27. 
35:  5.  49:  12.  Ezek.  23:  31—34.  Matt.  26:  39.  The  Egyptians, 
like  the  modern  orientals,  drank  after  supper.  The  servants  stand- 
ing by  observed  the  nod  of  their  master  and  obeyed  it ;  hence  the 
phrases,  "  to  stand  before  or  to  walk  before  the  master,"  are  the 
same  as  to  serve  him.  These  phrases  are  used  tropically  also  in 
respect  to  God,  Gen.  5:  22,  24.  17:  1.  24:  40.  1  Sam.  2:  35. 

§  148.  Of  Feasts. 

When  men  are  prospered,  they  are  disposed  to  indulge  their 
joyful  feelings  in  the  company  of  jovial  companions.  Hence 
feasts  are  mentioned  at  an  early  period,  Gen.  21:  8.  29:  22.  31: 
27,  54.  40:  20.  In  respect  to  the  second  tithes,  which  originated 
from  the  vow  of  Jacob,  Gen.  28:  22.  and  which  were  set  apart,  not 
only  as  a  sacrifice,  but  a  feast,  Moses  was  very  particular  in  *his 
laws,  Deut.  12:  4—18.  14:  22—29.  16:  10,  11.  26:  10,  11.  He  al- 
so enacted,  that  at  the  festival  of  the  second  sort  of  first  fruits, 
[denominated  by  Michaelis  the  second  first  fruits,]  servants  and  wi- 
dows, orphans  and  Levites  should  be  made  free  partakers,  Deut.  16: 
11 — 14.  12:  12 — 18.    Jesus  alludes  to  this  festival,  which  was  de- 


158 


§  148.   OF  FEASTS. 


signed  for  the  poor,  and  which  received  its  reward  from  God,  in 
Luke  14:  13.  The  guests  were  invited  by  the  servants,  and  were 
requested  to  come  at  a  particular  time,  Matt.  22:  4.  Luke  14:  7. 
The  guests  were  anointed  with  precious  oil,  Ps.  23: 5.  45:  7.  Amos 
6:  6.  Eccles.  9:  8.  Luke  7:  37,  38.  Anciently,  (and  the  same  is  the 
custom  now  in  Asia,)  the  persons  invited,  before  their  departure, 
were  perfumed,  especially  upon  the  beard,  as  we  may  gather  from 
Exod.  30:  37,  38.  We  are  hardly  at  liberty  to  conclude,  as  some 
have  done,  from  Is.  28  :  1.  and  Wisd.  2 :  7.  that  the  Hebrews 
were  sometimes  crowned  with  flowers  at  their  festivals  in  the  man- 
ner of  the  Greeks.  They  appeared  on  such  occasions  in  white 
robes,  Eccles.  9:  8.  They  gratified  their  taste  by  the  exhibition  of 
large  quantities  of  provisions  of  the  same  kind,  Gen.  18:  6.  27:  9. 
Job  36:  16  ;  and  also  by  a  diversity  in  the  kinds,  Amos  6:  4,  5.  Est. 
1:  5 — 8.  Neh.  5:  18.  Flesh  and  wine  were  the  principal  articles  ; 
hence  a  feast  is  sometimes  called  the  season  of  drinking,  ?r£fi$3a  , 
Is.  22:  13.  As  luxury  increased,  drinking  on  festival  occasions 
was  carried  to  great  excess :  it  was  continued  from  evening  till 
morning.  Such  riotous  meetings  were  called  more  recently  in  the 
Greek  tongue  xcJ^ot,  and  are  deservedly  condemned,  Rom.  13:  13. 
Gal.  5:  21.  1  Pet.  4:  3.  As  the  feasts  were  always  held  towards 
evening,  the  room  or  rooms,  where  they  were  held,  were  lighted 
up,  and  the  fact,  that  in  the  climate  of  Palestine,  the  night,  at  least 
as  it  approached  towards  the  morning,  was  cold,  will  afford  a  clew 
to  the  explanation  of  Matt.  8:  ]2.  22.  13.  25:  30,  &c.  From  feasts, 
jests,  music,  and  riddles,  were  not  excluded  ;  feasts,  therefore,  were 
symbolic  of  a  state  of  prosperity,  and  exclusion  from  them  was  sym- 
bolic of  sorrow  and  misery,  Prov.  9:  2.  et  seq.  Amos  6:  4,  5.  Is.  5: 
12.  24:  7,  9.  Hence  also  the  kingdom  of  the  Messiah  is  represent- 
ed under  the  image  or  symbol  of  a  feast.  This  metaphorical  repre- 
sentation was  so  common,  and  so  well  understood,  that  the  ancient 
interpreters  use  the  words,  joy  and  rejoice,  feast  and  feasting,  as  in- 
terchangeable terms,  compare  Ps.  68:  4.  and  Esther  9:  18,  19.  with 
the  Alexandrine  version  and  Vulgate.  In  the  New  Testament,  the 
word  %aga  or  joy,  is  sometimes  put  for  a  feast,  Matt.  25:  21,  23. 
As  many  of  the  Hebrew  feasts  were  the  remains  of  sacrifices,  the 
guests  were  required  to  be  pure  or  clean,  to  which  a  reference  is 
made  in  various  allegories  and  tropes,  Ezek.  39:  16,  20.  Is.  34:  4. 
Rev.  19:  17,  18. 


§  149.   HOSPITALITY  OF  THE  ORIENTALS. 


159 


§  149.  Hospitality  of  the  Orientals. 

In  the  primitive  ages  of  the  world  there  were  no  public  inns, 
or  taverns.  In  those  days  the  voluntary  exhibition  of  hospitality 
to  one,  who  stood  in  need  of  it,  was  highly  honourable.  The  glo- 
ry of  an  openhearted  and  generous  hospitality  continued  even  after 
public  inns  were  erected,  and  continues  even  to  this  day  in  the 
East,  Job  22  :  7.  31  :  17.  Gen.  18  :  3—9.  19  :  2—10.  Exod.  2: 
20.  Judg.  19:  2—10.  Acts  16:  15.  17:  7.  28:  7.  Matt.  25:  35.  Mark 
9:  41.  Rom.  12:  13.  1  Tim.  3:  2.  5:  10.  Heb.  13:  2.  Hence  not 
only  the  Nomades  or  wandering  shepherds  hospitably  receive  among 
themselves  strangers,  but  there  are  also  persons  in  cities  who  go 
about  the  streets  and  offer  to  each  one,  whom  they  meet,  water  free- 
ly, which  is  a  great  favour  in  the  hot  countries  of  the  East ;  this  liber- 
ality customarily  meets  with  some  little  reward,  Matt.  10:  42.  Mark 
9:  41:  The  high  spirit  of  honour,  that  is  characteristic  of  the  orien- 
tals, is  exhibited  in  a  custom,  which  prevails  to  this  day.  If  a  man 
receive  another,  though  he  be  a  robber,  into  his  house,  if  he  eat  with 
him  even  a  crust  of  bread,  he  is  bound  to  treat  him  as  a  friend,  to 
defend  him  even  at  the  hazard  of  his  own  life,  unless  he  is  willing 
to  meet  with  the  scorn  and  contempt  of  all  his  countrymen,  Gen. 
19:  1—9.  Josh.  2:  1—6.  9:  19.  Judg.  4:  17—22.  An  allusion  is 
made  to  this  custom  in  Ps.  41:  9.  91:  1.  119:  19.  2  Sam.  12:  3. 
Luke  7:  34.  John  13:  18.  comp.  Iliad.  VI.  210—231.  The  feet 
of  the  guests,  as  before  observed,  were  washed  ;  whence  washing 
of  feet  also  is  used  as  a  symbol  of  hospitality,  Gen.  18:  4.  John  13: 
5.  1  Tim.  5:  10. 


160 


CHAPTER  X. 

ON  THE  STATE  OF  DOMESTIC  SOCIETY 

§  150.  Precautions  against  Fornication. 

Both  polygamy  and  fornication  were  condemned  by  that  pri- 
meval institution,  which,  in  order  to  secure  the  propagation  of 
the  species,  joined  in  marriage  one  man  and  one  woman,  Gen.  1: 
27,  28.  The  old  and  pious  patriarchs  religiously  observed  this 
institution.  But  before  the  time  of  Moses,  morals  had  become 
very  much  corrupted,  and  not  only  the  prostitution  of  females, 
but  of  boys,  was  very  common  among  many  nations,  and  even 
made  a  part  of  the  divine  worship;  as  indeed  may  be  inferred 
from  the  words,  \B*1jg  ,  a  prostitute  boy,  and  ilt/^p  ,  the  feminine  of 
it,  which  properly  and  originally  mean  a  person  religiously  set 
apart  and  consecrated  to  the  flagitious  vice  in  question.  To  pre- 
vent these  evils  to  which  the  Greek  and  Roman  philosophers  refus- 
ed in  progress  of  time  to  oppose  any  decided  resistance,  Moses  made 
the  following  regulations. 

I.  That  among  the  Israelites  no  prostitute,  neither  male  nor 
female,  should  be  tolerated,  and  that  if  the  daughter  of  a  priest 
especially,  were  guilty  of  whoredom,  she  should  be  stoned  and 
her  body  burnt,  Lev.  21:  9  ;  because  these  things,  as  Moses  observes 
in  Lev.  19:  29.  Deut.  23:  18,  19.  were  a  great  abomination  in  the 
sight  of  God.  Further,  for  fear  that  some  priests  of  low  and  av- 
aricious minds  should,  in  imitation  of  other  nations,  make  crimes 
of  this  kind  a  part  of  the  divine  worship,  he  enacted, 

II.  That  the  price  of  whoredom,  though  presented  in  return 
for  a  vow,  should  not  be  received  at  the  sanctuary,  Deut.  23:  19. 
This  law  it  seems  was  sometimes  violated  in  the  times  of  the  kings, 
2  K.  23:  6,  7.  To  stop  the  evil  at  the  commencement,  he  enacted 
likewise, 

III.  That  the  man,  who  had  seduced  a  female,  should  marry 
her,  and  in  case  the  father  would  not  consent,  should  pay  the  cus- 
tomary dowry,  viz,  thirty  shekels ;  in  case  violence  had  been  of- 


§151.  POLYGAMY. 


161 


fered,  fifty  shekels,  Exod.  22:  10.  Deut.  22: 23—29.  This  law 
seems  to  have  originated  in  an  ancient  custom  alluded  to  in  Gen. 
34:  1 — 12.    Finally,  to  secure  the  great  object,  he  enacted, 

IV.  That  a  person,  who  when  married  was  not  found  to  be  a 
virgin,  as  she  professed  before  marriage,  should  be  stoned  before 
her  father's  house,  Deut.  22:  20,  21.  These  laws  it  must  be  ad- 
mitted, were  severe,  but  prostitutes  of  both  sexes,  notwithstanding 
their  severity,  were  set  apart  in  the  time  of  the  kings  for  the  ser- 
vice of  idols,  Prov.  2:  16—19.  5:  3—6.  7:  5—27.  Amos  2:  7.  7: 
17.  Jer.  3:  2.  5:  7.  1  K.  14:  24.  15:  12.  etc. 

§  151.  Polygamy. 

By  the  same  primeval  institution,  just  now  referred  to,  poly- 
gamy was  also  forbidden.  Lamech  is  the  first  mentioned,  as  having 
two  wives,  and  the  example  which  he  set,  found  no  lack  of  imita- 
tors, see  Gen.  4:  19.  compared  with  Matt.  19:  4 — 8.  After  the 
deluge  the  example  of  Noah  and  his  sons  was  a  good  one,  but  it 
was  not  followed.  Polygamy  very  much  prevailed  among  the 
Hebrews  in  the  time  of  Moses,  as  we  may  gather  from  the  fact, 
that  the  first  born  of  six  hundred  and  three  thousand  five  hundred 
and  fifty  men,  above  twenty  years  of  age,  amounted  merely  to  the 
number  of  twenty  two  thousand  three  hundred  and  seventy-three, 
Num.  3:  42.  That  this  evil  might  in  progress  of  time  be  dimin- 
ished, Moses  gave  a  narration,  how  the  institution  originally  stood, 
Gen.  1:  27,  28.  2:  23,  24.  stated  the  first  transgression  of  it,  Gen.  4: 
29.  and  the  inconveniences,  which  had  subsequently  resulted  from 
having  a  plurality  of  wives,  Gen.  16:  4 — 10.  30:  1—3,  15.  evils, 
which  travellers  in  eastern  countries  assure  us  are  very  great. 

II.  He  interdicted  to  the  kings,  whom  the  Hebrews  should 
thereafter  elect,  a  multiplicity  of  wives.  It  is  true  he  did  not  say 
precisely  how  many  they  should  have,  but  probably  meant  the 
number  should  be  limited  by  the  custom  of  his  time.  Perhaps, 
therefore,  the  number  was  four,  which  is  the  exposition,  advanc- 
ed by  the  Rabbins  and  Mohammedans,  and  is  in  a  measure  support- 
ed by  the  example  of  Jacob,  Deut.  17:  17. 

III.  He  obligated  the  husband  to  bestow  himself  at  certain  . 
times  upon  each  one  of  his  wives,  Exod.  21:  10,  11.  compared 
with  Gen.  30:  14 — 16.  perhaps  a  week  at  a  time  upon  each,  as  is 

21 


162 


§  152.  THE  CHOICE  OF  A  WIFE. 


the  custom  to  this  day  in  the  East.  He  excepted,  however,  the 
season  of  the  menses,  when  sexual  intercourse  was  prohibited  on 
penalty  of  punishment  with  death,  either  because  the  offspring  of 
such  intercourse  was  supposed  to  be  leprous,  or  for  some  other 
reason  it  was  deemed  injurious. 

IV.  The  uncleanness,  contracted  by  sexual  connexion,  con- 
tinued through  a  whole  day,  Lev.  15:  18.  Under  these  circum- 
stances, a  man  could  not  well  have  more  than  four  wives  ;  and  in 
progress  of  time  polygamy  was  much  diminished. 

§  152.  The  Choice  of  a  Wife. 

The  father  of  a  family  selected  wives  for  his  sons,  and  husbands 
for  his  daughters,  Gen.  21:  21.  24:  31.  Exod.  21:  9.  Deut.  22:  16. 
Judg.  14:  1 — 4.  If  a  son  had  a  preference  for  any  person  as  his 
wife,  he  asked  his  father  to  obtain  her  from  her  father,  Gen.  34: 
2 — 5.  Judg.  14:  1,  2.  We  may,  therefore,  well  conclude,  that  the 
expressions  in  Jer.  31:  22.  and  Is.  4:  1,  2.  are  descriptive  of  a 
very  great  scarcity  of  men.  But  the  father  could  not  marry  the 
daughter  without  the  consent  of  the  brothers,  Gen.  24:  50.  34: 
11—27.  2  Sam.  13:20—29.  comp.  Gen.  12:11—13.  20:2—6. 
26:  7 — 17.  The  restraints,  by  which  the  fathers  of  families  were 
limited  in  making  choice  of  wives  for  their  children,  are  mention- 
ed in  Lev.  18:  7 — 18.  20:  11 — 20.  Intermarriages,  moreover, 
were  prohibited  with  the  Canaanites,  for  fear  that  the  Hebrews 
should  be  seduced  to  idolatry,  Exod.  34:  15,  16.  Deut.  7:  3.  The 
law  was  extended  by  Ezra  and  Nehemiah  to  intermarriages  with 
all  foreigners,  on  the  ground  that  there  was  as  much  danger  of 
contamination  from  other  nations  in  their  time,  as  there  was  from 
the  Canaanites  anciently,  Ezra  9:  2—12.  10:  3.  Neh.  13:  23.  It 
was  not  lawful  for  a  priest  to  marry  a  prostitute,  a  divorced,  or  a 
profane  woman,  and  in  the  case  of  a  high  priest  the  interdiction 
was  extended  to  widows,  and  to  women  of  foreign  extraction,  Lev. 
21:  7,  13,  14.  Daughters,  who  through  a  want  of  brothers  were 
heiresses  to  an  estate,  were  commanded  to  marry  some  one  of 
their  own  tribe,  and  indeed  some  kinsman,  if  possible,  of  more  or 
less  remote  relationship,  lest  the  estate  should  go  to  another  tribe 
or  family,  Num.  27:  1—11.  36:  1—12. 


§  153.  THE  MARRIAGE  VOW  AND  DOWRY". 


163 


§  153.  The  Marriage  Vow  and  Dowry. 

The  marriage  vow,  iinfi* ,  was  a  covenant  between  the  father 
and  the  brothers  of  the  bride,  and  the  father  of  the  bridegroom, 
made  in  the  presence  of  witnesses.  At  a  somewhat  recent  peri- 
od, the  covenant  was  committed  to  writing,  and  was  sometimes 
confirmed  by  the  additional  precaution  of  an  oath,  Prov.  2:  17. 
Ezek.  16:  8.  Mai.  2:  14.  A  reference  seems  to  have  been  had  to 
this  oath  in  the  nuptial  sacrifices,  of  which  mention  is  made  by 
Josephus,  Antiq.  IV.  8.  23.  By  the  marriage  vow  or  covenant, 
not  only  the  wedlock  was  confirmed,  but  the  amount  of  presents 
was  determined,  which  was  to  be  given  to  the  brothers ;  and  also 
the  dowry,  Ihb,  which  went  to  the  father  for  the  bride  former- 
ly, was  estimated  at  a  certain  price,  Gen.  29:  18,  27.  34:  11,  12. 
Josh.  15:  16.  1  Sam.  18:  23 — 26.  which  varied  according  to  circum- 
stances. In  the  time  of  Moses  the  medium  estimation  was  thirty 
shekels,  and  the  highest  fifty,  Deut.  22:  29.  comp.  Hos.  3:1,2. 
Wives,  who  were  thus  purchased,  were  too  apt  to  be  regarded  as 
mere  servants  by  their  husbands,  though  there  are  not  wanting 
instances,  where  they  obtained  the  ascendency  and  reduced  their 
husbands  to  subjection,  1  Sam.  25:  19—30.  1  K.  11:  2—5.  19: 
1,  2.  21:7,  8.  The  honour,  which  is  now  rendered  to  the  female 
sex,  originates  from  the  instructions  of  the  apostles,  and  the  only 
fear  is,  lest  it  should  become  too  great,  Eph.  5:  25 — 33.  1  Pe- 
ter 3:  7. 

The  wife,  who  was  freely  given  up  by  her  father,  without  his 
receiving  for  her  any  pecuniary  compensation,  was  the  more 
highly  esteemed,  and  being  herself  conscious  of  her  dignity,  she 
arrogated  not  a  little  in  her  own  behalf,  Gen.  16:  5,  6.  21:  9 — 11. 
comp.  31:  15.  Some  obtained  a  wife,  as  the  reward  of  their  brave- 
ry, Josh.  15:  15—19.  Judg.  1:  15.  1  Sam.  18:  24—27  ;  and  it  was 
sometimes,  though  rarely  the  case,  that  the  bride,  instead  of  being 
purchased  by  the  bridegroom,  received  a  dowry  from  her  father, 
Josh.  15:  18,  19.  Judg.  1:  16,  17.  1  K.  9:  16. 


104 


§  154.   CELEBRATION  OP  NUPTIALS. 


§  154.  Celebration  of  Nuptials. 

There  was  commonly  an  interval  of  ten  or  twelve  months,  be- 
tween the  time  when  the  agreement  to  marry  was  made,  and  the 
time  when  the  marriage  was  celebrated,  Gen.  24:  55.  Judg.  14:  8. 
From  the  time  of  the  agreement  till  its  consummation  by  mar- 
riage, although  there  was  no  intercourse  between  the  bride  and 
bridegroom,  not  even  so  much  as  an  interchange  of  conversation, 
they  were,  nevertheless,  considered  and  spoken  of  as  man  and 
wife.  If  at  the  close  of  this  probationary  period,  the  bridegroom 
were  unwilling  for  any  cause  to  solemnize  his  engagements  by  the 
marriage  of  the  bride,  he  was  bound  to  give  her  a  bill  of  divorce, 
the  same  as  if  she  had  been  his  wife.  If  the  bride  on  the  contrary 
could  be  convicted  of  having  had  any  illicit  intercourse  with  any 
person  between  the  period  of  the  promise  and  its  consummation, 
she  was  condemned  to  be  stoned,  the  same  as  if  she  had  been  mar- 
ried, Matt.  I:  18—20.  Luke  2:  5. 

When  the  day  of  marriage  had  arrived,  the  bride,  having  pre- 
viously visited  the  bath,  adorned  herself  very  richly  with  the 
choicest  of  those  ornaments,  which  are  considered  appropriate  to 
the  women.  Her  head  was  encircled  with  a  crown  ;  a  fact,  which 
is  a  sufficient  reason  of  itself,  why  which  primarily  means  a 

person  that  is  crowned,  should  possess  the  secondary  signification 
of  bride.  It  was  the  duty  of  the  bridegroom  to  see  that  a  feast 
was  made  ready  on  the  occasion,  and  in  case  he  was  a  person  of 
wealth,  it  was  customarily  prolonged  through  the  week,  Judg.  14:  17. 
About  evening,  the  bridegroom,  clothed  in  the  festival  robe,  Is. 
19:  10.  attended  with  a  company  of  young  men  of  about  the  same 
age,  ol  viol  tov  vvfxcfwvog,  and  cheered  with  songs  and  instrument- 
al music,  conducted  from  her  father's  house  the  bride,  who  was 
in  like  manner  surrounded  with  virgins  of  her  own  age,  to  his 
father's  house,  Judg.  14:  11—16.  1  Mac.  9:  37—47.  John  3:  29. 
comp.  Jer.  7:  34.  25:  10.  33:  11.  In  the  time  of  Christ,  whenev- 
er the  bride  was  conducted  by  the  bridegroom  and  his  attendants 
to  the  house  of  the  bridegroom's  father,  in  case  it  was  evening, 
the  way  before  them  was  lighted  by  the  second  sort  of  flambeaux, 
that  are  mentioned  in  the  fortieth  section  ;  as  we  learn  not  only 
from  the  statement  in  the  Talmud,  but  also  from  intimations  in 


§  155.   CONCUBINES.  165 

Matt.  25:  1 — 10.  Having  arrived  at  the  place,  where  the  nup- 
tials were  to  be  celebrated,  the  men  began  to  indulge  themselves 
in  feasting  and  conviviality ;  while  the  women,  who  were  assem- 
bled in  an  apartment  appropriated  to  themselves,  were  equally 
prompt  in  partaking  of  the  feast,  and  in  the  exhibition  of  their 
gaiety  and  cheerfulness.  At  length  the  nuptial  blessing,  viz.  a  nu- 
merous offspring,  was  implored  upon  the  parties  concerned,  Gen. 
24:  60.  Ruth  4:  11,  12:  a  ceremony,  which,  simple  and  concise  as 
it  was,  appears  anciently  to  have  been  the  only  one,  that  was  per- 
formed at  the  consummation  of  the  marriage.  At  a  later  period, 
there  were  probably  some  additional  ceremonies,  for  we  read  in 
Tobit  7:  15.  that  the  father  took  the  right  hand  of  his  beautiful 
daughter,  and  placed  it  in  the  right  hand  of  the  young  Tobias,  be- 
fore he  uttered  his  solemn  and  impressive  blessing.  The  spouse, 
who  to  this  time  had  been  veiled  from  head  to  foot,  was  at  last  led 
into  the  bed  chamber,  SlSlfr  • 

§  155.  Concubines,  tt^S. 

The  ceremonies,  mentioned  in  the  preceding  section,  took 
place  only  in  case  of  the  marriage  of  a  wife  properly  so  called. 
Concubines,  (some  of  whom  had  previously  acted  in  the  humble 
capacity  of  maid  servants,  and  others  were  females  who  had  pos- 
sessed their  freedom,)  were  sometimes  permanently  associated  by 
mutual  consent  with  individuals  of  the  other  sex ;  but,  although 
this  connexion  was  in  fact  a  marriage,  and  a  legitimate  one,  it  was 
not,  nevertheless,  celebrated  and  confirmed  by  the  ceremonies 
above  related.  The  concubine  thus  associated  had  a  right  to 
claim  the  privileges  of  a  wife  ;  and  it  was  no  longer  in  the  power 
of  her  husband  to  dispose  of  her  by  public  sale,  even  if  she  had 
previously  been  his  slave,  Deut.  20:  10 — 12.  In  order  to  pre- 
vent worse  consequences,  fathers  frequently  gave  concubines  to 
their  sons ;  and,  whenever  this  was  the  case,  they  were  bound  by 
the  laws  of  the  state  to  treat  them  with  the  same  tenderness,  that 
they  would  a  daughter  or  daughter  in  law,  Exod.  21:  9 — 12.  If 
a  woman  were  made  captive  in  war,  she  was  allowed  a  month,  as 
a  period  in  which  she  was  at  liberty  to  mourn  the  loss  of  her  pa- 
rents and  friends ;  and  neither  father  nor  son  was  permitted  to 
take  her  as  a  concubine,  till  the  expiration  of  that  time,  Deut.  20: 
10— 14. 


166 


157.   MARRIAGE,  ETC. 


§  156.  Fruitfulness  in  the  Marriage  State. 

This  was  greatly  desired.  A  large  number  of  offspring  was 
considered  an  instance  of  the  divine  favour  of  the  highest  kind. 
Sons  were  generally  more  desired  than  daughters,  because  they 
transmitted  the  name  of  the  father  in  genealogies.  Sterility  was 
looked  upon,  not  only  as  a  ground  of  great  reproach,  especially  to 
wives,  but  as  a  punishment  from  God,  1  Sam.  1:  6,  7.  Ps.  127:  3 — 5. 
128:  4.  Hos.  8:  14.  Prov.  12:  6.  Eccles.  6:  3. 

Hardly  less  reproach  was  attached  to  a  state  of  celibacy,  and 
no  prospect,  accordingly,  was  more  unpropitious  and  forbidding  to 
virgins,  than  that  of  living  and  dying  unwed  and  childless,  Gen.  16: 
2—14.  19:  30—32.  30:  13.  Is.  4:  1.  47:  9.  In  such  a  state 
of  things,  barren  wives  thought  it  expedient  to  make  use  of  various 
means  to  produce  or  to  increase  fruitfulness,  Gen.  30:  15, 16.  Cant. 
7:  18.  They  even  offered  their  maids  to  their  husbands,  whose 
offspring  they  adopted,  Gen.  16:  1—3.  30:  1—18. 

§  157.  Marriage  of  a  Childless  Brother's  Widow. 

There  was  an  ancient  law,  existing  prior  to  the  time  of  Moses, 
Gen.  38:  8 — 12.  to  this  effect.  If  in  any  case  the  husband  died 
without  issue,  leaving  a  widow,  the  brother  of  the  deceased  or  the 
nearest  male  relation,  blgk,  was  bound  to  marry,  Ha*,  the  widow, 
to  give  to  the  first-born  son  the  name  of  the  deceased  kinsman, 
to  insert  his  name  in  the  genealogical  register,  and  to  deliver  into 
his  possession  the  estate  of  the  deceased.  This  peculiar  law  is 
technically  denominated  the  Levirate  Imo,  and  had  its  origin  with- 
out doubt  in  that  strong  desire  of  offspring,  which  has  been  men- 
tioned in  the  preceding  section.  Moses  was  aware,  that  the  Levi- 
rate Law  was  in  some  respects  pernicious,  but  when  he  recollected 
the  feeling  which  was  at  the  bottom  of  it,  and  the  importance  of 
that  feeling  being  cherished,  he  did  not  think  proper  to  abolish  it. 
While,  therefore,  he  did  not  withhold  from  it  his  sanction,  and 
thought  proper  to  make  it  one  of  the  permanent  laws  of  the  Jew- 
ish state,  he  reduced  it  within  certain  limits,  and  thereby  rendered 
the  injurious  consequences  as  small  as  possible.  He,  accordingly, 
enacted,  that  whoever  was  unwilling  to  marry  the  wife  of  his  deceas- 


§  158.   CONCERNING  ADULTERY. 


167 


ed  kinsman,  might  decline  it  in  the  presence  of  judges,  in  case  he 
would  allow  the  woman  the  privilege  of  taking  off  his  shoes,  of 
spitting  in  his  face,  and  of  addressing  him  with  the  discreditable 
salutation  of  unshod,  an  appellation,  which  in  effect  would  be  the 
same  with  stigmatizing  him,  as  the  destroyer  of  his  father's  house, 
Deut.  25:  5 — 10.  The  disgrace,  which  would  be  the  consequence 
of  such  treatment  from  the  widow,  was  not  so  great,  but  a  person, 
who  was  determined  not  to  marry,  would  dare  to  encounter  it, 
Ruth.  4:  7,  8.  Matt.  22:  23—28. 

§  153.  Concerning  Adultery. 

In  those  countries  where  polygamy  prevails,  the  sentiment  in 
respect  to  the  perpetration  of  adultery  is  this.  If  a  married  man 
has  criminal  intercourse  with  a  married  woman,  or  with  one  pro- 
mised in  marriage,  or  with  a  widow  expecting  to  be  married  with  a 
brother  in  law,  it  is  accounted  adultery.  If  he  is  guilty  of  such  in- 
tercourse with  a  woman  who  is  unmarried,  it  is  considered  for- 
nication, Adultery,  even  before  the  time  of  Moses,  Gen. 
38;  24.  was  reckoned  a  crime  of  a  very  heinous  nature,  and  was 
accordingly  punished.  In  Egypt  the  nose  of  the  adulteress,  in 
Persia  the  nose  and  ears  were  cut  off,  Ezek.  23:  25.  In  the  penal 
code  of  Moses  the  punishment  annexed  to  this  crime  was  that  of 
death,  but  the  mode  of  being  put  to  death  is  not  particularly  men- 
tioned, because  it  was  known  from  custom,  Lev.  20:  10.  It  was 
not,  however,  as  the  Talmudists  contend,  strangulation,  but  stoning, 
as  we  may  learn  from  various  parts  of  scripture,  for  instance  Ezek. 
16:  38,  40.  John  8:  5.  and  as  in  fact  Moses  himself  testifies,  if  we 
compare  Exod.  31:  14.  35:  2.  with  Numbers  15:35,36.  If  the 
adulteress  were  a  slave,  the  persons  guilty  were  both  scourged 
with  a  leather  whip,  D^p3,  the  number  of  the  blows  not  exceed- 
ing forty.  The  adulterer  in  this  instance,  in  addition  to  the 
scourging,  was  subjected  to  the  further  penalty  of  bringing  a  tres- 
pass offering,  viz.  a  ram,  to  the  door  of  the  tabernacle  of  the  con- 
gregation, to  be  offered  in  his  behalf  by  the  priest,  Lev.  19:  20 — 22. 


168 


§  160.  BILL  OF  DIVORCE. 


§  159.  The  Suspected  Wife. 

The  power  was  given  to  the  husband,  who  suspected  his  wife 
of  infidelity,  of  exacting  from  her  in  the  temple  or  tabernacle 
what  may  be  termed  the  ordeal  oath,  Num.  5:  11 — 31.  To  this  oath 
were  attached  such  dreadful  penalties,  that  a  person  really  guilty 
certainly  could  not  take  it  without  betraying  her  criminality  by 
some  indications,  unless  she  possessed  the  extremity  of  hardi- 
hood. Moses  appears  to  have  substituted  this  oath  and  the  cere- 
monies attending  it,  instead  of  an  ancient  and  pernicious  custom,  of 
which  some  traces  still  remain  in  Africa;  see  Oldendorp's  Ge- 
schichte  der  Mission,  S.  266, 267.  Dreadful  as  it  was,  there  were  not 
wanting  wives,  who  set  it  at  defiance  ;  licentiousness  increased,  and 
adulteries  were  multiplied,  especially  in  the  later  periods  of  the  Jew- 
ish state.  The  Talmudists  themselves  state,  Sota  c.  9,  that  the  law 
in  regard  to  the  suspected  wife  was  abrogated  as  much  as  forty  years 
before  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem.  The  reason  they  assign  for  it 
is,  that  the  men  themselves  were  at  that  period  generally  adulter- 
ers, and  that  God  would  not  fulfil  the  horrid  imprecations  of  the  or- 
deal oath  upon  the  wife  alone,  while  the  husband  was  guilty  of  the 
same  crime,  comp.  John  8:  1 — 8. 

§  160.  Bill  of  Divorce. 

As  the  ancient  Hebrews  paid  a  stipulated  price  for  the  privi- 
lege of  marrying,  they  seemed  to  consider  it  the  natural  conse- 
quence of  making  a  payment  of  that  kind,  that  they  should  be  at 
liberty  to  exercise  a  very  arbitrary  power  over  their  wives,  and 
to  renounce  or  divorce  them,  whenever  they  chose.  This  state  of 
things,  as  Moses  himself  very  clearly  saw,  was  not  equitable  as  re- 
spected the  woman,  and  was  very  often  injurious  to  both  parties. 
Finding  himself,  however,  unable  to  overrule  feelings  and  practices 
of  very  ancient  standing,  he  merely  annexed  to  the  original  institu- 
tion of  marriage  a  very  serious  admonition  to  this  effect,  viz.  that  it 
would  be  less  criminal  for  a  man  to  desert  his  father  and  mother, 
than  without  adequate  cause  to  desert  his  wife,  Gen.  2:  14.  com- 
pared with  Mic.  2:  9.  and  Malachi  2:  11 — 14.  He  also  laid  a  re- 
striction upon  the  power  of  the  husband  as  far  as  this,  that  he  would 


\ 


§  160.  BILL  OF  DIVORCE.  109 

that  he  would  not  permit  him  to  repudiate  the  wife  without  giv- 
ing her  a  bill  of  divorce.  He  further  enacted  in  reference  to  this 
subject,  that  the  husband  might  receive  the  repudiated  wife  back, 
in  case  she  had  not  in  the  mean  while  been  married  to  another 
person ;  but  if  she  had  been  thus  married,  she  could  never  after- 
wards become  the  wife  of  her  first  husband  ;  a  law,  which  the 
faith  due  to  the  second  husband  clearly  required,  Deut.  24:  L — 4. 
comp.  Jer.  3:  1.  and  Matt.  1:  19.  19:  8. 

The  inquiry,  "  What  should  be  considered  an  adequate  cause  of 
divorce,"  was  left  by  Moses  to  be  determined  by  the  husband  him- 
self. He  had  liberty  to  divorce  her,  if  he  saw  in  her  the  nakedness 
of  a  thing,  izrr  VSVy^ ,  i.  e.  any  thing  displeasing  or  improper,  as  may 
be  learnt  by  comparing  the  same  expressions  in  Deut.  23:  14,  15  ; 
any  thing  so  much  at  war  with  propriety,  and  a  source  of  so  much 
dissatisfaction,  as  to  be,  in  the  estimation  of  the  husband,  sufficient 
ground  for  separation.  These  expressions,  however,  were  sharp- 
ly contested  as  to  their  meaning  in  the  later  times  of  the  Jewish 
nation.  The  school  of  Hillel  contended,  that  the  husband  might 
lawfully  put  away  the  wife  for  any  cause,  even  the  smallest.  The 
mistake  committed  by  the  school  of  Hillel  in  taking  this  ground 
was,  that  they  confounded  moral  and  civil  law.  It  is  true,  as  far 
as  the  Mosaic  statute  or  the  civil  law  was  concerned,  the  hus- 
band had  a  right  thus  to  do ;  but  it  is  equally  clear,  that  the 
ground  of  legal  separation  must  have  been,  not  a  trivial,  but  a 
prominent  and  important  one,  when  it  is  considered,  that  he  was 
bound  to  consult  the  rights  of  the  woman,  and  was  amenable  to 
his  conscience  and  his  God.  The  school  of  Shammai  explained 
the  phrase,  nakedness  op  a  thing,  to  mean  actual  adultery .  This 
interpretation  of  the  phrase  gives  to  the  law  a  moral  aspect,  and 
assigns  a  reason,  as  the  ground  of  divorce,  of  the  truest  moral  na- 
ture ;  but  the  truth  is,  that  the  phrase,  in  itself  considered,  will 
not  bear  this  interpretation,  and  the  law  beyond  question  was  de- 
signed to  be  merely  a  civil,  and  not  a  moral  one. 

Jesus,  who  did  not  so  much  explain,  as  fill  up  the  deficiencies 
of  the  Mosaic  institutes,  agreed  with  the  school  of  Shammai  as  far 
as  this,  that  the  ground  of  divorce  should  be  one  of  a  moral  nature, 
but  he  does  not  appear  to  have  agreed  with  them  in  their  opinion 
in  respect  to  the  Mosaic  statute.  On  the  contrary  he  denied  the 
equity,  the  moral  correctness  of  that  statute,  and  in  justification  of 
22 


170 


^  161.  CHILDBIRTH. 


Moses  maintained,  that  he  suffered  it  to  be  sanctioned  by  his  au- 
thority, only  in  consequence  of  the  hardness  of  the  people's  hearts, 
Matt.  5:  31,  32.  19:  1—9.  Mark  10:  2—12.  Luke  16:  18.  Wives, 
who  were  considered  the  property  of  their  husbands,  did  not  en- 
joy byUhe  Mosaic  statutes  a  reciprocal  right,  and  were  not  at  lib- 
erty to  dissolve  the  matrimonial  alliance  by  giving  a  bill  of  di- 
vorce to  that  effect.  In  the  later  periods,  however,  of  the  Jew- 
ish state,  the  Jewish  matrons,  the  more  powerful  of  them  at  least, 
appear  to  have  imbibed  the  spirit  of  the  ladies  of  Rome,  and  to 
have  exercised  in  their  own  behalf  the  same  power,  that  was 
granted  by  the  Mosaic  law  to  their  husbands,  Josephus,  Antiq. 
XV.  7,  10.  Mark  6:  17—29.  10:  12.  In  case  the  wife  felt  her- 
self injured  and  aggrieved,  we  may  infer,  from  the  fact  of  the  con- 
cubine's possessing  that  right,  who  had  previously  been  a  maid-ser- 
vant, that  the  wife  also  possessed  the  right  of  obtaining  a  bill  of  di- 
vorce from  a  judge,  Exod  21:  10. 

§  161.  Childbirth. 

In  oriental  countries  childbirth  is  not  an  event  of  much  diffi- 
culty, and  mothers  at  such  a  season  were  originally  the  only  as- 
sistants of  their  daughters,  as  any  further  aid  was  deemed  unne- 
cessary, Exod.  It  19.  In  cases  of  more  than  ordinary  difficulty, 
those  matrons,  who  had  acquired  some  celebrity  for  skill  and  ex- 
pertness  on  occasions  of  this  kind,  were  invited  in  ;  and  in  this 
way  there  eventually  rose  into  notice  that  class  of  women  denom- 
inated midwives.  The  child  was  no  sooner  born,  than  it  was  wash- 
ed in  a  bath,  rubbed  with  salt,  and  wrapped  in  swaddling  clothes, 
^•nhrt,  Ezek.  16:  4.  It  was  the  custom  at  a  very  ancient  period, 
for  the  father,  while  music  in  the  mean  while  was  heard  to  sound, 
to  clasp  the  newborn  child  to  his  bosom,  and  by  this  ceremony 
he  was  understood  to  declare  it  to  be  his  own,  Gen.  50:  23.  Job.  3:  12. 
Ps.  22:  11.  This  practice  was  imitated  by  those  wives,  who  adopt- 
ed the  children  of  their  maids,  Gen.  16:  2.  30:  3 — 5, 

The  birthday  of  a  son,  especially,  was  made  a  festival,  and 
on  each  successive  year  was  celebrated  with  renewed  demon- 
strations of  festivity  and  joy,  Gen.  40:  20.  Job  1:  4.  Matt.  14:  6. 
Herodot.  I.  133.  Cyropaed.  L  3,  9.  The  messenger,  who  brought 
the  news  of  the  birth  of  a  son,  was  received  with  pleasure,  and 


§  163.    ANTIQUITY  OF  CIRCUMCISION. 


171 


rewarded  with  presents,  Job  3:  3.    Jer.  20:  15.    This  is  the  case 


The  mother  after  the  birth  of  a  son  was  unclean  for  seven 
days,  and  during  the  thirty  three  days  succeeding  the  seven  of  un- 
cleanness  remained  at  home.  If  a  daughter  were  born,  the  num- 
ber of  the  days  of  uncleanness  and  seclusion  at  home  was  doubled. 
After  the  expiration  of  this  period,  she  went  into  the  tabernacle  or 
temple,  and  offered  a  lamb  of  a  year  old ;  or  if  she  were  poor,  two 
turtle  doves,  and  two  young  pigeons,  for  a  sacrifice  of  purification, 


The  son  on  the  eighth  day  after  its  birth,  was  circumcised. 
By  the  fulfilment  of  this  rite,  it  was  consecrated  to  the  service  of 
the  true  God,  Gen.  17:  10.  comp.  Rom.  4:  11.  This,  no  doubt, 
was  the  principal  end  of  circumcision,  but  there  do  not  appear  to 
have  been  wanting  other  subsidiary  objects,  comp.  John  7:  23. 

I.  Circumcision  was  a  preventive  of  the  disease  called  the  an- 
thrax or  carbuncle.  The  disease  originates  from  the  impurities, 
which  collect  under  the^prepuce,  and  is  fatal  in  its  effects,  Hero- 
dot.  II.  45.  Josephus  against  Apion,  II.  13.  Philo  on  Circumcision. 

II.  Circumcision  may  have  had  the  beneficial  tendency  of  in- 
creasing the  population,  for  when  the  prepuce,  in  such  a  climate 
as  that  of  Palestine,  is  long,  it  is  an  obstacle  to  fruitfulness.  The 
pains,  resulting  from  circumcision,  if  we  may  believe  the  Moham- 
medans, are  severest  on  the  third  day,  Gen.  34:  25. 


The  command,  given  in  Gen.  17:  10 — 14.  to  practise  circum- 
cision, is  expressed  in  such  terms,  as  to  leave  it  quite  evident,  that 
the  rite  in  question  was  known  previous  to  the  time  of  Abraham. 
We  learn  from  Herodotus,  Diodorus  Siculus,  Strabo,  and  from  the 
prophet  Jeremiah,  0:  25,  26,  that  in  Egypt  all  the  priests  and  not 
a  few  of  the  laity,  were  circumcised.  No  one  certainly  will  un- 
dertake to  say,  that  the  Egyptians  borrowed  the  rite  from  the  He- 
brews ;  and  if  this  were  not  the  case,  it  seems  to  be  a  very  plain 


Lev.  12:  1—8.  Luke  2:  22. 


§  162.  Circumcision. 


§  163.  Antiquity  of  Circumcision. 


172 


§  164.   ON  THE  NAMING  OF  CHILDREN. 


and  natural  conclusion,  that  Abraham  himself  first  learnt  it  in 
Egypt,  Gen.  12:  10—15. 

If  it  be  objected  to  this  statement,  that  uncircumcision  is  de- 
nominated in  Joshua  5:  9,  the  reproach  of  Egypt,  (expressions, 
which  imply  that  the  Egyptians  were  not  circumcised,)  the  answer 
is,  those  expressions  might  be  very  naturally  and  very  properly 
used,  provided  only  a  part  of  the  Egyptians,  as  above  stated,  were 
circumcised  ;  inasmuch  as  the  Hebrews  esteemed  circumcision  an 
honour  of  such  a  high  and  indispensable  nature,  that  it  could  not 
be  withheld,  from  a  single  individual  without  discredit  and  dis- 
grace, Gen.  34:  15.  Josh.  5:  9.  Jer.  9:  24,  25.  It  ought  to  be 
remarked,  however,  that  notwithstanding  the  high  estimation  in 
which  the  Hebrews  held  this  rite,  the  numbers  of  them,  who  in  the 
age  of  the  Maccabees,  took  a  part  in  the  gymnastic  exercises  of 
the  Greeks  and  of  course  appeared  naked  on  such  occasions,  con- 
sidered circumcision  a  discredit  to  them  ;  and,  by  an  operation,  de- 
scribed in'  Celsus,  Lib.  VII.  c.  25.  and  designated  by  the  Greek 
verb  imaTiaofxav,  they  contrive  to  restore  the  prepuce  to  its  origin- 
al form,  1  Mac.  1:  15.  1  Cor.  7:  18. 


§  164.  On  the  Naming  of  Children. 

A  name  was  given  to  the  male  child  at  the  time  of  its  circum- 
cision, but  it  is  probable,  that  previous  to  the  introduction  of  that 
rite,  the  name  was  given  immediately  after  its  birth.  Among  the 
orientals  the  appellations  given  as  names  are  always  significant.  In 
the  Old  Testament,  we  find  that  the  child  was  named  in  many  in- 
stances from  the  circumstances  of  its  birth,  or  from  some  pecu- 
liarities in  the  history  of  the  family  to  which  it  belonged,  Gen.  16: 
11.  19:  37.  25:  25,  26.  Exod.  2:  10.  13:  3,  4.  Frequently  the  name 
was  a  compound  one,  one  part  being  the  name  of  the  Deity,  and 
among  idolatrous  nations  the  name  of  an  idol.  The  following  in- 
stances may  be  mentioned  among  others,  and  may  stand  as  specimens 
of  the  whole,  viz.  bttW-lj,  Samuel,  heard  of  God;  JT^aifit,  Adoni- 
jah,  God  is  lord;  p-j^irF,  Josedech,  God  is  just ;  b33riN,  Ethba- 
al,  a  Canaanitish  name,  the  latter  part  of  the  compound  being  the 
name  of  the  idol  deity  Baal  ;  ^gauto ,  Belshazzar,  Bel,  (a  Baby- 
lonish deity,)  is  ruler  and  king.    Sometimes  the  name  had  a  pro- 


§  165.    CONCERNING  THE  FIRST  BORN. 


173 


phetic  meaning,  Gen.  17:  15.  Is.  7:  14.  8:  3.  Hos.  1:4,6,9.  Matt. 
1:  21.  Luke  1:  13,  60,  63. 

In  the  later  times  :;ames  were  selected  from  those  of  the  pro- 
genitors of  a  family  ;  hence  in  the  New  Testament,  hardly  any 
other  than  ancient  names  occur,  Matt.  1:  12.  Luke  1:  61.  3:  23.  et 
seq.  The  inhabitants  of  the  East  very  frequently  change  their 
names,  and  sometimes  do  it  for  very  slight  reasons.  This  ac- 
counts for  the  fact  of  so  many  persons  having  two  names  in  Scrip- 
ture, consult  Ruth  U  20,  21.  1  Sam.  14:  49.  31:  2.  1  Chron.  10:  2. 
Judg.  6:  32.  7:  1.  2  Sam.  23:  8.  Kings  and  princes  very  often 
changed  the  names  of  those,  who  held  offices  under  them,  partic- 
ularly when  they  first  attracted  their  notice  and  were  taken  into 
their  employ,  and  when  subsequently  they  were  elevated  to  some 
new  station  and  crowned  with  additional  honours,  Gen.  41:  45,  17: 
5.  32:  28.  35:  10.  2  K.  23:  34,  35.  24:  17.  Dan.  1:  6.  John  1:  42. 
Mark  3:  17.  Hence  a  name,  (a  new  name)  occurs  tropically,  as  a 
token  or  proof  of  distinction  and  honour  in  the  following  among 
other  passages,  Philip.  2:  9.  Heb.  1:  4.  Rev.  2:  17.  Sometimes 
the  names  of  the  dead  were  changed,  for  instance  that  of  Abel, 
bin,  a  word,  which  signifies  breath,  or  something  transitory,  as  a 
breath,  given  to  him  after  his  death  in  allusion  to  the  shortness  of 
his  life,  Gen.  2:  8.  Sometimes  proper  names  are  translated  into 
other  languages,  losing  their  original  form,  while  they  preserve 
their  signification.  This  appears  to  have  been  the  case  with  the 
proper  names,  which  occur  in  the  eleven  first  chapters  of  Gen- 
esis, and  which  were  translated  into  the  Hebrew  from  a  language 
still  more  ancient.  The  orientals  in  some  instances,  in  order  to 
distinguish  themselves  from  others  of  the  same  name,  added  to 
their  own  name,  the  name  of  their  father,  grand-father,  and  even 
great  grand-father. 


§  165.  Concerning  the  First  Born,  ^""DS  . 

The  first  born,  who  was  the  object  of  special  affection  to  his 
parents  was  denominated  by  way  of  eminence,  Dh*\  IDS ,  the  open- 
ing of  the  womb.  In  case  a  man  married  with  a  widow  who  by  a 
previous  marriage  had  become  the  mother  of  children,  the  first- 
born as  respected  the  second  husband  was  the  child  that  was  eld- 
est by  the  second  marriage.    Before  the  time  of  Moses,  the  fa- 


174 


§  165.   CONCERNING  THE  FIRST  BORN. 


ther  might,  if  he  chose,  transfer  the  right  of  primogeniture  to  a 
younger  child,  but  the  practice  occasioned  much  contention,  Gen. 
25:  31,  32.  and  a  law  was  enacted  overruling  it,  Deut.  21:  15 — 17. 
The  first  born  inherited  peculiar  rights  and  privileges ; 

I.  He  received  a  double  portion  of  the  estate.  Jacob  in  the 
case  of  Reuben,  his  first  born,  bestowed  his  additional  portion  up- 
on Joseph,  by  adopting  his  two  sons,  Gen.  48:  5 — 8.  Deut.  21:  17. 
This  was  done  as  a  reprimand,  and  a  punishment  of  his  incestuous 
conduct,  Gen.  35:  22 ;  but  Reuben,  notwithstanding,  was  enrolled 
as  the  first-born  in  the  genealogical  registers,  1  Chron.  5:  1. 

II.  The  first  born  was  the  priest  of  the  whole  family.  The 
honour  of  exercising  the  priesthood  was  transferred,  by  the  com- 
mand of  God  communicated  through  Moses,  from  the  tribe  of  Reu- 
ben, to  whom  it  belonged  by  right  of  primogeniture,  to  that  of 
Levi,  Num.  3:  12 — 18.  8:  18.  In  consequence  of  this  fact,  that 
God  had  taken  the  Levites  from  among  the  children  of  Israel  in- 
stead of  all  the  first  born  to  serve  him  as  priests,  the  first  born  of 
the  other  tribes  were  to  be  redeemed,  at  a  valuation  made  by  the 
priest  not  exceeding  five  shekels,  from  serving  God  in  that  capa- 
city, Num.  18:  15,  16.  comp.  Luke  2:  22.  et  seq. 

III.  The  first  born  enjoyed  an  authority  over  those,  who  were 
younger,  similar  to  that  possessed  by  a  father,  Gen.  25:  23.  et  seq. 
2  Chron.  21:  3.  Gen.  27:  29.  Exod.  12:  29.  which  was  transferred 
in  the  case  of  Reuben  by  Jacob  their  father  to  Judah,  Gen.  49: 
8 — 10.  The  tribe  of  Judah,  accordingly,  even  before  it  gave 
kings  to  the  Hebrews,  was  every  where  distinguished  from  the 
other  tribes.  In  consequence  of  the  authority,  which  was  thus  at- 
tached to  the  first-born,  he  was  also  made  the  successor  in  the 
kingdom.  There  was  an  exception  to  this  in  the  case  of  Solomon, 
who,  though  a  younger  brother,  was  made  his  successor  by  David 
at  the  special  appointment  of  God.  It  is  very  easy  to  see  in  view 
of  these  facts,  how  the  word  first  born,  came  to  express  some- 
times a  great,  and  sometimes  the  highest  dignity,  Is.  14:  30.  Ps. 
89:  27.  Rom.  8:  29.  Col.  1:  15—18.  Heb.  12:  23.  Rev.  1:  5,  11. 
Job  18:  13. 


166.  THE  NURTURE  OF  CHILDREN. 


175 


§  166.  The  Nurture  of  Children. 

Mothers,  in  the  earliest  times,  suckled,  p^n  ,  their  offspring 
themselves,  and  that  from  thirty  to  thirty  six  months.  The  day 
when  the  child  was  weaned,  and  was  made  a  festival,  Gen.  21:  8. 
Exod.  2:  7,  9.  1  Sam.  1:  22—24.  2  Chron.  31:  16.  2  Mac.  7:  27,28. 
Matt.  21:  16.  Josephus,  Antiq.  XI.  9. 

Nurses,  rop^ioj  were  employed,  in  case  the  mother  died  be- 
fore the  child  was  old  enough  to  be  weaned,  and  when  from  any 
circumstances  she  was  unable  to  afford  a  sufficient  supply  of  milk 
for  its  nourishment. 

In  later  ages,  when  matrons  had  become  more  delicate,  and 
thought  themselves  too  infirm  to  fulfil  the  duties,  which  naturally 
devolved  upon  them,  nurses  were  employed  to  take  their  place, 
and  were  reckoned  among  the  principal  members  of  the  family. 
They  are,  accordingly,  in  consequence  of  the  respectable  station, 
which  they  sustained,  frequently  mentioned  in  sacred  history,  Gen. 
35:  8.  2K.  11:2.  2  Chron.  22:  11. 

The  sons  remained  till  the  fifth  year  in  the  care  of  the  women ; 
they  then  came  into  the  father's  hands,  and  were  taught  not  only 
the  arts  and  duties  of  life,  but  were  instructed  in  the  Mosaic  law, 
and  in  all  parts  of  their  country's  religion,  Deut.  6:  20 — 25.  7:  19. 
11:  19.  Those,  who  wished  to  have  them  further  instructed, 
provided  they  did  not  deem  it  preferable  to  employ  private  teach- 
ers, sent  them  away  to  some  priest  or  Levite,  who  sometimes  had 
a  number  of  other  children  to  instruct.  It  appears  from  1  Sam. 
1:  24 — 28.  that  there  was  a  school  near  the  holy  tabernacle,  de- 
dicated to  the  instruction  of  youth.  There  had  been  many  other 
schools  of  this  kind,  which  had  fallen  into  discredit,  but  were  re- 
stored again  by  the  prophet  Samuel ;  after  whose  time  the  mem- 
bers of  the  seminaries  in  question,  who  were  denominated  by  way 
of  distinction  the  sons  of  the  prophets,  acquired  no  little  notoriety. 

The  daughters  rarely  departed  from  the  apartments  appropri- 
ated to  the  females,  except  when  they  went  out  with  an  urn,  "O , 
to  draw  water,  which  was  the  practice  with  those,  who  belonged 
to  those  humbler  stations  in  life,  where  the  ancient  simplicity  of 
manners  had^not  lost  its  prevalence,  Exod.  2:  16.  Gen.  24:  16.  29: 
10.  1  Sam.  9:  11,  12.  John  4:  9.    They  spent  their  time  in  learn- 


176 


s 

§  167.   THE  POWER  OF  THE  FATHER. 


ing  those  domestic  and  other  arts,  which  are  befitting  a  woman's 
situation  and  character,  till  they  arrived  at  that  period  in  life, 
when  they  were  to  be  sold,  or  by  a  better  fortune  given  away  in 
marriage,  Prov.  31:  13.  2  Sam.  13:7.  The  daughters  of  those, 
who  by  their  wealth  had  been  elevated  to  high  stations  in  life,  so 
far  from  going  out  to  draw  water  in  urns,  might  be  said  to  spend 
the  whole  of  their  time  within  the  walls  of  their  palaces.  In  im- 
itation of  their  mothers,  they  were  occupied  with  dressing,  with 
singing  and  with  dancing  ;  and,  if  we  may  judge  from  the  repre- 
sentations of  modern  travellers,  their  apartments  were  sometimes 
the  scenes  of  vice,  Ezek.  23:  18.  They  went  abroad  but  very 
rarely,  as  already  intimated,  and  the  more  rarely  the  higher  they 
were  in  point  of  rank,  but  they  received  with  cordiality  female 
visitants.  The  virtues  of  a  good  woman,  of  one  that  is  determin- 
ed, whatever  her  station,  to  discharge  each  incumbent  duty  and  to 
avoid  the  frivolities  and  vices,  at  which  we  have  briefly  hinted,  are 
mentioned  in  terms  of  approbation  and  praise  in  Proverbs  31: 
10—31. 

§  167.  The  Power  of  the  Father. 

The  authority,  to  which  a  father  was  entitled,  extended  not  only  to 
his  wife,  to  his  own  children,  and  to  his  servants  of  both  sexes,  but 
to  his  children's  children  also.  It  was  the  custom  anciently  for  sons 
newly  married  to  remain  at  their  father's  house,  unless  it  had  been 
their  fortune  to  marry  a  daughter,  who,  having  no  brothers,  was 
heiress  to  an  estate ;  or  unless,  by  some  trade  or  by  commerce,  they 
had  acquired  sufficient  property  to  enable  them  to  support  their 
own  family.  It  might  of  course  be  expected,  while  they  lived  in 
their  father's  house  and  were  in  a  manner  the  pensioners  on  his 
bounty,  that  he  would  exercise  his  authority  over  the  children  of 
his  sons,  as  well  as  over  the  sons  themselves. 

If  it  be  asked,  "  What  the  power  of  the  father  was  in  such  a 
case,"  the  answer  is,  that  it  had  no  narrow  limits,  and,  whenever 
he  found  it  necessary  to  resort  to  measures  of  severity,  he  was  at 
liberty  to  inflict  the  extremity  of  punishment,  Gen.  21:  14.  38:  24. 
This  power  was  so  restricted  by  Moses,  that  the  father,  if  he  judg- 
ed the  son  worthy  of  death,  was  bound  to  bring  the  cause  before 
a  judge.  But  he  enacted  at  the  same  time,  that  the  judge  should 
pronounce  sentence  of  death  upon  the  son,  if  on  inquiry  it  could 


§  168.   OF  THE  TESTAMENT  OR  WILL. 


177 


be  proved,  that  he  had  beaten  or  cursed  his  father  or  mother,  or 
that  he  was  a  spendthrift,  or  saucy,  or  contumacious,  and  could 
not  be  reformed,  Exod.  21:  15,  17.  Lev.  20:  9.  Deut.  21:  18—21. 
The  authority  of  the  parents,  and  the  service  and  love  due  to  them, 
are  recognized  in  the  most  prominent  and  fundamental  of  the  mo- 
ral laws  of  the  Jewish  polity,  viz.  the  ten  commandments,  Exod. 
20:  12. 

The  son,  who  had  acquired  property,  was  commanded  to  ex- 
hibit his  gratitude  to  his  parents,  not  only  by  words  and  in  feeling, 
but  by  gifts,  Matt.  15:  5,  6.  Mark  7:  11—13.  The  power  of  the 
father  over  his  offspring  in  the  ancient  times  was  not  only  very 
great  for  the  time  being,  and  while  he  sojourned  with  them  in  the 
land  of  the  living ;  he  was  allowed  also  to  cast  his  eye  into  the 
future,  and]  his  prophetic  curse  or  blessing  possessed  no  little  effica- 
cy, Gen.  49:  2—28. 

§  168.  Of  the  Testament  or  Will. 

I.  As  it  respected  sons.  The  property  or  estate  of  the  father 
fell  after  his  decease  into  the  possession  of  his  sons  ;  who  divided 
it  among  themselves  equally,  with  this  exception,  that  the  eldest 
son  received  two  portions.  The  father  expressed  his  last  wishes 
or  will  in  the  presence  of  witnesses,  and  probably  in  the  presence 
of  the  heirs,  2  K.  20:  1.  At  a  recent  period  the  will  was  made 
out  in  writing. 

II.  As  it  respected  the  sons  of  concubines.  The  portion,  that  was 
given  to  the  sons  of  concubines,  depended  altogether  upon  the  feel- 
ings of  the  father.  Abraham  gave  presents,  to  what  amount  is  not 
known,  both  to  Ishmael,  and  to  the  sons  whom  he  had  by  Keturah, 
and  sent  them  away  before  his  death.  It  does  not  appear,  that 
they  had  any  other  portion  in  the  estate.  But  Jacob  made  the 
sons,  whom  he  had  by  his  concubines  heirs,  as  well  as  the  others, 
Gen.  21:  8—21.  25:  1—6.  49:  1—27.  Moses  laid  no  restrictions 
upon  the  choice  of  fathers  in  this  resDect :  and  we  should  infer,  that 
the  sons  of  concubines,  for  the  most  part,  received  an  equal  share 
with  the  other  sons  from  the  fact,  that  Jephthah,  the  son  of  a  con- 
cubine, complained,  that  he  was  excluded  without  any  portion  from 
his  father's  house,  Judg.  11:  1 — 7. 

III.  As  it  respected  daughters.    The  daughters  not  only  had  no 

23 


178 


§  1C9.   RESPECTING  SLAVES. 


portion  in  the  estate,  but  if  they  were  unmarried,  were  consider- 
ed as,  making  a  part  of  it,  and  were  sold  by  their  brothers  into 
matrimony.  In  case  there  were  no  brothers,  or  they  all  had  died, 
they  took  the  estate,  Num.  27:  1 — 8.  If  any  one  died  intestate, 
and  without  any  offspring,  the  property  was  disposed  of  according 
to  Num.  27:8—11. 

IV.  As  it  respected  servants.  The  servants  or  the  slaves  in  a 
family  could  not  claim  any  share  in  the  estate  as  a  right,  but  the  per- 
son, who  made  a  will,  might,  if  he  chose,  make  them  his  heirs, 
comp.  Gen.  15:  3.  Indeed  in  some  instances,  those  who  had  heirs 
recognized  as  such  by  the  law,  did  not  deem  it  unbecoming  to  be- 
stow the  whole  or  a  portion  of  their  estates  on  faithful  and  deserv- 
ing servants,  Prov.  17:  2. 

V.  As  it  respected  widows.  The  widow  of  the  deceased,  like  his 
daughters,  had  no  legal  right  to  a  share  in  the  estate.  The  sons, 
however,  or  other  relations  were  bound  to  afford  her  an  adequate 
maintenance,  unless  it  had  been  otherwise  arranged  in  the  will. 
She  sometimes  returned  back  again  to  her  father's  house,  particu- 
larly if  the  support,  which  the  heirs  gave  her,  was  not  such  as  had 
been  promised,  or  was  not  sufficient,  Gen.  38:  11;  compare  also 
the  story  of  Ruth.  The  prophets  very  frequently,  and  undoubted- 
ly not  without  cause,  exclaim  against  the  neglect  and  injustice 
shown  to  widows,  Is.  1:  17.  10:  2.  Jer.  7:  6.  22:  3.  Ezek.  22:  7. 
comp.  Exod.  22:  22—24.  Deut.  10:  18.  24:  17. 

§  169.  Respecting  Slaves,  fi'1*}^,  niftS'tp. 

The  number  in  a  family  was  very  much  increased  by  the  slaves, 
that  were  attached  to  it.  It  is  probable,  that  some  of  the  patriarchs, 
as  was  sometimes  the  case  at  a  later  period  with  individuals  in 
Greece  and  Italy,  possessed  many  thousands  of  them.  Slavery  ex- 
isted and  prevailed  before  the  deluge,  Gen.  9: 25.  Moses  therefore, 
although  he  saw  the  evils  of  slavery,  was  not  in  a  condition  to  abol- 
ish it,  and  it  would  not  have  been  wise  for  him  to  have  made  the 
attempt.  He  accordingly,  permitted  the  Hebrews  to  possess  for- 
eigners both  male  and  female  in  the  character  of  slaves  :  but  the 
owners  of  them  were  bound  by  the  laws  to  circumcise  them,  if  they 
had  not  previously  been  so,  and  to  instruct  them  in  the  worship  of 
the  only  true  God,  Gen.  17:  13—17. 


§  170.  WAYS  IN  WHICH  MEN  BECAME  SLAVES.  179 

We  have  said  that  the  Hebrews  were  permitted  to  hold  foreigners 
in  slavery,  but  to  this  statement  there  are  some  exceptions,  which 
are  to  be  mentioned.  The  Canaanites  could  not  be  held  in  slave- 
ry. For  them,  under  the  then  existing  circumstances,  slavery  was 
regarded  too  great  a  privilege,  or  rather  it  would  have  subjected 
the  Jews  to  too  great  a  hazard.  Such  was  the  bad  faith  of  the 
Canaanites,  the  greatness  of  their  numbers,  and  their  deep  rooted 
idolatry,  that,  had  they  been  introduced  under  any  circumstances 
whatever  into  the  Israelitish  community,  they  would  certainly  have 
endangered  their  existence,  as  a  people  of  God.  The  Gibeonites, 
the  Kephirites,  the  Beerothites,  and  the  inhabitants  of  Kirjath-jear- 
im,  having  surreptitiously  obtained  a  treaty  with  the  Israelites,  were 
made  exceptions  also,  and  were  employed  in  the  service  of  the  tab- 
ernacle, Josh.  9:  1 — 27. 

§  170.  Ways  in  which  men  became  Slaves. 

Men  lost  their  freedom  in  ancient  times  in  so  many  ways,  that 
it  is  difficult,  perhaps  impossible,  to  assert  of  any  one  of  them,  that 
it  was  the  origin  or  first  occasion  of  slavery.  We  shall  there- 
fore, content  ourselves  with  merely  mentioning  the  various  ways, 
in  which  they  plunged  into  so  unfortunate  and  debasing  a  condi- 
tion. 

I.  Captivity  in  war.  Some  suppose  this  to  have  been  the  origin 
of  slavery,  Deut.  20:  14.  21:  10,  11.  Gen.  xiv. 

II.  Debts.  These,  as  well  as  captivity  in  war,  became  an  oc- 
casion of  slavery,  when  they  were  so  large,  that  the  debtor  was  un- 
able to  pay  them,  2  K.  4:  1.  Is.  50:  1.  Matt.  18:  25. 

III.  Theft.  Slavery  was  the  consequence  of  theft,  when  the 
thief  was  not  able  to  repay  the  amount  of  the  property,  which  he 
ha'd  taken.  Exod.  22:  2.  Neh.  5:  4,  5. 

IV.  Man-stealing.  By  this  is  to  be  understood  that  act  of  vi- 
olence, by  which  an  individual  in  time  of  peace  is  unjustly  sold 
into  slavery,  or  is  retained  as  a  slave  in  the  possession  of  the  au- 
thor of  the  crime  himself.  Moses  enacted  laws  of  very  great  sever- 
ity against  this  crime,  but  they  were  restricted  in  their  operation 
to  those,  who  had  by  violence  taken  and  made  a  slave,  or  sold  for 
one,  a  free  Hebrew,  Exod.  21:  16.  Deut.  24:  7. 

V.  The,  children  of  slaves.    Children,  who  were  slaves  by  birth, 


180     §171.   CONDITION  OF  SLAVES  AMONG  THE  HEBREWS. 


are  mentioned  in  the  Scriptures  under  the  following  Hebrew 
phrases ; 

,  those  born  in  one's  house; 

•Ih&ttSh  "•p.a  ,  Jltttt^  "ipa,  the  children  of  maid-servants  ; 

rP3  ""as  ,  the  sons  or  children  of  the  house. 

Consult  Gen.  14:  14.  15:3.  17:23.  21:  10.  Ps.86:  16.  116:  16. 

VI.  Purchase.  This  happened,  when  a  man  oppressed  with 
poverty  sold  himself,  or  when  a  master  sold  his  slave.  Purchas- 
ing slaves  of  a  person,  who  possessed  them,  was  the  most  com- 
mon method  of  obtaining  them,  Num.  31:  4,  14 — 18,  35.  Hence 
slaves  are  denominated  p|pp,  ^?.pfa  the  property  or  the  purchase  of 
silver,  i.  e.  those  purchased  with  silver.  The  price  of  a  slave  was 
different  at  different  times,  varying  with  the  age,  sex,  health, 
skill,  cS&c.  of  the  individual  sold.  We  may  infer  from  Exod.  21:  32. 
that  the  medium  price  of  a  slave  was  thirty  shekels ;  and,  by  an 
examination  of  Lev.  27:  1 — 8.  form  a  probable  opinion  as  to  the 
difference  of  the  valuation  of  a  slave  in  the  different  periods  of  his 
life. 

§  171.  Condition  of  Slaves  among  the  Hebrews. 

Both  the  food  and  the  clothing  of  those,  who,  from  any  cause, 
whatever  it  might  be,  had  lost  their  freedom,  were  of  the  poorest 
description.  All  their  earnings  went  to  their  master,  and  their 
labour  was  worth  to  him  double  that  of  a  merely  hired  servant. 
Deut.  15:  18.  They  commonly  had  the  consent  of  their  masters 
to  marry,  or  rather  to  connect  themselves  with  a  woman  in  that 
way,  which  is  denominated  by  a  Latin  law-term  contubernium. 
The  children,  that  proceeded  from  this  sort  of  marriages,  were 
the  property  not  of  the  parents,  but  of  their  owners.  The  child- 
ren, however,  never  addressed  their  owners  as  a  father,  but  al- 
ways as  a  lord  or  master,  Gal.  4:  6.  Rom.  8:  15.  Although  the 
children  born  in  his  house  were  the  slaves  of  the  owner,  they 
were  as  devoted  and  as  true  to  him,  as  if  they  had  sustained  to 
him  the  actual  relationship  of  children.  It  was  in  view  of  this 
fact,  that  the  patriarchs  thought  proper  to  trust  them  with  arms, 
and  to  train  them  up  to  war,  Gen.  14:  14.  32:6.  33:  1.  They 
were  expected  to  perform  any  labour,  which  their  masters  deem- 
ed it  expedient  to  require  of  them,  but  their  common  avocation 


§  171.   CONDITION  OF  SLAVES  AMONG  THE  HEBREWS.  181 

was  that  of  husbandry,  and  the  tending  of  flocks  and  herds.  The 
maid-servants  were  employed  in  domestic  concerns,  though  not 
unfrequently  they  were  compelled  to  engage  in  those  duties, 
which  from  their  nature  were  more  befitting  the  other  sex. 

The  servant,  who  was  found  to  be  most  faithful  and  discreet, 
was  placed  over  the  others,  and  was  called  rp3  )J>] ,  oiKOvofAog,  or 
the  steward,  Gen.  24:  2.  47:  6.  1  Sam.  24:  7.  1  Chron.  27:  29,  30. 
Ruth  2:  5.  It  was  the  duty  of  the  ruling  servant  or  steward  to  al- 
lot to  the  others  their  various  duties,  and  likewise  to  see  their 
food  prepared,  except  when,  as  was  sometimes  the  case,  a  female 
servant,  who  had  been  found  especially  worthy  to  be  trusted,  had 
assumed  the  charge  of  the  latter,  Prov.  31:  15.  1  Chr.  4:  1,  2.  Gal. 
4:  2.  Eph.  3:  2.  Tit.  1:  7.  1  Peter  4:  10. 

It  was  the  business  of  some  of  the  servants  to  instruct  the 
children  of  their  owners,  while  some  waited  upon  their  mistress, 
and  others  upon  their  master.  The  condition  of  these  was  in  some 
respects  less  hard  than  that  of  the  others,  although  it  is  natural  to 
suppose,  that  those  masters,  who  had  any  sense  of  the  duties,  which 
every  man  owes  to  another,  whatever  his  condition,  exhibited  to  all 
of  their  slaves  acts  of  kindness  and  humanity,  Job  31:  13. 

Moses,  in  order  to  render  the  condition  of  those,  who  had  lost 
their  liberty,  as  free  from  misery  and  as  favourable  as  possible, 
made  the  following  regulations  : 

I.  That  servants  or  slaves  should  be  treated  with  humanity. 
The  Law,  which  is  given  in  Leviticus  25:  39 — 53.  speaks  very  ex- 
pressly in  relation  to  the  treatment  of  servants  that  were  of  He- 
brew origin,  and  in  truth  of  those  only  ;  but  as  the  slaves  that  were 
of  foreign  origin,  when  once  circumcised,  were  reckoned  among 
the  Hebrews,  it  may  be  considered  as  applying,  in  some  degree  at 
least,  to  all. 

II.  That  the  master,  who  slew  a  servant  of  whatever  origin, 
with  a  rod  or  by  means  of  blows,  should  be  punished  according  to 
the  will  and  pleasure  of  the  judge.  In  case  the  servant  did  not 
die  till  a  day  or  two  after  being  smitten,  the  master  went  unpun- 
ished, because  the  design  of  murdering  the  servant  could  not  in 
that  case  be  presumed,  and  the  loss  of  the  servant  itself  was  deem- 
ed a  sufficient  punishment,  Exod.  21:  20,  21. 

III.  He  further  enacted,  if  the  master  injured  the  servant  in 
eye  or  tooth,  that  is,  according  to  the  spirit  of  the  law,  m  any- 


182     §171.   CONDITION  OF  SLAVES  AMONG  THE  HEBREWS. 

member  whatever,  the  servant  in  consequence  of  such  treatment, 
should  receive  his  freedom,  Exod.  21:  26,  27. 

IV.  That  the  servants,  on  every  sabbath  and  on  all  festival 
occasions,  should  enjoy  a  cessation  from  their  labors,  Exod.  20: 
10.  Deut.  5:  14. 

V.  That  they  should  be  invited  to  those  feasts,  which  were 
made  from  the  second  tythes,  Deut.  12:  17,  18.  16:  11.  comp. 
Matt.  25:  21—23. 

VI.  That  the  servants,  in  accordance  with  an  ancient  law  or 
custom  to  which  there  is  an  allusion  in  Job  24:  10,  11.  were  en- 
titled to  and  should  receive  an  adequate  subsistence  from  those, 
to  whom  they  were  subject,  Deut.  25:  4.  comp.  1  Tim.  5:  18.  1 
Cor.  9:  9. 

VII.  The  master  was  bound  to  provide  for  the  marriage  of 
maid-servants,  unless  he  took  them  to  himself  as  concubines,  or 
gave  them  to  his  son,  Exod.  21:  8. 

VIII.  A  servant  of  Hebrew  origin  was  not  obliged  to  serve 
longer  than  six  years,  after  which  time  he  was  to  be  dismissed 
with  presents  of  considerable  amount,  and  with  the  wife,  whom 
he  had  married  previous  to  having  lost  his  freedom,  Exod.  21:  2 — 
4.  Lev.  25:  1 — 17.  In  case  he  had  become  a  slave,  while  unmar- 
ried, and  had  married  with  the  consent  of  his  master  during  the 
period  of  his  slavery,  the  wife  could  not  go  out  with  him  to 
the  enjoyment  of  freedom,  till  she  had  first  completed  her  seven 
years  of  servitude,  Exod.  21:  4.  Lev.  25:  39—41.  Deut.  15:  12—17. 
Of  this  privilege,  for  such  it  may  be  considered,  the  Hebrew  maid- 
servants were,  at  first,  for  some  reason,  wholly  deprived,  Exod.  21: 
7.  et  seq. ;  but  at  a  later  period,  when  the  face  of  things  had  prob- 
ably undergone  some  changes,  the  Hebrew  legislator  thought  fit 
to  grant  it  to  them,  Deut.  15:  12 — 17.  The  person,  who  had 
once  been  a  slave,  but  had  afterwards  obtained  his  freedom,  was 
denominated  in  Hebrew,  .  If  the  servant,  too  much  attach- 
ed  to  his  master,  his  wife,  and  the  children  of  whom  he  had  be- 
come the  father  in  his  servitude,  refused  to  accept  the  freedom, 
which  had  been  offered  him  ;  the  master  in  the  presence  of  a 
judge  had  liberty  to  receive  him,  and  in  sign  of  perpetual  servi- 
tude was  to  thrust  an  awl  through  his  ear  into  the  door-post, 
Exod.  21:  5,  6.  Deut.  15:  16.  It  was  not  in  the  power  of  their 
masters,  however,  to  sell  slaves  of  this  description,  notwithstanding 


§  172.  SLAVES  AMONG  OTHER  NATIONS.  183 

they  had  voluntarily  subjected  themselves  to  perpetual  servitude, 
to  any  person  living  out  of  the  Hebrew  territories,  Exod.  21:  7,  8. 
In  regard  to  those  slaves  who  had  not  completed  the  six  years  of 
their  service,  it  may  be  further  remarked  here,  that,  if  they  were 
Hebrews  by  origin,  and  had  been  sold  to  persons  dwelling  in  the 
Hebrew  territory,  their  relations  or  any  other  person  might  redeem 
them,  or  they  might  redeem  themselves,  if  they  had  property  suf- 
ficient, by  paying  a  price  adequate  to  the  remaining  years  of  service, 
making  six  in  the  whole,  Lev.  25:  47 — 55. 

IX.  On  the  year  of  jubilee,  all  the  servants  or  slaves  of  He- 
brew descent  were  to  be  emancipated,  Lev.  39:  25 — 41. 

X.  Slaves,  who  were  Hebrews  by  birth,  were  permitted  to  pos- 
sess some  little  property  of  their  own,  as  may  be  learnt  from  Lev. 
25:  49,  compared  with  2  Sam.  9:  10. 

Finally,  a  slave  who  had  fled  from  another  nation  and  sought 
a  refuge  among  the  Hebrews,  was  to  be  received  and  treated 
with  kindness,  and  not  to  be  forcibly  returned  back  again,  Deut. 
23:  15,  16. 

§  172.  The  Condition  of  Slaves  among  other  Nations. 

Notwithstanding  Moses  inculcated  in  many  instances  hu- 
manity towards  slaves,  and  protected  them  also  by  special  laws 
enacted  in  their  favour ;  they  were  sometimes  the  subjects  of 
undue  severity  of  treatment,  and  of  sufferings  in  various  ways, 
Jer.  34:  8 — 22.  Still  it  cannot  be  denied,  that  their  condition  was 
better  among  the  Hebrews,  than  among  some  other  nations ;  as 
may  be  learnt  from  their  well  known  rebellions  against  the  Greeks 
and  Romans.  Nor  is  it  at  all  wonderful,  that  the  Hebrews  differ- 
ed from  other  nations  in  the  treatment  of  their  slaves  in  a  way  so 
much  to  their  credit,  when  we  consider  the  many  and  weighty 
motives,  that  were  presented  to  them  thus  to  act.  Especially 
when  we  consider,  that  in  other  countries,  there  was  no  sabbath 
for  the  slave,  no  day  of  rest,  and  no  laws  sanctioned  by  the  Divinity 
in  their  favour. 

Runaway  slaves,  and  those,  who  were  suspected  of  an  intention 
to  do  it,  were  branded,  for  the  most  part  in  the  forehead,  to  which 
custom  there  are  allusions  in  Galatians  6:  17.  and  Revelation  14:  9. 
22:  4.  Slaves  in  heathen  nations  were  debarred  from  a  participa- 
tion both  in  all  the  civil  festivals,  and  in  all  the  religious  exer- 


184 


§  172.   SLAVES  AMONG  OTHER  NATIONS. 


cises,  which  was  a  very  different  state  of  things  from  that  among 
the  Hebrews.  After  Christianity  had  penetrated  into  those  na- 
tions, the  state  of  things  was  in  some  degree  changed  ;  and  slaves, 
in  the  Christian  Church,  enjoyed  equal  privileges  with  any  others, 
as  far  as  the  Church  was  concerned,  Gal.  3:  28.  Coloss.  3:  10,  11. 
Philem.  10.  1  Cor.  12:  13.  Eph.  6:  8. 

Slaves  in  other  nations  were  not  supported  by  those,  with 
whom  they  laboured  ;  consult  Pollux  on  the  word  Tiavataant]. 
They  were  very  rarely  permitted  to  marry,  or  to  enter  into  that 
state  called  by  a  Roman  law-term  contubernium  ;  their  private  pos- 
sessions were  subjected  to  the  will  of  their  master ;  and  they  were 
obliged  to  make  him  presents  from  it.  Whenever  they  were  so  hap- 
py as  to  be  manumitted,  they  were  still  under  the  necessity  of  re- 
taining the  name  offrcedmen,  liberti,  vodoi,  in  allusion  to  their  pre- 
vious condition  ;  and  their  children,  as  if  the  disgrace  were  design- 
ed to  be  perpetuated,  were  denominated  libertini,freedmen's  sons. 
We  have  not  time  to  dwell  upon  the  occasional,  we  might  say  fre- 
quent, and  excessive  cruelty  of  their  masters. 

In  a  word  then,  the  condition  of  slaves  was  miserable,  and  the 
Jews  were  not  to  blame  for  boasting  that  they  were  the  freemen 
of  Abraham,  John  8:  8.  Paul  himself  acknowledges,  that  the  con- 
dition of  freedom  is  worthy  of  being  eagerly  embraced,  when  it 
can  be  embraced  without  dishonesty  or  injustice,  but  the  freedom, 
which  he  esteemed  most  worthy  in  its  nature  and  most  important 
in  its  consequences,  was  that  which  is  given  through  our  Lord  Je- 
sus Christ,  1  Cor.  7:  21 — 23.  Rom.  8:  15.  Having  this  statement 
in  regard  to  the  slavery  of  other  nations  in  view,  one  is  in  a  con- 
dition to  understand  the  force  of  that  comparison  introduced  at 
times  in  the  New  Testament,  which  represents  the  Jews  under 
the  Mosaic  law,  as  in  a  state  of  servitude,  and  Christians  as  in  a 
state  of  freedom,  John  8:  32,  34.  Rom.  6:  17.  James  1:  25.  It  is  a 
comparison,  not  only  lively  and  impressive,  but  one,  which,  under 
the  circumstances  that  existed  in  the  time  of  our  Saviour  and  the 
Apostles,  was  very  naturally  made.  This  comparison,  as  far  as  re- 
spected sinners,  had  already  been  made  by  philosophers  and  the 
meaning  and  emphasis  attached  to  it  were  sufficiently  well  known 
to  the  Jews  in  the  time  of  Christ.  They  must,  therefore,  have  read- 
ily understood  the  expressions  of  Christ  in  John  8:  31 — 34.  unless 
they  wilfully  preferred  making  a  mistake  in  a  case,  that  was  suffi- 
ciently plain. 


185 


CHAPTER  XI. 

CHARACTER  AND  SOCIAL  INTERCOURSE 
OF  THE  HEBREWS. 

§  173.  Character  of  the  Hebrews. 

The  character  of  the  Hebrews  exhibits  the  vices  common  among 
oriental  nations,  viz.  luxury,  pomp,  effeminacy,  and  arrogance.  The 
arrogance  of  the  Hebrews  in  later  times  was  very  great,  see  Tal- 
mud, Baba  Metzia,  p.  83.  John  8:  33.  Among  the  great,  there  was  too 
great  a  prevalence  of  extortion,  of  oppression,  and  of  hypocritical 
friendships,  that  sought  to  cover  the  hollowness  of  the  heart  be- 
neath the  external  appearance.  We  find,  that  vices  of  this  de- 
scription were  a  ground  of  complaint  among  the  prophets,  and  the 
subjects  of  their  reprehensions  in  all  parts  of  their  writings;  and 
still  it  cannot  be  denied,  that  there  occur  in  the  history  of  the  He- 
brews examples  of  great  magnanimity,  Gen.  14:  23.  44:  34.  Judg. 
8.  23.  1  Sam.  12:  3,  4.  18:  1.  20:  4—8,  41,  42.  23:  16—18.  24:  7 
—12.  26:  9—12.  1  K.  20:  31.  Of  the  various  traits  in  the  cha- 
racter of  the  Hebrews,  which  are  developed  in  the  course  of  their 
history,  the  most  striking  beyond  any  question  is  that  of  stubborn- 
ness and  inflexibility,  see  Acts  vii.  The  disposition  for  idolatry 
ceased  after  the  captivity.  If  it  be  the  fact,  that  the  madness  of 
worshipping  idols  seized  upon  some  of  the  nobler  sort  of  people, 
so  late  as  the  time  of  the  Maccabees,  it  is  sufficiently  evident,  that 
it  did  not  extend  to  the  great  body  of  the  nation.  The  public  or 
political  virtues  of  the  people  may  perhaps  be  summed  up  by  say- 
ing, that  they  were  industrious  in  the  culture  of  their  fields,  and 
brave  on  the  field  of  battle.  If  we  should  assume  the  province  of 
mentioning  any  particular  period  in  their  history,  during  which, 
more  than  at  any  other  time,  they  appear  to  have  excelled  in  brave- 
24 


1S6 


§  173.   CHARACTER  OF  THE  HEERLWS. 


ry  and  in  warlike  skill,  we  should  point  to  the  days  of  David  and 
the  Maccabees.  Among  the  moral  virtues,  that  are  most  celebrat- 
ed in  the  Hebrew  Scriptures,  the  following  may  be  mentioned  ; 
viz. 

(1.)  FiptX ,  justice,  a  general  term  also  for  moral  integrity,  and 
purity  of  life. 

(2.)  n£N ,  M^fttt  ,  truth,  fidelity,  an'd  sincerity. 

(3.)  TOfr ,  humanity,  benevolence,  or  the  love  of  our  neighbour. 

(4.)  EP123?,  the  mild  or  merciful,  Vulg.  mitissimi,  New  Testa- 
ment iiQatlg,  are  likewise  spoken  of  with  the  most  decided  approba- 
tion. 

Many  other  moral  virtues  and  duties  are  commended  and  en- 
forced in  the  Old  Testament ;  so  that  there  is  no  hesitancy  in  say- 
ing, that  the  Hebrews,  in  a  knowledge  of  the  principles  of  moral 
conduct,  far  exceeded  all  other  nations.  But  we  must  not  suppose, 
that  the  rectitude  of  the  conduct  of  the  Hebrews  corresponded 
on  all  occasions  to  their  knowledge,  or  that  they  all  of  them  ful- 
filled those  duties,  the  obligation  of  which  they  were  too  well  in- 
formed not  to  admit.  On  the  contrary,  very  many  disregarded 
the  light,  which  God  had  given,  and  neglected  to  fulfil  those  du- 
ties, which  they  felt  themselves  bound  to  perform.  This  per- 
versity of  conduct  exhibited  itself  more  especially  in  the  later  pe- 
riods of  their  existence  as  a  nation;  when  many  among  them  per- 
verted the  law  of  Moses  by  their  traditions  and  philosophical  quib- 
bles. Holding  to  the  letter,  they  wandered  sufficiently  far  from 
its  spirit,  and  acquired  among  all  nations  a  very  disgraceful  cele- 
brity for  their  falsehoods,  impostures,  and  perjuries.  Tacitus, 
Hist.  V.  5.  1  Thess.  2:  15.  Eph.  2:  14.  In  the  last  war  of  the 
Jews,  viz.  the  contest  with  the  Romans,  the  vices  in  their  charac- 
ter to  which  we  have  alluded,  prevailed  more,  and  were  check- 
ed by  fewer  restraints,  than  at  any  former  period.  Josephus  him- 
self, notwithstanding  his  origin  from  the  Jewish  people,  is  so  can- 
did as  to  confess  the  existence  of  such  a  state  of  things,  as  we  have 
now  stated.    Comp.  Matt.  12:  43 — 45. 


§  174.   PROPRIETY  AND  REFINEMENT  OF  MANNERS.        1  87 


§  174.  Propriety  and  Refinement  of  Manners. 

Tt  cannot  be  denied,  that  there  prevailed  among  the  Hebrews 
no  little  propriety  and  refinement  of  manners  ;  although  the  marks 
of  civility,  which  they  exhibited  to  each  other  in  their  social  in- 
tercourse, are  by  no  means  the  same  in  all  respects  with  those, 
which  would  be  expected  in  such  intercourse  from  a  well  bred 
and  polite  inhabitant  of  modern  Europe.  The  prevailing  taste 
for  civility  and  for  refinement  of  manners  was  strengthened  by  con- 
siderations drawn  from  the  law  of  Moses,  Lev.  19 :  32.  The 
proofs,  that  such  civility  and  such  refinement  of  manners  actually 
existed  and  prevailed,  are  so  numerous  in  the  Bible,  that  a  person 
would  be  disposed  to  complain,  that  they  were  too  numerous,  rath- 
er than  that  they  were  too  few. 

But  every  country  and  every  climate  has  something  peculiar 
in  its  manners  and  modes  of  intercourse,  as  well  as  in  other  things. 
If  in  any  country  the  common  expressions  of  civility,  and  the  us- 
ual forms  of  politeness  should  be  thoroughly  examined  and  duly 
estimated,  they  would  be  found  to  be  more  marked  and  extrava- 
gant, than  was  required  by  the  actual  state  of  the  feelings.  The 
orientals,  especially,  would  be  thought  by  an  inhabitant  of  Europe 
to  be  excessive  in  their  gestures  and  expressions  of  good-will, 
when  in  truth  those  gestures  and  expressions  mean  no  more  than 
very  moderate  ones  among  us.  For  instance,  prostration  upon  the 
earth  scarcely  signified  more  among  them,  than  a  nod  of  the  head, 
or  an  extension  of  the  hand,  among  the  less  animated  and  more 
moderate  inhabitants  of  occidental  nations.  The  very  ancient 
forms  of  civility  and  politeness,  mentioned  in  Genesis  18:  1 — 30. 
19:  1—3.  23:  7,  12.  41:  43.  42:  6.  and  spoken  of  likewise  by  He- 
rodotus and  other  ancient  historian's,  have  been  perpetuated  to  a 
great  degree  among  eastern  nations  till  the  present  day. 

In  the  time  of  Christ,  the  ancient  mode  of  addressing  those  who 
were  worthy  of  being  honoured,  viz.  by  saying  my  lord,  or  words 
to  that  effect,  was  in  a  measure  superseded  ;  and  the  honorary 
and  more  extravagant  address  of  Rabbi,  i.  e.  the  great,  5*^ 
which  originated  in  the  schools,  had  become  common  among  the 
people;  also  the  title  of  xgdttoTe,  or  most  excellent,  Luke  1:3. 
Acts  23:  26.  24:  3.  26:  25. 


188 


§  175.  MODE  OF  SALUTATION. 


§  175.  Mode  of  Salutation. 

The  expressions  used  at  salutation,  and  also  those,  which  were 
used  at  parting,  implied  in  both  instances,  that  the  person  who  em- 
ployed them,  interceded  for  a  blessing  on  the  other.  Hence  the 
word  -]"13,  which  originally  means  to  bless,  means  also  to  salute  or 
to  welcome,  and  to  bid  adieu,  Gen.  47:  8 — 11.  2  K.  4:  29.  10:  13. 
1  Chron.  18:  10. 

The  forms  of  salutation  that  prevailed  among  the  ancient  He- 
brews, were  as  follows ; 

(1.)  rnrr?  ^pns,  rnrnb  rnrp  ^nh»,  be  thou  blessed  oj 
Jehovah. 

(2.)  *pb9  mh'  f  the  blessing  of  Jehovah  be  upon  thee. 

(3.)  ^733?  nirP,  may  God  be  with  thee. 

(4.)  r£  bibuj,  Tpb.S  trib'tf:,  may  peace,  i.  e.  every  blessing  and 
prosperity,  be  yours.  This  was  the  most  common  salutation,  see 
Ruth  2:  4.  Judg.  19:  20.  1  Sam.  25:  26.  2  Sam.  20:  9.  Ps.  129:  8. 

(5.)  STrtl,  Sir,  be  your  life  prospered.  This  was  the  com- 
mon salutation  among  the  Phenicians.  It  was  in  use  also  among 
the  Hebrews,  but  was  not  addressed  by  them  to  any  person  except 
their  kings. 

(6.)  Xaigt,  answering  to  the  Latin  ave  or  salve,  in  Hebrew 
Wfr;  or  ft^h ,  Luke  1:  27,  28.  Matt.  26:  49.  28:  9. 

The  gestures  and  inflections  of  the  body,  which  were  made  on 
an  occasion  of  salutation,  differed  at  different  times,  varying  with 
the  dignity  and  station  of  the  person,  who  was  saluted  ;  as  is  the 
case  among  the  orientals  to  this  day.  In  pronouncing  the  forms  of 
salutation  just  given,  the  orientals  place  the  right  hand  upon  the 
left  breast,  and  with  much  gravity  incline  the  head.  If  two  Arab 
friends  of  equal  rank  in  life  meet  together,  they  mutually  extend  to 
each  other  the  right  hand,  and  having  clasped,  they  elevate  them, 
as  if  to  kiss  them.  Having  advanced  thus  far  in  the  ceremony, 
each  one  draws  back  his  hand,  and  kisses  it  instead  of  his  friend's, 
and  then  places  it  upon  his  forehead.  If  one  of  the  Arabs  be 
more  exalted  in  point  of  rank  than  the  other,  he  is  at  liberty  to  give 
the  other  an  opportunity  of  kissing,  instead  of  his  own,  the  hand  of 
his  superior.  The  parties  then  continue  the  salutation  by  reci- 
procally kissing  each  other's  beard,  having  first  placed  the  hand 


§  175.   MODE  OF  SALUTATION. 


189 


under  it,  in  which  case  alone  it  is  lawful  to  touch  the  beard,  2  Sam. 
20:  9.  It  is  sometimes  the  case,  that  persons,  instead  of  this  cere- 
mony, merely  place  their  cheeks  together.  It  is  the  common 
practice  among  the  Persians  for  persons  in  saluting  to  kiss  each 
other's  lips ;  if  one  of  the  individuals  be  a  person  of  high  rank, 
the  salutation  is  given  upon  the  cheeks  instead  of  the  lips,  2  Sam. 
20:  9.  Gen.  29:  11,  13.  33:  4.  39:  11.  48:  10—12.  Exod.  4:  27.  IS: 
7.     The  Arabians  are  in  the  habit  of  inquiring  respecting  the 

5  ^  ^ 

health,  EiV^,  p^JLw,  of  a  person,  when  they  salute  him,  Gen.  29.  6. 
43:  27.  1  Sam.  16:  4.  They  give  thanks  to  God,  that  they  once 
more  see  their  friend,  they  pray  to  the  Almighty  in  his  behalf, 
and  supplicate  for  him  every  sort  of  prosperity.  They  are  some- 
times so  animated  on  such  occasions,  as  to  repeat  not  less  than  ten 
times  the  ceremony  of  grasping  hands  and  kissing,  and  the  interro- 
gations respecting  each  other's  health.  It  may,  therefore,  be  well 
concluded,  that  the  salutation  between  friends  was  an  occurrence, 
which  consumed  some  time,  and  for  this  reason  it  was  anciently 
inculcated  upon  messengers,  who  were  sent  upon  business  that 
required  despatch,  not  to  salute  any  one  by  the  way,  2  K.  4:  29. 
Luke  10:  4. 

When  we  consider  the  nature  of  the  oriental  salutations,  the 
ardour  of  gesticulation  on  such  an  occasion,  the  professions  of 
friendship  and  good  will,  which  were  then  made,  we  should  not 
wonder  that  the  evangelist  John  in  his  second  epistle,  eleventh 
verse,  thought  it  necessary  to  forbid  a  christian  to  salute  a  man  of 
another  sect,  or  to  welcome  him  to  his  house.  For  it  is  very 
clear,  that  pursuing  such  a  course  would  have  carried  an  errone- 
ous appearance,  and  would  have  possessed  the  very  injurious  ef- 
fect of  confounding  distinctions,  and  giving  encouragement  to  he- 
resy. 

In  the  presence  of  the  great  and  the  noble,  the  orientals  in- 
cline themselves  almost  to  the  earth,  kiss  their  knees,  or  the  hem 
of  their  garment,  and  place  it  upon  their  forehead.  When  in  the 
presence  of  kings  and  princes  more  particularly,  they  go  so  far  as 
to  prostrate  themselves  at  full  length  upon  the  ground,  sometimes 
with  their  knees  bent,  they  touch  their  forehead  to  the  earth,  and 
before  resuming  an  erect  position  either  kiss  the  earth,  or,  if  they 
prefer  it,  the  feet  of  the  king  or  prince,  in  whose  presence  they  are 
permitted  to  appear. 


190 


§  176.   ON  VISITING. 


This  is  the  state  of  things  among  the  orientals ;  and  one  proof 
among  others,  that  it  was  the  same  among  the  ancient  Hebrews, 
is  to  be  found,  in  some  instances  in  the  prevailing,  and  in  others  in 
the  original  signification  of  those  words,  which  are  used  to  express 
the  attitudes  and  the  acts  of  salutation.  The  words  to  which  we  re- 
fer, are  as  follows  ; 

TljP  ,  to  incline  or  bend  down  the  head. 

2*13  ,to  bend  down  the  body  very  low. 

Tjna  ,  to  bend  the  knee,  also  to  salute  one. 

n£-]tt  tnBN  sns,  'nsna  rtirrguSn,  to  bend  down 

to  the  earth,  to  fall  prostrate  on  the  earth,  to  fall  with  the  face  to 
the  earth. 

The  word  ttjHft'jjSr,  when  standing  by  itself,  does  not  mean 
prostration  upon  the  earth,  but  merely  an  inclination  of  the  body, 
as  is  evident  from  1  K.  2:  19.  Prostration  is  expressed  in  Greek 
by  the  word  tiqooxvvhv,  and  in  Latin  by  the  word  adorare.  The 
various  positions  of  body,  of  which  we  have  spoken,  were  assum- 
ed in  the  word  of  God.  The  Greeks  and  Latins  maintained, 
that  there  should  be  a  prostration  of  the  body  in  the  worship  of 
God  only,  and  not  on  an  occasion  of  less  importance,  Acts  10.:  25, 
26.  Rev.  19:  20.  22:  9.  The  Hebrew  verb  -tfO  is  used  only  in 
reference  to  the  adoration  of  idols,  and  not  of  the  supreme  God, 
Is.  44:  15,  17,  19.  46:  6.  The  corresponding  word  in  the  Ara- 
mean  and  Arabic  dialects  is  more  broad  in  its  signification.  Dan. 
2:  46.  3:  5. 

§  176.  On  Visiting. 

A  person,  who  went  on  a  visit,  found  himself  under  the  ne- 
cessity of  knocking  at  the  gate,  or  of  calling  with  a  loud  voice, 
till  the  master  of  the  house  came  out.  The  visitant  was  then,  if 
it  appeared  suitable  to  the  master  of  the  house,  conducted  in  ;  but 
not  till  a  sign  had  first  been  made  to  the  females  of  the  family,  to 
retire  to  their  appropriate  apartments,  2  K.  5:  9 — 12.  Acts  10: 
17.  Those,  who  intended  to  visit  persons  that  held  a  high  rank 
in  life,  were  in  the  habit  of  sending  previous  notice  of  their  con- 
templated visit,  but  they  did  not  fulfil  the  purpose,  they  had  thus 
announced,  without  bringing  with  them  such  presents,  as  were 
suitable.    The  practice  of  carrying  presents,  when  a  person  visits 


§  177.  OF  GTFTS. 


191 


those  who  are  high  in  life,  is  still  continued  in  the  East.  The 
guest  set  out  upon  his  visit  with  a  suitable  pomp  and  retinue,  and 
was  received  at  the  mansion,  to  which  he  was  going,  with  equal  in- 
dications of  magnificence,  his  head  was  anointed,  and  he  was  per- 
fumed with  aromatic  substances.  Traces  of  these  ceremonies  oc- 
cur in  Gen.  27:  27.  Exod.  30:  37,  38.  Prov.  27:  9.  Num.  16:  6, 
17,  18,  37,  38.  In  the  East,  the  following  custom  has  hitherto 
prevailed  and  does  at  present.  If  it  appear  convenient  or  neces- 
sary in  the  estimation  of  his  host  for  the  visitant  to  retire,  in  order 
to  relieve  himself  from  the  disagreeable  necessity  of  saying  so  in 
express  terms,  he  gives  him  a  polite  hint  in  respect  to  his  wishes 
by  causing  him  to  be  regaled  with  incense  or  burnt  perfume.  And 
this  is  accordingly  the  concluding  ceremony  of  the  visit. 

§  177.  Of  Gifts. 

The  practice  of  making  presents,  »"Tft3»,  ^33,  x^rh 

Num.  22:  7,  16,  37.  24:  11 — 13.  is  very  common  in  oriental  coun- 
tries. The  custom  probably  had  its  origin  among  those  men,  who 
first  sustained  the  office  of  kings  or  rulers,  and  who,  from  the  no- 
velty and  perhaps  the  weakness  attached  to  their  situation,  chose, 
rather  than  make  the  hazardous  attempt  of  exacting  taxes,  to  con- 
tent themselves  with  receiving  those  presents,  which  might  be 
freely  offered,  1  Sam.  10:  27.  Hence  it  passed  into  a  custom, 
that  whoever  approached  the  king,  should  come  with  a  gift.  This 
was  the  practice  and  the  expectation.  The  practice  of  present- 
ing gifts  was  subsequently  extended  to  other  great  men,  to  men 
who  were  inferiour  to  the  king,  but  who  were,  nevertheless,  men 
of  influence  and  rank  ;  it  was  also  extended  to  those  who  were 
equals,  when  they  were  visited,  Prov.  18:  16. 

Kings  themselves  were  in  the  habit  of  making  presents,  proba- 
bly in  reference  to  the  custom  in  question  and  the  feelings  connect- 
ed with  it,  to  those  individuals,  their  inferiours  in  point  of  rank, 
whom  they  wished  to  honour,  and  also  to  those,  who,  like  them- 
selves, were  clothed  with  the  royal  authority.  These  presents, 
viz.  such  as  were  presented  by  the  king  as  a  token  of  the  royal  es- 
teem and  honour,  are  almost  invariably  denominated  in  the  He- 
brew Jfija  and  mm  ,  see  1  K.  15:  19.  2  K.  16:  8.  18:  14.  Is.  30: 
2 — 6.    The  more  ancient  prophets  did  not  deem  it  discreditable  to 


192     §  178.   PRESENTS  AND  METHODS  OP  BRINGING  THEM. 

them  to  receive  presents,  nor  unbecoming  their  sacred  calling,  ex- 
cept when,  as  was  sometimes  the  case,  they  refused  by  way  of  ex- 
pressing their  dissatisfaction  or  indignation,  2  K.  5:  5.  6:  9.  In  later 
times,  when  false  prophets,  in  order  to  obtain  money,  prophesied 
without  truth  and  without  authority,  the  true  prophets  for  the 
purpose  of  keeping  the  line  of  distinction  as  marked  and  distinct 
as  possible,  rejected  every  thing  that  looked  like  pay,  Amos  7:  14. 
Gifts  of  the  kind,  that  have  now  been  described,  are  not  to  be  con- 
founded with  those,  which  are  called  IrjtiS,  and  which  were  pre- 
sented to  judges,  not  as  a  mark  of  esteem  and  honour,  but  for  pur- 
poses of  bribery  and  corruption.  The  former  was  considered  an 
honour  to  the  giver,  but  a  gift  of  the  latter  kind  has  been  justly 
reprobated  in  every  age,  Exod.  23:  8.  Deut.  10:  17.  16:  19.  27:  25. 
Ps.  15:  5.  26:  10.  Is.  1:  23.  5:  23.  33:  15. 

§  178.  Kinds  of  Presents  and  Methods  of  bringing  them. 

The  giver  was  not  restricted  as  to  the  kind  of  present,  which 
he  should  make.  He  might  present  not  only  silver  and  gold,  but 
clothes  and  arms,  also  different  kinds  of  food,  in  a  word,  any  thing 
which  could  be  of  benefit  to  the  recipient,  Gen.  43:  11.  1  Sam.  9: 
7.  16:  20.  Job.  42:  11.  It  was  the  custom  anciently,  as  it  is  at  the 
present  time  in  the  East,  for  an  individual  when  visiting  a  person 
of  high  rank,  to  make  some  presents  of  small  value  to  the  servants 
or  domestics  of  the  person  visited,  1  Sam.  25:  27.  It  was  the 
usual  practice  among  kings  and  princes  to  present  to  their  favour- 
ite officers  in  the  government,  to  ambassadors  from  foreign  courts, 
to  foreigners  of  distinction,  and  to  men  eminent  for  their  learning, 
garments  of  greater  or  less  value,  as  already  observed,  Gen.  45: 
22,  23.  Esth.  8:  15.  The  royal  wardrobe,  in  which  a  large  num- 
ber of  such  garments  was  kept,  is  denominated  in  Hebrew  Siftfibft, 
2  Chron.  9:  24.  It  was  considered  an  honour  of  the  highest  kind, 
if  a  king  or  any  person  in  high  authority  thought  it  proper,  as  a 
manifestation  of  his  favour,  to  give  away  to  another  the  garment, 
which  he  had  previously  worn  himself,  1  Sam.  18:  14.  In  the 
East  at  the  present  day,  it  is  expected  that  every  one  who  has 
received  a  garment  from  the  king,  will  immediately  clothe  him- 
self in  it,  and  promptly  present  himself  and  render  his  homage  to 
the  giver  ;  otherwise  he  runs  the  hazard  of  exciting  the  king's  dis- 


§  179.  PUBLIC  HONOURS.  193 

pleasure,  comp.  Matt.  22:  11,  12.  It  was  sometimes  the  case,  that 
the  king,  when  he  made  a  feast,  presented  vestments  to  all  the 
guests  who  were  invited,  with  which  they  clothed  themselves, 
before  they  sat  down  to  it,  2  K.  10:  22.  Gen.  45:  22.  Rev.  3:  5. 
Cyrop.  VIII.  3.  1.  Iliad  XXIV.  226,  227.  In  oriental  countries, 
the  presents,  which  are  made  to  kings  and  princes,  are  to  this  day 
carried  on  beasts  of  burden,  are  attended  with  a  body  of  men,  and 
are  escorted  with  much  pomp.  It  matters  not,  how  light  or  how 
small  the  present  may  be,  it  is  heavy  enough  at  any  rate  to  be  car- 
ried on  the  back  of  a  beast  of  burden,  or  if  carried  by  a  man,  to  be 
supported  by  both  of  his  hands,  Judg.  3:  18.  2  K.  8:  9. 

§  179.  Public  Honours. 

It  is  the  custom  in  Asia,  to  exhibit  the  most  distinguished  marks 
of  attention  and  honour  to  kings,  to  princes,  and  to  national  am- 
bassadors, whenever  on  any  public  occasions  they  enter  cities, 
or  return  from  a  distance  to  the  places  of  their  customary  resi- 
dence. On  such  occasions  there  is  a  great  concourse  of  people. 
The  small  windows,  which  look  towards  the  street  and  at  other 
times  are  shut  up,  are  then  thrown  open.  The  level  roofs  are 
crowded  and  alive  with  eager  spectators.  The  streets,  to  prevent 
the  rising  of  the  dust,  are  sprinkled  with  water.  They  are  also, 
with  the  exception  of  a  small  undecorated  path  left  in  the  centre 
of  them  for  the  procession,  strewed  with  flowers  and  branches  of 
trees,  and  spread  with  richly  embroidered  carpets.  The  specta- 
tors clap  their  hands,  and  shouts  of  joy  re-echo  on  every  side.  On 
other  occasions,  when  the  people  are  permitted  to  behold  the 
king,  they  honour  and  salute  him  in  silence,  2  Sam.  16:  16.  1  K. 
1:  40.  2  K.  9:  13.  Is.  62:  11.  Zech.  9:  9.  Matt.  21:  7,  8.  The 
musicians  walk  first  in  the  procession,  1  K.  18:  46.  1  Chron.  15: 
27 — 29.  The  persons,  who  sustain  offices  in  the  government,  and 
are  attached  to  the  palace,  are  the  next  in  the  procession.  Then 
follows  the  king.  All  of  them  are  carried  on  noble  coursers. 
Anciently  kings,  on  such  occasions,  rode  in  chariots,  Gen.  41:  43. 
2  Sam.  15:  1.  1  K.  1:  5. 

Note.  Ceremonies  similar  to  those,  which  have  now  been  de- 
scribed, are  exhibited  in  Asia  on  two  other  public  occasions,  be- 

25 


194 


§  180.   CONVERSATION  AND  BATHING. 


side  the  one  in  question  ;  viz.  when  a  person  has  deserted  the 
Christian  and  embraced  the  Mohammedan  faith,  and  when  a  class 
or  school  of  boys  have  finished  the  study  of  the  Koran.  The  boys, 
who  have  thus  completed  the  perusal  of  the  writings  of  the  East- 
ern Prophet,  are  seated  upon  the  choicest  steeds.  Musicians  go 
before  them,  the  same  as  in  the  procession  of  kings ;  and,  surround- 
ed with  an  escort  of  shouting  fellow-students,  they  are  conducted 
through  the  city.  The  prevalence  of  these  customs  in  the  East 
will  throw  some  light  upon  such  passages,  as  the  following,  Gen. 
41:  23.  Esth.  6:  7—9.  1  Sam.  10:  5—10. 

§  180.  Conversation  and  bathing. 

Conversation,  in  which  the  ancient  orientals  indulged  like  oth- 
er men,  in  order  to  beguile  the  time,  was  held  in  the  gate  of  the 
city.  Accordingly  there  was  an  open  space  near  the  gate  of  the 
city,  as  is  the  case  at  the  present  day  in  Mauritania,  which  was 
fitted  up  with  seats  for  the  accommodation  of  the  people,  Gen. 
19:  1.  Ps.  69:  12.  Those,  who  were  at  leisure,  occupied  a  position 
on  these  seats,  and  either  amused  themselves  with  witnessing  those 
who  came  in  and  those  who  went  out,  and  with  any  trifling  occurren- 
ces, that  might  offer  themselves  to  their  notice,  or  attended  to  the 
judicial  trials,  which  were  commonly  investigated  at  public  places 
of  this  kind,  viz.  at  the  gate  of  the  city,  Gen.  19:  1.  34:  20.  Ps.  26: 
4,  5.  69:  12.  127:  5.  Ruth  4:  11.  Is.  14:  31. 

Intercourse  by  conversation,  though  not  very  frequent,  was  not 
so  rare  among  the  ancient  orientals,  as  among  their  descendants  of 
modern  Asia.  Nor  is  this  to  be  wondered  at,  since  the  fathers 
drank  wine,  while  the  descendants  are  obliged  to  abstain  from 
it ;  and  we  are  well  assured,  that  the  effect  of  this  exhilarating 
beverage  was  to  communicate  no  little  vivacity  to  the  charac- 
ters of  the  ancient  Asiatics,  at  least  to  that  of  the  Hebrews,  see 
Is.  30:  29.  Jer.  7:  34.  30:  19.  Amos  6:  4,  5.  The  ancient  Asia- 
tics, among  whom  we  include  the  Hebrews,  were  delighted  with 
singing,  with  dancing,  and  with  instruments  of  music.  Promenad- 
ing, so  fashionable  and  so  agreeable  in  colder  latitudes,  was  wea- 
risome and  unpleasant  in  the  warm  climates  of  the  East,  and  this 
is  probably  one  reason,  why  the  inhabitants  of  those  climates  pre- 
ferred holding  intercourse  with  one  another,  while  sitting  near 


§  180.   CONVERSATION  AND  BATHING. 


195 


the  gate  of  the  city,  or  beneath  the  shade  of  the  fig-tree  and  the 
vine,  1  Sam.  22:  6.  Micah  4:  4.  It  is  for  the  same  reason  also, 
that  we  so  frequently  hear  in  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  of  persons 
sitting  down  as  in  the  following  passage,  "  Blessed  is  the  man, 
that  standeth  not  in  the  way  of  sinners,  nor  sitteth  in  the  seat  of  the 
scornful,  see  Ps.  t:  1.  107:  32.  89:  7.  Ill:  1.  64:  2.  50:  20.  26:  5. 

The  bath  was  always  very  agreeable  to  the  inhabitants  of  the 
East,  Ruth  3:  3.  2  Sam.  11:  2.  2  K.  5:  10.  And  it  is  not  at  all 
surprising,  that  it  should  have  been  so,  since  it  is  not  only  cooling 
and  refreshing,  but  is  absolutely  necessary  in  order  to  secure  a 
decent  degree  of  cleanliness  in  a  climate,  where  there  is  so  much 
exposure  to  dust.  The  bath  is  frequently  visited  by  Eastern  la- 
dies, and  may  be  reckoned  among  their  principal  recreations. 
Those  Egyptians,  who  lived  at  the  earliest  period  of  which  we 
have  any  account,  were  in  the  habit  of  bathing  in  the  waters  of 
the  Nile,  Exod.  2:  5.  7:  13—25.  Herodot.  II.  37.  It  was  one  of 
the  civil  laws  of  the  Hebrews,  that  the  bath  should  be  used.  The 
object  of  the  law  without  doubt  was  to  secure  a  proper  degree  of 
cleanliness  among  them,  Lev.  14:  2.  15:  1 — 8.  17:  15,  16.  22:  6. 
Num.  19:  6.  We  may,  therefore,  consider  it  as  probable,  that 
public  baths,  soon  after  the  enactment  of  this  law,  were  erected 
in  Palestine,  of  a  construction  similar  to  that  of  those,  which  are 
so  frequently  seen  at  the  present  day  in  the  East. 

The  orientals,  when  engaged  in  conversation,  are  very  candid 
and  mild,  and  do  not  feel  themselves  at  liberty  directly  to  contra- 
dict the  person  with  whom  they  are  conversing,  although  they 
may  at  the  same  time  be  conscious,  that  he  is  telling  them  false- 
hoods. The  ancient  Hebrews  in  particular  very  rarely  used  any 
terms  of  reproach  more  severe  than  those  of  'jDiu  adversary  or  oppo- 
ser,  raca,  contemptible,  and  sometimes  bi2  fool,  an  expres- 
sion, which  means  a  wicked  man  or  an  atheist,  Job  2:  10.  Ps. 
14:  1.  Is.  32:  6.  Matt.  5:  22.  16:  23.  Tanchuma  v.  2.  xvm.  4. 
When  any  thing  was  said,  which  was  not  acceptable,  the  dissatisfi- 
ed person  replied  it  is  enough,  ^7  tDb  S^,  havov  latv,  Deut.  3: 
26.  Luke  22:  38. 

The  formula  of  assent  or  affirmation  was  as  follows;  ov  e Inag, 
rnra^T  thou  hast  said,  or  thou  hast  rightly  said.  We  are  inform- 
ed by  the  traveller  Aryda,  that  this  is  the  prevailing  mode  of  a 
person's  expressing  his  assent  or  affirmation  to  this  day,  in  the  vi- 


196        §  181.   TREATMENT  OF  THE  JEWS  TO  STRANGERS. 


cinity  of  Mount  Lebanon,  especially  where  he  does  not  not  wish  to 
assert  any  thing  in  express  terms.  This  explains  the  answer  of 
the  Saviour  to  the  high  priest  Caiaphas  in  Matt.  26:  64.  when  he 
was  asked,  whether  he  was  the  Christ  the  Son  of  God,  and  replied 
av  tijiag,  thou  hast  said. 

To  spit  in  company  in  a  room,  which  was  covered  with  a  car- 
pet, was  an  indication  of  great  rusticity  of  manners  ;  but  in  case 
there  was  no  carpet,  it  was  not  accounted  a  fault  in  a  person,  pro- 
vided he  spit  in  the  corner  of  the  room.  The  expressions,  there- 
fore, in  Deuteronomy,  25:  7 — 9.  viz.  *P3£>S  rtg^l  and  she  shall 
spit  in  his  face,  are  to  be  understood  literally,  the  more  so  on  this 
account,  because  in  other  places,  where  spitting,  buffeting,  &x. 
are  mentioned,  they  occur  under  circumstances,  where  there  ex- 
isted a  great  excitement  of  feeling,  and  because  there  are  not 
wanting  instances,  of  even  greater  rudeness  and  violence,  than  that 
of  spitting  in  one's  face,  Matt.  26:  67.  Mark  14:  65.  comp.  1  K. 
22:  24.  Is.  57:  4.  Ezek.  2:  6.  25:  6.  2  Sam.  16:  6,  7.  The  orien- 
tals, as  is  very  well  known,  are  fond  of  taking  a  nap  at  noon,  to 
which  they  are  strongly  invited  by  the  oppressive  heat  of  their  cli- 
mate, 2  Sam.  4:  5.  11:  2.  Matt.  13:  25.  The  phrase,  to  cover  one's 
feet,  is  used  in  certain  instances  to  express  the  custom  of  retiring 
to  rest  or  sleeping  at  this  time,  Judg.  3:  24.  1  Sam.  24:  4. 

§  181.  Treatment  of  the  Jews  to  Strangers. 

Moses  inculcated  and  enforced,  by  numerous  and  by  powerful 
considerations,  as  well  as  by  various  examples  of  benevolent  hos-  . 
pitality,  mentioned  in  the  book  of  Genesis,  the  exhibition  of  kind- 
ness and  humanity  to  strangers.  There  were  two  classes  of  per- 
wsons,  who  in  reference  to  this  subject,  were  denominated  strangers, 
.  One  class  were  those,  who,  whether  Hebrews  or  foreign- 
ers, were  destitute  of  a  home,  in  Hebrew  btldlR  The  others 
were  persons,  who,  though  not  natives,  had  a  home  in  Palestine ; 
the  latter  were  t**"^  strangers  or  foreigners  in  a  strict  sense  of 
the  word.  Both  of  these  classes,  according  to  the  civil  code  6% 
Moses  were  to  be  treated  with  kindness,  and  were  to  enjoy  the 
same  rights  with  other  citizens,  Lev.  19.  33,  34.  24:  16,  22.  Num. 
9:  14.  15:  14.  Deut.  10:  18.  23:  8.  24:  17.  27:  19. 

In  the  earlier  periods  of  the  Hebrew  state,  persons  who  were 


§  182.  THE  POOR  AND  BEGGARS.  197 

natives  of  another  country,  but  who  had  come,  either  from  choice 
or  necessity,  to  take  up  their  residence  among  the  Hebrews,  ap- 
pear to  have  been  placed  in  favourable  circumstances.  At  a  later 
period,  viz.  in  the  reigns  of  David  and  Solomon,  they  were  com- 
pelled to  labour  on  the  religious  edifices  which  were  erected  by 
those  princes  ;  as  we  may  learn  from  such  passages  as  these, 
"  And  Solomon  numbered  all  the  strangers  that  were  in  the  land  of  is- 
rael,  after  the  numbering  wherewith  David  his  father  had  numbered 
them  ;  and  they  were  found  an  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  and  three 
thousand  and  six  hundred;  and  he  set  threescore  and  ten  thousand  of 
them  to  be  bearers  of  burdens'1  etc.  see  1  Chron.  2*2:  2.  2Chron. 
2:  1,  16,  17.  The  exaction  of  such  laborious  services  from  fo- 
reigners was  probably  limited  to  those,  who  had  been  taken  pri- 
soners in  war ;  and  who,  according  to  the  rights  of  war  as  they 
were  understood  at  that  period,  could  be  justly  employed  in  any 
offices,  however  low  and  however  laborious,  which  the  conquer- 
er  thought  proper  to  impose.  In  the  time  of  Christ,  the  degen- 
erate Jews  did  not  find  it  convenient  to  render  to  the  strangers 
from  a  foreign  country  those  deeds  of  kindness  and  humanity, 
which  were  not  only  their  due,  but  which  were  demanded  in  their 
behalf  by  the  law  of  Moses.  They  were  in  the  habit  of  under- 
standing by  the  word  3H  neighbour,  their  friends  merely,  and  ac- 
cordingly restricted  the  exercise  of  their  benevolence  by  the  same 
narrow  limits,  that  bounded  in  this  case  their  interpretation ;  con- 
trary as  both  were  to  the  spirit  of  those  passages,  which  have  been 
adduced  above,  Lev.  19:  18. 

§  182.  The  Poor  and  Beggars. 

Moses,  as  may  be  learnt,  by  consulting  the  references  in  the 
preceding  section,  made  abundant  provision  for  the  poor,  but  it 
does  not  appear,  that  he  says  any  thing  in  respect  te  beggars.  We 
find  the  first  express  mention  of  mendicants  in  the  Psalms,  see 
Ps.  109:  10.  In  the  parts  of  the  Hebrew  Scriptures,  which  were 
written  subsequently,  the  mention  of  them  is  quite  frequent.  In 
the  time  of  Christ,  mendicants  were  found  sitting  in  the  streets, 
at  the  doors  of  the  rich,  at  the  gates  of  the  temple,  and  likewise, 
as  we  have  reason  to  believe,  at  the  entrance  of  synagogues, 
Mark  10:  46.  Luke  16:  20.  Acts  3:  2.    Sometimes  food  and  some- 


19S 


§  183.   LEVITICAL  DEFILEMENTS. 


times  money  was  presented  to  them,  Matt.  26:  9.  Luke  16:  21.  We 
have  no  reason  to  suppose,  that  there  existed  in  the  time  of  Christ 
that  class  of  persons  called  vagrant  beggars,  who  present  their  sup- 
plications for  alms  from  door  to  door,  and  who  are  found  at  the 
present  day  in  the  East,  although  less  frequently  than  in  the  coun- 
tries of  Europe.  That  the  custom  of  seeking  alms  by  sounding  a 
trumpet  or  horn,  which  prevails  among  a  class  of  Mohammedan 
monastics,  called  Kalender  or  Karendal,  prevailed  also  in  the 
time  of  Christ,  may  be  inferred  from  Matt.  6:  2  ;  where  the  verb 
occ\tii£oj  possesses  the  shade  of  signification,  that  would  be  at- 
tached to  a  corresponding  word  in  the  Hiphil  form  of  the  Hebrew, 
and  is  to  be  rendered  transitively,  as  is  the  case  with  many  other 
verbs  in  the  New  Testament,  1  Cor.  1  :  20.  3:6.  15:  1.  etc. 
There  is  one  thing  characteristic  of  those  orientals,  who  are  re- 
duced to  the  disagreeable  necessity  of  following  the  vocation  of 
mendicants,  which  is  worthy  of  being  mentioned  ;  they  do  not  ap- 
peal to  the  pity  or  to  the  alms-giving  spirit,  but  to  the  justice  of 
their  benefactors,  Job  22:  7.  31:  16.  Prov.  3:  27,  28.  21:  21.  Ps. 
24:  5.  Eccles.  4:  1.  14:  13,  14.  Matt.  6:  1.  Koran  17:  28.  30:  37. 
70:  24.  Buxtorf.  Lexic.  Chal.  Talmud.  Rabb.  p.  1821. 

§  183.  Levitical  Defilements. 

The  Defilements,  which  kept  a  person  back  not  only  from  sa- 
cred scenes  and  duties,  but  from  all  intercourse  with  other  per- 
sons, were  recognized,  and  had  an  existence  among  the  Hebrews 
before,  as  well  as  after  the  time  of  Moses.  They  had  an  exist- 
ence in  truth,  at  that  very  early  period,  not  only  among  the 
Hebrews,  but  also  among  many  other  nations.  If  a  man  were  de- 
filed or  rendered  unclean  by  disease,  it  so  happened,  because  the 
disease  was  considered  contagious.  Tf  he  were  defiled  from  any 
other  cause,  that  cause,  whatever  it  might  be,  was  something, 
which  was  associated  with  ideas  of  impurity,  with  dislike,  or  ab- 
horrence in  the  minds  of  the  people.  Moses  defined  more  accu- 
rately, than  had  previously  been  done,  those  things  to  which  it 
was  the  custom  to  attach  the  opprobrium  of  communicating  un- 
cleanness ;  and  in  order  to  increase  and  perpetuate  the  separa- 
tion which  existed  between  the  Hebrews  and  the  Gentile  nations, 
and  to  render  the  former  less  liable  to  seduction  to  idolatry,  he 


§  183.   LEVITICAL  DEFILEMENTS. 


199 


appointed  and  regulated  the  ceremonies,  by  which  unclean  per- 
sons might  be  purified  and  restored  back  again  to  the  privileges 
of  the  tabernacle  and  to  the  intercourse  of  friends.  If  a  person, 
who  was  defiled  or  unclean,  touched  another,  he  rendered  the 
other  person  as  unclean  as  himself,  and  both  were  excluded  from 
the  tabernacle  and  temple,  Lev.  13:  3. 

Those  persons,  who,  according  to  the  Levitical  law,  were  un- 
clean were, 

I.  Persons  who  were  afflicted  with  the  leprosy.  They  were 
not  permitted  to  dwell  within  the  limits  of  either  cities  or  villages. 
They  were  clad  in  a  rent  and  miserable  garment,  and  were  com- 
pelled to  cry  out  to  every  one,  whom  they  met,  "  Unclean,  unclean  !" 
Lev.  13:  45.  Num.  5:  2.  et  seq. 

II.  The  Gonorrhea  or  seed-jlux,  whether  benigna  or  virulen- 
ta,  was  a  source  of  uncleanness  to  any  person,  who  was  the  sub- 
ject of  it,  Lev.  15:  3. 

III.  Whoever  had  an  emissio  seminis,  even  in  legitimate  in- 
tercourse, was  to  be  unclean  till  the  evening,  Lev.  15:  16 — 22. 

IV.  Women  after  the  birth  of  a  son  were  unclean  for  seven, 
and  after  the  birth  of  a  daughter,  for  fourteen  days.  And  in  case 
the  infant  was  a  manchild,  they  were  debarred  during  the  thirty 
three  following  days  from  the  tabernacle  and  temple,  and  from 
the  sacrifices ;  in  case  the  child  was  a  female,  they  were  thus  de- 
barred during  the  sixty  six  following  days,  Lev.  12:  1 — 6.  15: 
16—23. 

V.  Women,  during  the  period  of  the  menses,  and  when  labour- 
ing under  the  disease  denominated  an  issue  of  blood,  were  unclean, 
Lev.  15:  19—21.  Matt.  9:  20. 

VI.  He,  who  had  touched  the  corpse  of  a  man,  or  the  carcase 
of  an  animal,  a  sepulchre,  or  the  bones  of  a  dead  person;  like- 
wise he,  who  had  been  in  the  tent,  or  in  the  room,  or  house  of 
the  dying  or  the  dead,  were  both  of  them  unclean  for  seven  days. 
Priests  were  rendered  unclean  by  merely  wearing  the  badges  of 
mourning;  and  for  that  reason  they  never  assumed  them,  except 
in  case  of  the  death  of  parents,  children,  brothers,  or  unmarried 
sisters  residing  in  their  father's  house.  For  the  same  reason, 
viz.  the  circumstance  of  their  communicating  uncleanness,  the 
habiliments  of  mourning  were  altogether  interdicted  to  the  high 
priest,  Lev.  5:  2.  11:  8—11,  24—31.  21:  1—5,  10,  11.  Num.  19: 
11—15. 


t 


200 

CHAPTER  XII. 

OF  DISEASES. 

§  184.  Of  Diseases  generally. 

In  the  primitive  ages  of  the  world,  diseases,  in  consequence  of 
the  great  simplicity  in  the  mode  of  living,  were  but  few  in  num- 
ber. At  a  subsequent  period  the  number  was  increased,  by  the 
accession  of  diseases,  that  had  been  previously  unknown.  Epide- 
mics also,  diseases  somewhat  peculiar  in  their  character  and  still 
more  fearful  in  their  consequences,  soon  made  their  appearance, 
some  infesting  one  period  of  life,  and  some  another,  some  limiting 
their  ravages  to  one  country,  and  some  to  another.  The  proprie- 
ty of  this  statement  in  regard  to  the  original  extent  and  subse- 
quent increase  of  diseases  in  general,  and  to  epidemics,  will  re- 
commend itself  to  every  mind,  that  makes  even  but  small  preten- 
sions to  attainments  in  knowledge. 

Prosper  Alpinus,  in  his  Book  de  Medicina  Aegyptiaca,  Lib.  I. 
c.  13.  p.  13.  mentions  the  diseases  which  are  prevalent  in  Egypt, 
and  in  other  countries  in  the  same  climate.  They  are  ophthalmies, 
leprosies,  inflammations  of  the  brain,  pains  in  the  joints,  the  her- 
nia, the  stone  in  the  reins  and  bladder,  the  phthisic,  hectic, 
pestilential,  and  tertian  fevers,  weakness  of  the  stomach,  obstruc- 
tions in  the  liver,  and  the  spleen.  Of  these  diseases,  ophthalmies, 
pestilential  fevers,  and  inflammations  of  the  brain  are  epidemics ; 
the  others  are  of  a  different  character. 

Every  region,  and  every  age  of  the  world,  has  been  in  the  ha- 
bit of  attributing  certain  diseases  to  certain  causes,  and  of  assigning 
names  to  those  diseases,  derived  from  the  supposed  origin  or  cause, 
whether  it  were  a  real  or  only  an  imaginary  one.  The  names 
thus  given  have  been  in  many  instances  retained  both  by  the  vul- 
gar and  by  men  of  medical  science,  after  different  causes  had  been 
developed  and  assigned  to  the  diseases  in  question.  In  respect  to 
this  subject,  we  know,  that  there  are  certain  words  of  very  an- 
cient standing,  which  are  used  to  express  diseases  of  some  kind  or 


§  185.  THE  DISEASE  OF  THE  PHILISTINES.  201 

other ;  it  will,  therefore,  be  a  prominent  inquiry  with  us  to  learn 
what  the  diseases  are,  that  were  designed  to  be  expressed  by  those 
words.  And  in  order  to  clear  the  way  for  this  inquiry,  the  re- 
mark may  be  made  here,  the  truth  of  which  every  one  will  be 
willing  to  confess,  that  the  ancients  were  accustomed  to  attribute 
the  origin  of  diseases,  particularly  of  those,  whose  natural  cause 
they  did  not  understand,  to  the  immediate  interference  of  the  De- 
ity. Hence  they  were  denominated  by  the  ancient  Greeks 
ficcGTiyig  or  the  scourges  of  God,  a  word  which  is  employed  in  the 
New  Testament  by  the  physician  Luke  himself,  chap.  7:  21  ;  and 
also  in  Mark  5:  29,  34. 

§  185.  Disease  of  the  Philistines  mentioned  in  1  Sam.  v.  vi. 

The  disease  of  the  Philistines,  which  is  mentioned  in  1  Sam. 
5:  6,  12.  6:  18.  is  denominated  in  the  Hebrew  D^cy.  This  word 
occurs  likewise  in  Deut.  28:  27.  and  it  is  worthy  of  remark  that  it 
is  every  where  explained,  in  the  Keri  or  marginal  readings,  by 
the  Aramean  word  cnhtt ;  an  expression,  which  in  the  Syriac 
dialect,  where  it  occurs  under  the  forms  fj.— and  |^a>^,  means 
the  fundament,  and  likewise  the  effort  which  is  made  in  an  eva- 
cuation of  the  system.  The  authors,  therefore,  of  the  reading  in 
the  Keri  appear  to  have  assented  to  the  opinion  of  Josephus,  ex- 
pressed in  Antiq.  VI.  1.1;  and  to  have  understood  by  this  word 

the  dysentery.  The  corresponding  Arabic  words,  XJJlC, 
mean  a  swelling  on  the  anterior  part  of  the  verenda  in  females, 
answering  somewhat  in  its  nature  to  the  hernia  in  men  ;  a  disease, 
consequently,  very  different  from  the  hemorrhoids,  which  some 
persons  understand  to  be  meant  by  the  word  B^?E3»i  Among  oth- 
er objections,  it  may  also  be  observed  that  the  mice,  which  are 
mentioned  not  only  in  the  Hebrew  text,  1  Sam.  6:  5,  12.  16:  18. 
but  also  in  the  Alexandrine  and  Vulgate  versions,  1  Sam.  5:  6. 
6:  5,  11,  18.  are  an  objection  to  understanding  the  hemorrhoids 
by  the  word  under  consideration,  since,  if  that  were  in  fact  the 
disease,  we  see  no  reason,  why  mice  should  have  been  presented 
as  an*offering  to  avert  the  anger  of  the  God  of  Israel. 

Lichtenstein,  a  writer  in  Eichhorn's  Bibliothek,  Band  VI.  p. 
26 


202 


§.  187.  FALSE  CONCEPTION. 


407 — 466.  has  given  a  solution,  which  is  free  from  the  difficulties, 
that  attended  all  preceding  ones.  The  word  fi^as'? ,  which  is 
rendered  mice,  he  supposes  to  mean  venomous  solpugas,  which 
belong  to  the  spider  class,  and  yet  are  so  large,  and  so  similar  in 
their  form  to  mice,  as  to  admit  of  their  being  denominated  by  the 
same  word.  These  venomous  animals  destroy  and  live  upon 
scorpions.  They  also  bite  men,  whenever  they  can  have  an 
opportunity,  particularly  in  the  fundament  and  the  verenda.  Their 
bite  causes  swellings,  fatal  in  their  consequences,  which  are  call- 
ed in  Hebrew  aphalim,  b^S? ,  see  Pliny,  Hist.  Nat.  Lib.  XXIX.  4. 
The  probable  supposition  then  is,  that  solpugas  were  at  this  time 
multiplied  among  the  Philistines  by  the  special  Providence  of  God, 
and  that,  being  very  venomous,  they  were  the  means  of  destroying 
many  individuals. 

§  186.  The  Disease  of  King  Jehoram. 

King  Jehoram,  who  was  clothed  with  the  double  infamy  of  be- 
ing at  once  an  idolater  and  the  murderer  of  his  brethren,  was  dis- 
eased internally  for  two  years,  as  had  been  predicted  by  the  pro- 
phet Elijah  ;  and  his  bowels  are  said  to  have  fallen  out  by  reason 
of  his  sickness,  2  Chron.  21:  12 — 15,  18,  19.  This  disease  beyond 
all  doubt  was  the  dysentery,  and  though  its  continuance  so  long  a 
time  was  very  uncommon,  it  is  by  no  means  a  thing  unheard  of. 
The  intestines  in  time  become  ulcerated  by  the  operation  of  this 
disease.  Not  only  blood  is  discharged  from  them,  but  a  sort  of 
mucous  excrement  likewise  is  thrown  off,  and  sometimes  small 
pieces  of  the  flesh  itself ;  so  that  apparently  the  intestines  are  emit- 
ted or  fall  out,  which  is  sufficient  to  account  for  the  expressions, 
that  are  used  in  the  statement  of  king  Jehoram's  disease ;  Mead, 
Medic.  Sacr.  c.  IV. 

§  187.  False  Conception,  EvnvtvpaTwoig. 

False  conception  or  pregnancy,  in  Greek  evnvsvfjiaTwaig,  in 
Latin  mola  ventosa,  does  not  appear  to  have  been  so  unfre- 
quent  among  the  Hebrew  women,  as  among  those  of  Europe.  If 
it  had  been  so,  it  probably  would  not  have  made  its  appearance 
on  the  pages  of  Hebrew  writers  in  the  shape  of  a  figure  of  speech. 
The  fact,  to  which  I  allude,  is  this.    The  Hebrews  were  accus- 


§  188.   COUNTRIES  WHERE  THE  LEPROSY  PREVAILS.  203 

tomed  to  expect  after  calamities  a  state  of  things  quite  the  reverse, 
viz.  a  season  of  prosperity  and  joy.  They  accordingly,  compar- 
ed a  season  of  misfortune  and  calamity  to  the  pains  of  a  woman  in 
travail,  but  the  better  destiny,  which  followed,  they  compared  to 
the  joy,  which  commonly  succeeds  childbirth,  Is.  13:  8.  26:  17. 
2  K.  19:  3.  Jer.  4:  31.  13:  21.  22:  23.  30:  6.  Mic.  4:  9,  10.  John 
16:  21,  22.  But  they  carry  the  comparison  still  further.  Those 
days  of  adversity,  which  were  succeeded  by  adversity  still,  those 
scenes  of  sorrow,  which  were  followed  only  by  additional  sorrow, 
were  likened  to  women,  who  laboured  under  that  disease  of  the 
system,  which  caused  them  to  exhibit  the  appearance  and  endure 
the  pains  of  a  state  of  pregnancy,  when  that  apparent  state  of  preg- 
nancy resulted  either  in  nothing,  or  in  the  parturition  of  a  monster, 
Is.  26:  18.  Ps.  7:  14. 

§  188.  Countries  where  the  Leprosy  prevails. 

The  Leprosy  prevails  in  Egypt,  in  the  southern  part  of  Up- 
per Asia,  and  in  fact  may  be  considered  a  disease  endemic  in 
warm  climates  generally.  Accordingly,  it  is  not  at  all  surprising, 
if  many  of  the  Hebrews,  when  they  left  Egypt,  were  infected 
with  it ;  but  the  assertion  of  Manetho,  that  they  were  all  thus  in- 
fected, and  were  in  consequence  of  the  infection  driven  out  by 
force,  in  which  he  is  precipitately  and  carelessly  followed  by  Stra- 
bo,  by  Tacitus,  by  Justin  Trogus,  and  by  others  more  recent,  is  a 
mere  dream,  without  any  adequate  foundation.  The  disease,  it  is 
true,  was  a  very  severe  and  a  very  repulsive  one,  and  was  re- 
garded by  the  ancients,  as  a  marked  exhibition  of  the  justice  and 
the  wrath  of  God.  It  was  denominated  by  the  Hebrews  the  stroke 
or  wound,  S^Sm,  r)3>^£  252  ,  i.  e.  by  supplying  the  ellipsis,  the  stroke 
or  wound  of  the  Lord,  Num.  12:  1 — 10.  2  K.  5:  1,  et  seq.  15:  5. 
2  Chron.  26:  16,  et  seq.  Herodot.  I.  138.  But  certainly  the 
kings  of  Egypt,  who,  according  to  the  unanimous  testimony  of  the 
ancients,  could  correctly  estimate  the  value  of  a  numerous  popu- 
lation, acted  a  strange  and  unaccountable  part,  if  it  be  a  fact,  that 
on  account  of  a  disease,  which  might- be  called  one  of  the  attri- 
butes of  the  country  and  climate,  they  expelled  from  the  very 
heart  of  the  nation  more  than  two  millions  of  people. 


204 


§  189.  PROGRESS  OF  LEPROSY. 


§  189.  Beginnings  and  Progress  of  Leprosy. 

The  leprosy  exhibits  itself  on  the  exteriour  surface  of  the 
skin,  but  it  infects,  at  the  same  time,  the  marrow  and  the  bones  ; 
so  much  so  that  the  furthest  joints  in  the  system  gradually  lose 
their  powers,  and  the  members  fall  together  in  such  a  manner,  as 
to  give  the  body  a  mutilated  and  dreadful  appearance.  From 
these  circumstances,  there  can  be  no  doubt,  that  the  disease  ori- 
ginates, and  spreads  its  ravages  internally,  before  it  makes  its  ap- 
pearance on  the  external  parts  of  the  body.  Indeed  we  have  rea- 
son to  believe,  that  it  is  concealed  in  the  internal  parts  of  the 
system  a  number  of  years,  for  instance,  in  infants  commonly  till 
they  arrive  at  the  age  of  puberty,  and  in  adults,  as  many  as  three 
or  four  years,  till  at  last  it  gives  the  fearful  indications  on  the 
shin  of  having  already  gained  a  deep-rooted  and  permanent  ex- 
istence. 

Its  progress  subsequently  to  its  appearance  on  the  external 
surface  of  the  body  is  far  from  being  rapid  ;  in  a  number  of  years 
it  arrives  at  its  middle,  and  in  a  number  after  to  its  final  state.  A 
person,  who  is  leprous  from  his  nativity  may  live  fifty  years ;  one, 
who  in  after  life  is  infected  with  it,  may  live  twenty  years,  but 
they  will  be  such  years  of  dreadful  misery,  as  rarely  fall  to  the  lot  of 
man  in  any  other  situation. 

The  appearance  of  the  disease  externally,  is  not  always  the 
same.  The  spot  is  commonly  small,  resembling  in  its  appearance 
the  small  red  spot  that  would  be  the  consequence  of  a  puncture 
from  a  needle,  or  the  pustules  of  a  ringworm.  The  spots  for  the 
most  part  make  their  appearance  very  suddenly,  especially  if  the 
infected  person,  at  the  period  when  the  disease  shows  itself  ex- 
ternally, happens  to  be  in  great  fear,  or  to  be  intoxicated  with 
anger,  Num.  1*2:  10.  2Chron.26:  19.  They  commonly  exhibit 
themselves  in  the  first  instance,  on  the  face,  about  the  nose  and 
eyes;  they  gradually  increase  in  size  for  a  number  of  years,  till 
they  become,  as  respects  the  extent  of  surface  which  they  em- 
brace on  the  skin,  as  large  as  a  pea  or  bean.  They  are  then  called 
nNiz).  The  white  spot  or  pustule,  mrja ,  morphea  alba,  and  also 
the  dark  spot,  nhSO ,  morphea  nigra,  are  indications  of  the  exist- 
ence of  the  real-leprosy,  Lev.  13:  2,  39.  14:  56.    From  these  it  is 


§  189.  PROGRESS  OF  LEPROSY. 


205 


necessary  to  distinguish  the  spot,  which,  whatever  resemblance 
there  may  be  in  form,  is  so  different  in  its  effects  called  Bohak 
prjis ,  and  also  the  harmless  sort  of  scab,  which  occurs  under  the 
word,  nh5D73 ,  Lev.  13:  6—8,  29. 

Moses,  in  the  thirteenth  chapter  of  Leviticus,  lays  down  very 
explicit  rules  for  the  purpose  of  distinguishing  between  those 
spots,  which  are  proofs  of  the  actual  existence  of  the  leprosy,  and 
those  spots,  which  are  harmless  and  result  from  some  other  cause. 
Those  spots  which  are  the  genuine  effects  and  marks  of  the  lep- 
rosy, gradually  dilate  themselves,  till  at  length  they  cover  the 
whole  body.  Not  only  the  skin  is  subject  to  a  total  destruction, 
but  the  whole  body  is  affected  in  every  part.  The  pain  it  is  true, 
is  not  very  great,  but  there  is  a  great  debility  of  the  system,  and 
great  uneasiness  and  grief,  so  much  so,  as  almost  to  drive  the  vic- 
tim of  the  disease  to  self-destruction,  Job  7:  15. 

There  are  four  kinds  of  the  real  leprosy.  The  first  kind  is  of 
so  virulent  and  powerful  a  nature,  that  it  separates  the  joints  and 
limbs,  and  mutilates  the  body  in  the  most  awful  manner.  The 
second  is  the  white  leprosy,  haHuL  The  third  is  the  black  leprosy 
or  Psora,  fiTO,  nteaa»  frns  pftip,  O^ty  neV^,  Deut.  28: 

27,  35.  Lev.  21:  20—22.  The  fourth  description  of  leprosy  is  the 
alopecia,  or  red  leprosy. 

The  person,  who  is  infected  with  the  leprosy,  however  long  the 
disease  may  be  in  passing  through  its  several  stages,  is  at  last  ta- 
ken away  suddenly,  and  for  the  most  part  unexpectedly.  But  the 
evils,  which  fall  upon  the  living  leper,  are  not  terminated  by  the 
event  of  his  death.  The  disease  is  to  a  certain  extent  hereditary, 
and  is  transmitted  down  to  the  third  and  fourth  generation  ;  to 
this  fact  there  seems  to  be  an  allusion  in  Exod.  20:  4 — 6.  3:  7. 
Deut.  5:  9.  24:  8,  9.  If  any  one  should  undertake  to  say,  that  in 
the  fourth  generation  it  is  not  the  real  leprosy,  still  it  will  not  be 
denied,  there  is  something,  which  bears  no  little  resemblance  to 
it,  in  the  shape  of  defective  teeth,  of  fetid  breath,  and  a  diseased 
hue.  Leprous  persons,  notwithstanding  the  deformities  and  mu- 
tilation of  their  bodies,  give  no  special  evidence  of  a  liberation 
from  the  strength  of  the  sensual  passions,  and  cannot  be  influenc- 
ed to  abstain  from  the  procreation  of  children,  when  at  the  same 
time  they  clearly  foresee  the  misery,  of  which  their  offspring  will 
be  the  inheritors.    The  disease  of  leprosy  is  communicated  not 


206 


$  189.   NOTE  I.  LEPROSY  CALLED  BOHAK. 


only  by  transmission  from  the  parents  to  the  children,  and  not  on- 
ly by  sexual  cohabitation,  but  also  by  much  intercourse  with  the 
leprous  person  in  any  way  whatever.  Whence  Moses  acted  the 
part  of  a  wise  legislator  in  making  those  laws,  which  have  come 
down  to  us,  concerning  the  inspection  and  separation  of  leprous 
persons.  The  object  of  these  laws  will  appear  peculiarly  worthy, 
when  it  is  considered,  that  they  were  designed,  not  wantonly  to 
fix  the  charge  of  being  a  leper  upon  an  innocent  person,  and  thus 
to  impose  upon  him  those  restraints  and  inconveniences,  which 
the  truth  of  such  a  charge  naturally  implies  ;  but  to  ascertain  in 
the  fairest  and  most  satisfactory  manner,  and  to  separate  those, 
and  those  only,  who  were  truly  and  really  leprous.  As  this  was 
the  prominent  object  of  his  laws,  that  have  come  down  to  us  on 
this  subject,  viz.  to  secure  a  fair  and  impartial  decision  on  a  ques- 
tion of  this  kind,  he  has  not  mentioned  those  signs  of  leprosy, 
which  admitted  of  no  doubt,  but  those  only,  which  might  be  the 
subject  of  contention ;  and  left  it  to  the  priests,  who  also  fulfilled 
the  office  of  physicians,  to  distinguish  between  the  really  leprous, 
and  those  who  had  only  the  appearance  of  being  such.  In  the 
opinion  of  Hensler,  expressed  in  his  Geschichte  der  abendlandischen 
Aussatzes,  p.  273.  Moses,  in  the  laws  to  which  we  have  alluded, 
discovers  a  great  knowledge  of  the  disease.  Every  species  of 
leprosy  is  not  equally  malignant ;  the  most  virulent  species  defies 
the  skill  and  power  of  physicians.  That  which  is  less  so,  if  taken 
at  its  commencement,  can  be  healed.  But  in  the  latter  case  also, 
if  the  disease  has  been  of  long  continuance,  there  is  no  remedy. 


Note  I.  On  Bohak  as  distinct  from  infectious  Leprosy. 

[We  find  mention,  in  the  rules  laid  down  by  Moses  for  the  pur- 
pose of  ascertaining  the  true  tokens  of  leprosy,  of  a  cutaneous  dis- 
order, which  is  denominated  by  hirn  bohak  pnz,  and  of  which 
there  is  a  slight  mention  in  the  above  section.  It  was  thought  by 
the  translator,  that  it  might  be  interesting  to  the  reader  to  have 
some  further  account  of  this  disorder,  and  he  has  accordingly  in- 
troduced here  the  answer  of  Niebuhr,  found  at  page  135  of  his 
Description  of  Arabia,  to  the  inquiry  of  Michaelis  on  this  subject. 
The  words  of  Moses,  which  may  be  found  in  Leviticus  13:  38,  39, 
are  as  follows  ;  "  If  a  man  or  woman  have  white  spots  on  the  ski?if 
and  the  priest  see,  that  the  colour  of  these  spots  is  faint  and  pale ;  it  is 


§  189.  NOTE  II.  ON  THE  LEPROSY  OF  GUADALOUPE.  207 

in  this  case,  the  Bohak,  that  has  broken  out  on  the  shin,  and  they  are 
clean."  A  person,  accordingly,  who  was  attacked  with  this  dis- 
ease, the  Bohak,  was  not  declared  unclean,  and  the  reason  of  it 
was,  that  it  is  not  only  harmless  in  itself,  but  is  free  from  that  in- 
fectious and  hereditary  character,  which  belongs  to  the  true  lep- 
rosy. 

Says  Mr  Niebuhr ;  "  The  Bohak  is  neither  infectious  nor 
dangerous.  A  black  boy  of  Mocha,  who  was  attacked  with  this 
sort  of  leprosy,  had  white  spots  here  and  there  on  his  body.  It 
was  said,  that  the  use  of  sulphur  had  been  for  some  time  of  ser- 
vice to  this  boy,  but  had  not  altogether  removed  the  disease."  He 
then  adds  the  following  extract  from  the  papers  of  a  Dr  Foster, 
"  May  15th,  1763,  I  myself  saw  a  case  of  the  Bohak  in  a  Jew  at 
Mocha.  The  spots  in  this  disease  are  of  unequal  size.  They 
have  no  shining  appearance,  nor  are  they  perceptibly  elevated 
above  the  skin ;  and  they  do  not  change  the  colour  of  the  hair. 
Their  colour  is  an  obscure  white  or  somewhat  reddish.  The  rest 
of  the  skin  of  this  patient  was  blacker  than  that  of  the  people  of 
the  country  in  general,  but  the  spots  were  not  so  white,  as  the 
skin  of  an  European  when  not  sunburnt.  The  spots,  in  this  spe- 
cies of  leprosy,  do  not  appear  on  the  hands,  nor  about  the  navel, 
but  on  the  neck  and  face ;  not  however  on  that  part  of  the  head, 
where  the  hair  grows  very  thick.  They  gradually  spread,  and 
continue  sometimes  only  about  two  months  ;  but  in  some  cases,  in- 
deed as  long  as  two  years,  and  then  disappear,  by  degrees,  of 
themselves.  This  disorder,  is  neither  infectious  nor  hereditary, 
nor  does  it  occasion  any  inconvenience."  "  That  all  this,"  re- 
marks Michaelis,  "  should  still  be  found  exactly  to  hold  at  the  dis- 
tance of  three  thousand  five  hundred  years  from  the  time  of  Mo- 
ses, ought  certainly  to  gain  some  credit  to  his  laws  even  with 
those,  who  will  not  allow  them  to  be  of  divine  authority,"  see 
Commentaries  on  the  Laws  of  Moses,  Smith's  Translation,  Vol.  Ill, 
p.  283.  art.  210.] 

Note  II.  On  the  Leprosy  of  Guadaloupe. 

[Michaelis,  in  discussing  the  subject  of  leprosies,  expresses  his 
gratitude  to  God,  that  the  Lepra  Arabum,  as  it  is  termed  by  the 
learned,  is  known  to  the  physicians  of  Germany,  only  from  books, 
and  by  name.    But  this  disease,  although  it  is  very  unfrequent  in 


208       ^  *89.   NOTE  II.   ON  THE  LEPROSY  OF  GUADALOUPE. 

Europe,  indeed  almost  extinct,  made  its  appearance  about  the 
year  1730  on  the  Western  Continent,  and  spread  its  ravages  among 
the  sugar  islands  of  the  West  Indies,  particularly  Guadaloupe. 
The  inhabitants  of  this  island,  alarmed  and  terrified  at  the  intro- 
duction of  so  pernicious  a  disorder  among  them,  petitioned  the 
Court  of  France  to  send  to  the  island,  persons  qualified  to  institute 
an  inspection  of  those  who  laboured  under  suspicions  of  being  in- 
fected, in  order  that  those  who  were  in  fact  lepers,  might  be  re- 
moved into  lazarettoes. 

31.  Peyssonel,  who  was  sent  to  Guadaloupe  on  this  business, 
writes  as  follows  on  the  third  of  February,  1757.  "  It  is  now 
about  twenty  five  or  thirty  years,  since  a  singular  disease  appear- 
ed on  many  of  the  inhabitants  of  this  island.  Its  commencement 
is  imperceptible.  There  appear  only  some  few  white  spots  on 
the  skin,  which,  in  the  Whites,  are  of  a  blackish  red  colour,  and 
in  the  Blacks,  of  a  copper  red.  At  first,  they  are  attended  nei- 
ther with  pain  nor  any  sort  of  inconvenience  ;  but  no  means  what- 
ever will  remove  them.  The  disease  imperceptibly  increases, 
and  continues  for  many  years  to  manifest  itself  more  and  more. 
The  spots  became  larger,  and  spread  over  the  skin  of  the  whole 
body  indiscriminately ;  sometimes  a  little  elevated,  though  flat. 
When  the  disease  advances,  the  upper  part  of  the  nose  swells,  the 
nostrils  become  enlarged,  and  the  nose  itself  soft.  Tumours  ap- 
pear on  the  jaws ;  the  eye-brows  swell :  the  ears  become  thick  ; 
the  points  of  the  fingers,  as  also  the  feet  and  toes,  swell  ;  the  nails 
become  scaly  ;  the  joints  of  the  hands  and  feet  separate,  and  drop 
off.  On  the  palms  of  the  hands,  and  on  the  soles  of  the  feet,  appear 
deep  dry  ulcers,  which  increase  rapidly,  and  then  disappear  again. 
In  short,  in  the  last  stage  of  the  disease,  the  patient  becomes  a 
hideous  spectacle,  and  falls  in  pieces.  These  symptoms  supervene 
by  very  slow  and  successive  steps,  requiring  often  many  years  be- 
fore they  all  occur.  The  patient  suffers  no  violent  pain,  but  feels 
a  sort  of  numbness  in  his  hands  and  feet.  During  the  whole  pe- 
riod of  the  disorder,  those  afflicted  with  it,  experience  no  obstruc- 
tions in  what  are  called  the  Naturalia.  They  eat  and  drink  as 
usual ;  and  even  when  their  fingers  and  toes  mortify,  the  loss  of 
the  mortified  part  is  the  only  consequence  that  ensues  ;  for  the 
wound  heals  of  itself  without  any  medical  treatment  or  applica- 
tion.   When,  however,  the  unfortunate  wretches  come  to  the  last 


§  190.   ON  THE  PESTILENCE. 


209 


period  of  the  disease,  they  are  hideously  disfigured,  and  objects  of 
the  greatest  compassion." 

"  It  has  been  remarked,  that  this  ^horrible  disorder  has,  be- 
sides, some  very  lamentable  properties ;  as,  in  the  first  place,  that 
it  is  hereditary ;  and  hence  some  families  are  more  affected  with 
it  than  others :  secondly,  that  it  is  infectious,  being  propagated  by 
coition,  and  even  by  long  continued  intercourse  :  and  thirdly,  that  it 
is  incurable,  or  at  least  no  means  of  cure  have  hitherto  been  disco- 
vered. Mercurial  medicines,  and  diaphoretics,  and  all  the  usual 
prescriptions  and  plans  of  regimen  for  venereal  complaints,  have 
been  tried,  from  an  idea  that  the  infection  might  be  venereal ;  but 
in  vain  :  for  instead  of  relieving,  they  only  hastened  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  patients.  The  medicines  serviceable  in  the  lues  venerea 
had  no  other  effect  than  to  bring  the  disease  to  its  acme  ;  induc- 
ing all  its  most  formidable  symptoms,  and  making  those  thus  treat- 
ed die  some  years  sooner,  than  other  victims  to  it."] 

§  190.  On  the  Pestilence,  "MfV. 

The  Pestilence,  in  its  effects,  is  equally  terrible  with  the  le- 
prosy, and  is  much  more  rapid  in  its  progress  ;  for  it  terminates  the 
existence  of  those,  who  are  infected  with  it  almost  immediately, 
and  at  the  farthest,  within  three  or  four  days.  The  Gentiles 
were  in  the  habit  of  referring  back  the  pestilence  to  the  agency 
and  interference  of  that  being,  whatever  it  might  be,  whether  idol 
or  spirit,  whom  they  regarded  as  the  divinity.  The  Hebrews  al- 
so every  where  attribute  it  to  the  agency  either  of  God  himself, 
or  of  that  legate  or  angel,  whom  they  denominate  .  We 

are  not,  however,  to  suppose,  that  the  Hebrews,  in  using  these 
expressions,  mean  to  attribute  the  pestilence  to  the  immediate 
, agency  of  God;  nor  would  they  permit  us  to  understand  by  the 
messenger,  who,  they  assure  us,  is  the  agent  in  business  of 
so  disastrous  a  nature,  the  true  and  appropriate  angel  or  legate 
of  Jehovah.  It  is  true,  they  tell  us,  that  God  sends  forth  the  pes- 
tilence, and  that  the  angel  goes  with  it  and  smites  the  people  with 
its  power,  but  let  it  not  be  forgotten,  that  every  angel  is  the 
creature  of  God,  and  that,  in  a  certain  sense,  God  is  the  author  of 
all  things,  and  all  events,  whether  prosperous  or  afflictive,  wheth- 
er good  or  bad.  When  they  make  God  the  author  of  the  pesti- 
27 


210 


§  190.   ON  THE  PESTILENCE. 


lence,  it  is  clear,  they  do  not  mean  to  say,  he  is  the  immediate 
cause  in  so  fearful  a  calamity,  from  the  fact,  that,  in  other  places, 
they  represent  God,  as  the  author  of  moral  evil,  where  they  cer- 
tainly do  not  mean  to  say,  he  is  the  immediate  author  of  such  evil. 
In  a  somewhat  recent  period  of  their  history,  it  cannot  be  denied, 
that  instead  of  making  God  the  author  of  evil,  they  attribute  it  to 
a  malignant  spirit  of  high  origin,  viz.  Satan ;  but  still  they  were 
aware  of  the  origin  of  this  being,  that  he  was  the  creature  of  God 
and  acted  beneath  his  superintendence.  The  difficulty  then  in 
regard  to  their  representations  arises  from  this  source.  God,  in  a 
certain  sense,  is  the  author  of  all  things.  This  is  true.  But  the 
ancient  Hebrews  do  not  appear  to  have  distinguished  with  sufficient 
accuracy  that  liberty  or  permission,  which  is  given  us  in  the 
course  of  Divine  Providence,  to  do  or  not  to  do,  to  do  good  or 
evil,  from  the  direct  and  immediate  agency  of  God  himself,  Deut. 
4:  19.  Josh.  11:  20.  2  Sam.  16:  10.  24:  1.  comp.  1  Chron.  21:  1. 
2K.  17:  14.  Ps.  78:  49 — 51.  In  consequence  of  this  disposition 
to  identify  the  agency  of  God  with  the  actions  of  his  creatures, 
and  to  confound  the  original  with  second  and  subsidiary  causes,  we 
find,  by  consulting  the  Scriptures,  that  they  sometimes  represent 
men,  and  sometimes  animals  or  inanimate  existences,  as  d^fclbto, 
the  messengers,  or  the  angels  of  God ;  and  this  not  only  in  poetry, 
but  likewise  in  prose,  Ps.  34:  7.  104:  4.  Heb.  2:  2.  Acts  7:  53.  12: 
23.  Gal.  3:  19.  comp.  Josephus,  Antiq.  XV.  5.  3. 

This  mode  of  speech  was  so  common,  that  the  Sadducees 
of  a  more  recent  age,  who,  although  they  received  the  Scrip- 
tures with  veneration,  denied  the  existence  of  any  spirits,  inter- 
preted all  the  passages,  (where  mention  is  made  of  angels,)  of 
other  existences,  which  were  employed  by  God  as  instruments, 
and,  as  they  supposed,  were,  from  that  circumstance  merely,  de- 
nominated the  messengers,  or  angels  of  God.  The  Samaritans 
likewise,  as  has  been  shown  by  Reland  (de  Samaritanis,  7 — 9.)  gave 
the  same  perverted  interpretation  to  the  word,  which  is  rendered 
angel.  This  mode  of  speaking  found  its  way  also  among  the 
Syrians,  who  were  in  the  habit  of  calling  diseases  angels,  i.  e.  mes- 
sengers, that  were  sent  to  inflict  punishment  upon  men  ;  and  were 
accustomed  to  denominate  a  sick  man,  one  tempted,  {.  or  tried 

of  God  or  of  his  angel,  Assemani  Bibl.  Orient.  T.  I.  p.  215.  comp. 
2  Cor.  12:  7.    It  is  in  this  way,  that  the  pestilence,  (the  second- 


§  190.  ON  THE  PESTILENCE. 


211 


ary  cause  of  it  being  overlooked,)  is  attributed  directly  to  God, 
Exod.  11:  4—7.  12:  23,  29.  comp.  Ps.  78:  49,  50 ;  also  to  an  an- 
gel,  2  Sam.  24:  15,  16.  who  is  represented  as  slaying  men  with  a 
sword,  and,  in  IChron.  21:  16.  is  described  with  the  additional 
circumstance  of  being  elevated  between  heaven  and  earth.  But 
that  God,  or  the  angel  in  these  instances,  is  merely  the  pestilence 
itself,  the  original  cause  being  put  for  the  effect,  and  being  identi- 
fied with  it,  in  a  way,  which  is  not  common  among  us,  seems  to 
be  sufficiently  clear  from  2  Sam.  24:  12,  15.  where  a  pestilence 
with  its  ordinary  and  natural  attributes  is  the  prominent  subject  of 
discourse.  This  view  of  the  subject  gives  a  reason,  why  the  Sep- 
tuagint  renders  the  word  ox  pestilence,  in  Psalm  91:  6.  by  dat- 
fioviov  fjitGrwPQivov,  i.  e.  the  demon  of  noon-day ;  and  why  Jona- 
than renders  the  same  word  in  the  Chaldee  Targum,  Habak.  3:  5. 
by  the  Chaldee  word  ^Nirft ,  angel  or  messenger. 

We  lay  it  down  then,  as  a  general  principle,  that  wherever 
we  are  told,  an  angel  scatters  abroad  a  pestilence,  the  pestilence 
merely  is  meant  by  such  expressions.  Apply  it  for  instance  to  the 
destruction  of  Sennacherib's  army,  2  K.  19:35.  comp.  2K.  18: 
23.  19:  6 — 8.  In  this  destruction,  an  hundred  and  eighty  five 
thousand  men  perished.  We  are  told,  it  was  done  by  an  angel, 
but  we  know,  this  was  a  common  mode  of  speech,  and  that  all 
natural  events  and  effects  were  frequently  described,  as  the  mes- 
sengers or  angels  of  God.  If  we  seek  then  for  a  natural  cause,  for 
so  wide  a  destruction,  we  fix  immediately  upon  the  pestilence, 
which  is  most  violent  in  its  first  attack,  and  might  well  have  de- 
stroyed the  hundred  and  eighty  five  thousand  Assyrians,  if  the 
spoils  of  Egypt,  infected  with  its  contagious  properties,  had  been 
scattered  through  the  camp.  The  idea,  that  Sennacherib's  army 
perished  by  means  of  the  pestilence,  communicated  in  the  way 
above  alluded  to,  or  some  other,  agrees  better  than  any  other 
hypothesis,  with  the  fact,  that  the  survivors  in  that  army  were 
not  aware  till  the  return  of  the  morning  light,  of  the  immense  num- 
ber, that  had  died. 

If  any  one  wishes  to  be  informed  further  concerning  the  na- 
ture of  the  pestilence,  and  the  symptoms  exhibited  by  an  infected 
person,  let  him  consult  the  original  German  edition  of  this  Work, 
T.  II.  P.  I.  §  223.  pp.  389—397.  It  will  merely  be  remarked 
here,  in  reference  to  those  topics,  that  no  one  ever  recovered 


212/$  191.   THE  DISEASE  OF  SAUL  AND  NEBUCHADNEZZAR. 


from  the  pestilence,  unless  the  boil  of  the  pestilence  came  out 
upon  him.  And  even  then,  he  could  not  always  be  cured,  2  K. 
20:  7.  Is.  38:  21. 

[Note.  Some  liberty  has  been  taken  with  the  Latin  of  the 
above  section,  owing  to  its  great  conciseness  and  consequent  obscu- 
rity. Having,  however,  examined  the  German  edition,  the  transla- 
tor has  given  what  he  supposes  to  be  the  meaning  of  Dr.  Jahn. 
On  the  sentiments  conveyed  in  this  section,  this  remark  may  be 
proposed  for  the  consideration  of  the  reader.  If  we  admit,  that  the 
Hebrews  sometimes  spoke  of  winds,  fires,  and  diseases,  as  messen- 
gers, ministers,  or  angels,  as  for  instance  some  critics  have  maintain- 
ed in  Ps.  104:  4.  compared  with  Ps.  14S:  8.  it  is  still  a  question,  on 
which  many  persons  will  feel  themselves  at  liberty  to  dissent  from 
our  author,  Whether  he  ought  not  to  have  limited  his  view  of  the 
usus  loquendi  under  consideration  to  the  poetical  parts  of  the 
scriptures  ? 

Nothing  is  more  obvious  than  that  poetry  has  its  appropriate 
hermeneutica,  and  what  would  be  a  very  reasonable  and  correct 
interpretation  of  certain  expressions  in  poetical  description,  does 
not  necessarily  hold  good  in  prose.  Accordingly,  a  serious  objec- 
tion might  be  made  to  receiving  the  accounts,  given  in  2  Sam.  24: 
16.  and  2  K.  19:  35.  which  are  unadorned  historical  statements,  in 
any  other  than  their  most  plain  and  obvious  meaning.] 


§  191.  The  Disease  of  Saul  and  Nebuchadnezzar. 

The  position,  which  we  have  endeavoured  to  defend  in  the 
preceding  section,  that  diseases  and  events  of  rare  occurrence, 
and,  we  may  add  here,  events  likewise  of  daily  occurrence,  were 
attributed  by  the  ancient  Hebrews  to  God,  or  to  some  angel,  as 
his  messenger,  throws  light  upon  many  passages  of  Scripture. 

A  person,  who  understands  the  extent  and  the  proper  bearing 
of  that  principle,  will  readily  see,  that  the  spirit  of  God,  FTW  h=n , 
which  departed  from  Saul,  was  no  other,  than  an  upright  and  a 
generous  tendency  of  mind  ;  and  that  the  evil  spirit  from  the  Lord, 
which  beset  and  filled  him  with  terror,  fpfp  ntftt  M:p  ftsn  1  Sam. 
16:  14,  15.  18:  10.  19:  9.  was  a  sort  of  madness,  which  had  the  ef- 
fect of  deceiving  him  into  the  idea,  that  he  was  a  prophet ;  for  it 


§  191.   THE  DISEASE  OF  SAUL  AND  NEBUCHADNEZZAR.  213 

seems,  that  he  prophesied,  CG£n*r,  and,  in  all  probability,  pre- 
dicted the  loss  of  his  own  kingdom.  The  Targum  of  Jonathan, 
accordingly  renders  the  word  N2:m,  he  was  mad  ox  insane.  This 
evil  spirit,  in  a  word,  was  not  more  a  spirit  or  messenger  from 
God,  than  the  evil  spirit,  which,  in  Judges  9:  23.  is  said  to  have 
been  sent  by  him  among  the  Shechemites ;  and  which,  certainly,  as 
was  evident  even  to  the  ancient  interpreters,  and  has  been  since 
to  every  body  else,  was  nothing  more,  than  the  spirit  of  strife  and 
dissension.  In  the  same  way,  the  spirit  of  fornication,  tr?*\ 
f:^:7  in  Hosea  4: 12.  is  merely  lust ;  compare  1  Sam.  11:6.  16:  14. 
Judg!  3:  10.  6:  34.  11:  29.  14:  6.  Ps.  51:  11.  Ezek.  11:  19.  18: 
31.  This  representati6n  more  than  any  other  is  suitable  to  the  fact, 
that  Saul  was  benefitted  by  music ;  for  the  charms  of  music, 
however  great  its  efficacy  in  any  other  case,  would  have  been 
very  incompetent  to  the  task  of  subduing  the  untractable  spirit  of  a 
real  demon. 

This  mode  of  speaking  did  not  originate,  as  some  have  sup- 
posed, in  the  time  of  the  captivity,  from  the  doctrine  held  by  the 
Mehestani,  although  it  undoubtedly  at  that  time  became  more 
common,  and  was  used  with  greater  latitude,  than  at  any  previous 
period.  For,  agreeably  to  this  mode  of  speech  and  to  the  belief 
on  which  it  is  founded,  viz.  the  subordinate  agency  of  angels,  we 
find  mention  made  in  Daniel  4:  10,  14,  20,  [consult  Michaelis' 
edition  of  the  Hebrew  Bible,]  of  d**^  or  star-watchers.  The  de- 
signs or  the  decrees  of  these  M  holy  watchers,"  as  they  are  term- 
ed, which  are  made  known  to  Nebuchadnezzar  in  his  vision,  and 
are  stated  in  the  verses  above  mentioned,  are  referred  by  Daniel 
in  the  twenty  eighth  verse  of  the  same  chapter  to  the  immediate 
agency  of  God  himself ;  a  circumstance,  which  is  altogether  con- 
formable to  what  has  been  already  stated,  in  this,  and  the  preced- 
ing section,  on  this  subject. 

The  disease  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  mentioned  in  this  chapter,  was 
that  of  insanity  or  madness.  His  mind  was  in  such  a  state,  his 
reasoning  powers  were  so  perverted  and  deranged,  that  it  ap- 
peared to  him,  as  if  he  heard  a  voice  from  heaven,  declaring  his 
expulsion  from  the  kingdom ;  and  he  imagined,  that  he  was  real- 
ly transformed  into  a  beast.  Accordingly  he  acknowledges,  in 
the  fourth  chapter,  verses  31,  33,  that  he  had  again  received  the  use 
of  his  reason ;  which  is  an  evidence,  that  he  understood  the  disease, 
from  which  he  had  recovered,  to  have  been  insanity. 


\ 


214 


$  192.   RESPECTING  DEMONIACS. 


§  192.  Respecting  Demoniacs. 

The  inquiry  respecting  the  Demoniacs,  who  are  so  often  in- 
troduced in  the  New  Testament,  and  likewise  in  the  writings  of 
profane  authors  of  antiquity,  is  a  very  intricate  and  a  very  difficult 
one.  There  are  some  persons,  who  contend,  that  the  demoniacs 
were  all  of  them  either  madmen,  epileptics,  or  persons  subject 
to  melancholy ;  and  they  make  their  appeal  in  behalf  of  their 
opinions  to  physicians.  They,  accordingly,  in  their  interpretation 
of  those  expressions,  which  are  employed  in  reference  to  demo- 
niacs, go  on  the  principle,  that  the  sacred  writers  meant  by  them 
the  same  and  nothing  more,  than  would  be  naturally  meant,  in 
case  the  possessed  persons  were  merely  the  subjects  of  those  dis- 
eases. 

Other  persons,  both  theologians  and  physicians,  have  strong 
objections  to  this  view  of  the  subject.  In  their  estimation,  the  ex- 
pressions in  the  New  Testament  clearly  imply,  that  the  demoni- 
acs were  possessed  by  an  evil  spirit ;  and  this  state  of  things, 
they  suppose,  was  permitted  in  the  providence  of  God,  in  order 
to  give  to  the  Saviour  an  opportunity  to  exhibit  his  miraculous 
powers. 

We  have  no  disposition  at  present  to  exhibit  ourselves,  as  par- 
tisans in  this  controversy,  and  shall  only  endeavour  to  give  an 
impartial  statement  of  the  arguments  on  both  sides,  so  as  to  leave 
the  reader  in  a  condition  to  form  his  own  opinion. 

§  193.  Demoniacs  were  possessed  with  a  devil. 

It  will  be  our  object,  in  the  first  place,  to  state  the  arguments 
in  favour  of  the  opinion,  that  the  Demoniacs  were  really  possessed 
with  a  devil.    They  are  as  follows  ; 

I,  They  expressed  themselves  in  a  way,  which  is  not  done 
by  epileptic,  melancholy,  or  insane  persons,  as  in  Matt.  8:  28. 
Luke  8:  27.  Mark  5:  7.  They  possessed  the  supernatural  power 
of  sundering  all  sorts  of  cords  and  chains.  They  requested  of 
Jesus  not  to  torment  them.  They  answered  with  propriety  ques- 
tions, which  were  proposed  to  them.  Demons  departed  from  them 
and  entered  into  swine.    Certainly  it  cannot  be  said  in  reference 


§  193.  DEMONIACS  POSSESSED  WITH  A  DEVIL.  21  & 

to  this  particular,  that  madness  or  melancholy,  the  mere  phren- 
sy  or  wanderings  of  the  brain  went  out  of  the  possessed  persons  in- 
to the  herd.  The  supposition,  which  some  make,  that  the  swine 
were  driven  into  the  sea  by  the  demoniacs,  is  destitute  of  all  pro- 
bability. They  would  have  stood  a  much  better  chance  of  being 
driven  in  many  more  directions  than  one,  by  persons  of  such  an 
undisciplined  and  irrational  character ;  especially  as  they  were  two 
thousand  in  number. 

II.  No  symptoms  of  disease  are  mentioned  in  the  case  of  the 
dumb  demoniac,  introduced  in  Matt.  9:  32.  and  Luke  11:  14.  nor 
in  that  of  the  dumb  and  blind  demoniac,  spoken  of  in  Matt.  12: 
22.  The  possessed  persons,  therefore,  in  both  of  these  instances 
were  in  a  sound  state  of  body  and  health,  with  this  exception  mere- 
ly, that  the  devil,  (for  this  certainly  could  not  have  been  done  by 
epilepsy,  melancholy,  or  madness)  obstructed  their  organs  of  speech 
and  vision. 

III.  It  is  admitted,  that  the  circumstances  attending  the  case 
of  the  lunatic,  in  Matthew  17:  15.  are  such  as  would  be  expect- 
ed in  the  case  of  a  person  afflicted  with  the  epilepsy ;  but  then 
it  should  be  particularly  noticed,  that  the  effects  in  this  instance, 
as  well  as  in  others,  are  attributed  to  the  agency  of  the  devil. 

IV.  We  are  informed,  that  the  damsel  of  Philippi,  Acts  16:  16. 
practised  divination,  which  evidently  could  not  have  been  done 
by  a  mad  or  deranged  person.  We  must  conclude,  therefore,  that 
she  was  under  the  influence  of  an  evil  spirit. 

V.  The  demoniacs  themselves  say,  that  they  are  possessed 
with  a  devil.  The  Jews  of  the  New  Testament,  who  happened 
to  be  concerned  on  account  of  their  relationship  to  the  person,  or 
in  any  other  way,  in  a  case  of  demoniacal  possession,  assert  the 
same  thing.  The  apostles  likewise  and  evangelists  allege,  that 
persons  possessed  with  demons,  were  brought  to  Jesus,  and  that 
the  demons  departed  at  his  command,  Matt.  4:  24.  7:  22.  9:  33. 
12:28.  Mark  1:32,  39.  9:25.  Luke  4:  41.  8:2,30,38.  9:49. 
11:  14.  Jesus  himself  asserts,  that  he  casts  out  devils,  Luke  11: 
19.  Matt.  12:  27,  28. 

VI.  The  sacred  writers  make  an  express  distinction  between 
demoniacs,  and  the  sick  ;  and  likewise  between  the  exorcism  of 
demons,  and  the  healing  of  the  sick,  Mark  1:  32.  Luke  6:  17,  18. 
7:  21.  8:  2.  13:  32.  Demoniacs,  therefore,  were  not  persons  af- 
flicted with  diseases,  in  the  way  that  has  been  supposed. 


216  §  193.   DEMONIACS  POSSESSED  WITH  A  DEVIL. 


VII.  Demoniacs  knew,  what  madmen,  insane  persons,  epilep- 
tics, and  melancholy  men  could  not  of  themselves  know,  viz.  that 
Jesus  was  the  Son  of  God,  the  Messiah,  the  Son  of  David, 
etc.  Mark  1:  24.  5:  7.  Matt.  8:  29.  Luke  4:  34. 

VIII.  Jesus  speaks  to  the  demons  and  asks  them  their  name  : 
and  we  find,  that  they  answer  him.  He  also  threatens  them,  com- 
mands them  to  be  silent,  to  depart,  and  not  to  return,  Mark  1:  25. 
5:  S.  9:  25.  Matt.  8:  29—31.  Luke  4:  35.  8:  30—32. 

IX.  When  the  seventy  disciples  returned  from  their  labours, 
one  prominent  cause  of  their  joy,  was  that  the  devils,  when  the 
name  of  Christ  was  pronounced,  obeyed  them.  Jesus  answered 
then),  as  follows,  in  Luke  10:  18  ;  "  /  beheld  Satan,  as  lightning 
fall  from  heaven.  Behold,  I  give  unto  you  power  to  tread  on  ser- 
pents and  scorpions,  and  over  all  the  power  of  the  enemy,  and  noth- 
ing shall  by  any  means  hurt  you  ;  notwithstanding ,  in  this  rejoice 
not,  that  the  spirits  are  subject  unto  you,  but  rather  rejoice,  because 
your  names  are  icritten  in  heaven" 

X.  When  the  Saviour  was  accused  by  the  Pharisees  of  cast- 
ing out  devils  by  the  aid  of  Beelzebub,  he  replied,  that  the  king- 
dom, the  city,  or  the  family,  in  which  were  dissensions  and  dis- 
cords, would  of  itself  perish  ;  and  that  consequently,  if  there  were 
such  discords  in  the  kingdom  of  Satan,  as  to  induce  one  devil  to 
exert  his  power  in  the  expulsion  of  another,  it  could  not  long  exist. 
To  these  things,  he  immediately  adds ;  "  If  I  by  Beelzebub  cast 
out  devils,  by  whom  do  your  sons  cast  them  out  ?  Therefore,  they 
shall  be  your  judges.  But  if  I  cast  out  devils  by  the  spirit  of  God, 
(by  divine  power  or  a  miracle,)  then  the  kingdom  of  God  is  come  un- 
to you.  Or  chc  how  can  one  enter  into  a  strong  man's  house,  and 
spoil  his  goods,  except  he  first  bind  the  strong  man  ?  and  then  he  will 
spoil  his  house;'  Matt.  12:  25,  28.  Mark  3:  23—25.  Luke  11: 
17—19. 

XI.  Jesus  makes  the  following  remarks  in  respect  to  the  demons 
or  evil  spirits  in  Matt.  12:43.  and  in  Luke  11:24.  "  When  the  un- 
clean spirit  is  gone  out  of  a  man,  he  icalketh  through  dry  places,  seek- 
ing rest  but  finding  none.  He  saith,  I  will  return  to  my  house,  ichence 
I  came  out.  And  when  he  cometh,  hefindeth  it  swept  and  garnished; 
then  goeth  he  and  taketh  seven  other  spirits  more  wicked  than  himself; 
and  they  enter  in  and  dwell  there,  and  the  last  state  of  that  man  is 
worse  than  the  first."  It  is  very  clear,  that  a  person  would  not  nat- 
urally understand  expressions  of  this  kind  in  respect  to  a  disease. 


§  194.  THE  OPPOSITE  ARGUMENT. 


217 


XII.  The  woman  in  Luke  13:  11,  who  was  bowed  down  with 
the  spirit  of  infirmity,  is  said  by  the  Saviour  in  the  sixteenth  verse, 
to  have  been  bound  by  Satan.  The  Apostle  Peter,  in  like  man- 
ner, asserts  in  Acts  10:  38,  that  all,  who  had  been  oppressed  with 
the  devil,  %uTadvvaGTZvof.itvovg  vno  zov  diafiolov,  were  healed  by 
Jesus  of  Nazareth,  the  anointed  of  God. 

XIII.  The  wonderful  miracles  of  Jesus  will  appear  of  but  com- 
paratively little  importance  and  little  worth,  if  it  should  be  admit- 
ted, that  he  did  not  actually  cast  out  devils,  but  merely  healed 
diseases.  The  Church  Fathers,  accordingly,  embraced,  without 
any  dissenting  voice,  the  opinion,  that  the  persons,  of  whom  we 
have  been  speaking,  were  really  possessed  with  demons,  and  the 
Church  itself,  in  accordance  with  this  opinion,  instituted  an  order 
of  persons,  called  exorcists. 

§  194.  General  view  of  the  opposite  Argument. 

Those  who  maintain,  that  demoniacs  were  epileptic,  melan- 
choly, insane,  or  mad  persons,  commence  their  arguments,  with 
referring  back  to  a  very  early  period.  They  endeavour  to  prove 
by  induction  from  various  instances,  which  they  conceive  to  be  to 
the  point,  and  by  a  multitude  of  quotations  from  Greek,  Roman 
and  Jewish  writers,  that  the  demons,  to  whom  diseases  are  attri- 
buted as  the  agents,  are  not  the  6  dia(io\og  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, (the  evil  spirit  in  an  emphatic  and  peculiar  sense  ;)  but 
that  they  are  the  spirits  of  dead  men,  who  had  died  by  a  violent 
death,  particularly  of  such,  as  were  known  to  have  sustained  bad 
characters  while  living.  Demoniacs,  therefore,  according  to  the 
hypothesis  of  these  persons,  were  men,  who  were  afflicted  with 
some  disease  mental  or  bodily,  but  who  were  generally  suppos- 
ed by  the  people  to  be  possessed  and  agitated  by  these  spirits, 
the  same  as  if  they  had  been  haunted  by  furies ;  compare  the 
large  German  edition  of  this  Work,  P.  I.  Vol.  II.  §  227—229.  p. 
411 — 454.  They  take  the  ground,  therefore,  that  Jesus,  the 
apostles,  and  the  writers  of  the  New  Testament,  if  they  wished 
to  be  understood  by  those,  for  whom  their  writings  were  intended, 
were  under  the  necessity  of  attaching  the  same  meaning  to  the 
word  demons,  which  was  attached  to  it  by  their  contemporaries, 

28 


218 


§  195.  SYMPTOMS  IN  DEMONIACS. 


Having  taken  this  position,  they  endeavour  to  confirm  their  sen- 
timents by  saying  further, 

I.  That  the  symptoms,  exhibited  by  demoniacs,  as  stated  in  the 
New  Testament,  are  the  same  with  those,  which  are  exhibited  by 
men  in  epilepsy,  hypochondria,  insanity,  and  madness. 

II.  That  the  sacred  writers  give  intimations  in  various  places, 
that  they  use  the  words  demon  and  demons,  solely  because  they 
were  in  common  circulation  at  that  period ;  and  are,  accordingly, 
to  be  considered,  as  merely  accommodating  themselves  to  the  lan- 
guage in  common  use,  and  not  as  professedly  teaching  or  denying 
the  agency  attributed  to  evil  spirits. 

III.  That  the  real  operation  of  departed  spirits  upon  living 
men  is  inconsistent  with  the  doctrine  of  Christ  and  his  apostles  ; 
and  of  course  they  could  not  mean,  by  the  phrases  and  passages  in 
question,  such  operations. 

These  three  points,  they  endeavour  to  illustrate  and  confirm 
by  various  arguments,  of  which  we  shall  proceed  to  give  an  enume- 
ration. 

§  195.  Symptoms  in  demoniacs  the  same  with  those  in  Dis- 
eased Persons. 

The  opposers  of  the  doctrine  of  the  real  agency  of  evil  spi- 
rits in  the  case  of  demoniacs  proceed  to  state,  in  the  first  place, 
that,  in  the  time  of  Christ,  demoniacs  in  other  countries  were  fre- 
quently restored  by  a  resort  to  medical  prescriptions.  It  is  not  at 
all  rational  to  suppose,  that  demoniacs  thus  restored  were  actually 
possessed  with  the  spirits  of  the  dead,  in  as  much  as  such  spirits 
could  not  have  been  expelled  by  mere  medical  art.  They  were, 
therefore,  merely  diseased  or  sick  persons  in  the  ordinary  sense  of 
the  words.  The  symptoms  in  these  men  were  the  same  with  those 
of  the  persons  mentioned  in  the  New  Testament,  viz.  the  ordinary 
symptoms  of  epilepsy,  insanity,  and  hypochondria.  The  demoni- 
acs, consequently,  of  the  New  Testament,  as  we  have  the  utmost 
ground  for  inferring,  were  no  other  than  sick  men,  since  the  symp- 
toms they  actually  exhibited  are  such,  as  they  would  have  exhibit- 
ed, in  case  they  had  been  afflicted  with  the  diseases  above  mention- 
ed, and  nothing  more.  And  these  diseases,  let  it  be  remembered, 
are  attributed  to  spirits  or  demons  so  called,  merely  on  account  of 
the  prevailing  opinions  and  belief  of  the  people. 


§  195.   SYMPTOMS  IN  DEMONIACS. 


219 


Explanations. 

L  The  two  Gadarenes,  Matt.  8:  28,  et  seq.  of  whom  only  the 
more  conspicuous  and  celebrated  one,  (viz.  the  one,  who  after  his 
recovery  prayed  Christ,  "  that  he  might  be  with  him,"  i.  e.  might 
be  his  follower  or  disciple,)  is  mentioned  in  Mark  5:  2.  and  Luke 
8:  27.  were  deranged  persons  or  madmen,  who  were  impressed  with 
the  idea,  that  there  were  within  them  innumerable  spirits  of  dead 
men.  They,  accordingly,  dwelt  amid  the  sepulchres  of  the  buried, 
went  naked,  were  ungovernable,  cried  aloud,  beat  themselves,  and 
attacked  those  who  passed  by.  Such  things  are  characteristic  of 
mad  men.  The  great  power  which  one  of  them  possessed,  and 
which  enabled  him  to  burst  asunder  bonds  and  chains,  is  not  un- 
frequently  witnessed  in  persons,  who  have  lost  their  reason.  Both 
Mark  (chap.  5:  15,)  and  Luke  (chap.  8:  35,)  mention  that  the  Ga- 
darenes found  this  demoniac  after  he  had  been  restored  by  Jesus, 
awcpQOvovvxa,  i.  e.  in  his  rigid  mind;  which  is  a  clear  intimation, 
that  he  was  previously  destitute  of  reason. 

It  is  true,  these  men  address  Jesus  as  the  Son  of  God,  i.  e.  the 
Messiah,  and  ask  him  not  to  torment  them  ;  but  this  circumstance 
can  be  accounted  for  on  the  supposition,  that  they  had  heard,  as 
they  undoubtedly  had,  in  those  lucid  intervals,  which  are  granted 
to  many  insane  persons,  that  Jesus,  whose  fame,  (Matt.  4:  24.)  had 
already  extended  as  far  as  Syria,  was  regarded  as  the  Messiah. 

They  evidently  betray  their  insanity  by  saying,  they  were  de- 
vils without  number,  and  by  beseeching  Jesus  not  to  drive  them  in- 
to the  sea,  but  to  permit  them  to  enter  into  the  swine,  which  were 
feeding  near.  Certainly  none  but  the  professed  advocates  of  real 
demoniacal  possession  would  suppose,  that  an  actual  demon  or  de- 
vil would  select  such  an  habitation,  as  that.  It  is  admitted,  that 
Jesus,  (Mark  5:  8.)  commands  the  unclean  spirit  to  depart.  But 
does  this  prove  any  thing  ?  The  spirit  was  called  unclean,  because 
it  was  supposed  to  be  the  spirit  of  one  dead,  and  was  unclean  of 
course.  It  was  commanded  to  depart,  merely  that  the  attention  of 
the  people  present  might  be  excited,  and  that  they  might  have 
ample  opportunity  to  notice  the  miracle,  wrought  in  favor  of  the 
unfortunate  maniac.  It  was  not  the  demons,  but,  as  in  Acts  19: 
16.  the  madmen  themselves,  who  impetuously  attacked  the  herd 


220 


§  195.   SYMPTOMS  IN  DEMONIACS. 


of  swine,  and  drove  them  down  the  steep  into  lake  Gennesareth, 
Mark  and  Luke,  in  conformity  with  the  common  mode  of  speech, 
represent  the  demons,  as  going  from  madmen,  and  entering  in- 
to the  swine  ;  for  it  was  the  custom  to  attribute  to  the  agency  of  the 
supposed  demons,  whatever  was  done  by  the  demoniacs  them- 
selves;  comp.  Matt.  9:  32.  Luke  11:  14.  13:  11,  see  also  the  large 
German  edition  of  this  Work,  P.  I.  Vol.  II.  §231.  p.  464.  That 
the  swine,  being  a  fearful  animal,  and  running  with  great  speed, 
as  they  naturally  would,  before  pursuers  of  such  a  peculiar  char- 
acter, should  have  plunged  in  considerable  numbers  into  the  lake 
and  perished,  is  by  no  means  strange  or  incredible.  We  say  in 
considerable  numbers,  because  the  expressions  which  are  used, 
leave  us  at  liberty  to  suppose,  that  some  of  the  herd  escaped. 
The  meaning  is  that  the  expressions  are  not  to  be  too  literally 
interpreted,  (ad  vivum  resecandum.)  Nor  is  it,  moreover,  any  thing 
very  extraordinary,  that  these  men  paid  a  sort  of  homage  and 
reverence  to  the  Redeemer,  of  whose  miracles  and  greatness  they 
had  heard ;  since  there  are  not  wanting  instances  of  madmen,  who 
both  fear  and  exhibit  a  degree  of  respect  to  certain  persons. 

II.  The  dumb  man,  mentioned  in  Matt.  9:  32.  and  in  Luke 
11:  14.  and  the  man,  who  was  both  dumb  and  blind  in  Matt.  12: 
22.  were  likewise  insane,  or  at  least  melancholy  persons.  It  is 
proper  to  remark  here,  in  explanation  of  our  thus  coupling  to- 
gether these  two  classes  of  mental  diseases,  that  insanity,  and 
melancholy  or  hypochondria,  as  the  experience  of  physicians  suf- 
ficiently proves,  are  nearly  allied  to  and  often  accompany  each 
other.  That  the  first  mentioned  of  these  persons  was  afflicted 
with  one  of  these  maladies,  which  in  that  age  were  attributed  to 
the  agency  of  demons,  appears  from  the  fact,  that  Luke,  (chap.  11: 
14,)  calls  the  devil  a  dumb  one,  while  the  parallel  passage  in  Matt. 
9:  32.  represents  the  man  himself  as  dumb. 

III.  The  youth,  who  in  Matt.  17:  15.  is  called  a  lunatic 
from  his  childhood,  and  who  in  Luke  9:  38 — 40.  was  seized  and 
torn,  while  uttering  cries  of  woe,  by  an  evil  spirit  of  such  [perse- 
vering cruelty,  as  to  be  unwilling  to  suspend  the  exercise^of  his 
vengeance  even  after  the  victim  had  already  severely  and  cruelly 
suffered,  and  who,  furthermore,  is  said  in  Mark  •&  17.  to  have 
had  an  unclean  spirit,  to  have  fallen  with  great  outcries,  sometimes 
upon  the  earth,  sometimes  into  water,  and  sometimes  into  fire,  to 


§  195.   SYMPTOMS  IN  DEMONIACS. 


221 


have  foamed  at  the  mouth  and  to  have  gnashed  his  teeth,  was 
evidently  an  epileptic  person.  It  will  give  us  some  idea  of  the 
prevalent  notions  anciently  in  respect  to  the  epilepsy,  when  it  is 
remarked,  that  Hippocrates  wrote  a  book,  the  object  of  which  was 
to  show,  that  epilepsy  was  not  a  sacred  malady,  i.  e.  a  malady 
sent  from  some  superior  power  or  Divinity.  The  epithet,  never- 
theless, which  he  is  in  the  habit  of  applying  to  this  disease?in  this 
book,  is  that  of  sacred. 

IV.  The  maid  of  Philippi,  who  in  Acts,  16:  16.  is  said  to  have 
possessed  the  spirit  of  Python,  i.  e.  the  spirit  of  Apollo,  nvevpct 
nv&covog,  was  insane.  The  ground  of  the  assertion,  that  was 
made  in  respect  to  her,  was  the  fact,  that  she  cherished,  as  would 
not  be  unnatural  in  the  case  of  insanity,  a  firm  persuasion,  that 
she  was  possessed  with  some  spirit  from  the  dead,  that  was  com- 
missioned by  Apollo.  As  the  gift  of  prophecy  among  thefheathen, 
(if  we  may  credit  the  assertion  of  Cicero  in  his  Treatise  on  Divi- 
nation, Ernesti's  edit.  1.  5.  p.  661,)  was  always  attributed  to  the 
agency  of  Apollo ;  insane  persons,  who  professed  ?to  prophesy  un- 
der his  auspices,  were  in  a  situation  to  make  much  money  ;  which 
was  the  case  in  the  present  instance.  It  is  not  by  any  means  to  be 
supposed,  that  the  predictions  of  the  damsel  or  any  other  predic- 
tions of  a  like  character,  were  true  prophesies,  for  such  were  beyond 
the  power  of  Apollo,  who  was  regarded  as  "nothing"  in  estima- 
tion of  Paul,  to  utter  or  to  communicate.  Many  other  demoni- 
acs, who  are  mentioned,  but  the  symptoms  or  rather  operations  of 
whose  disease  are  not  particularly  given,  are  to  be  reckoned  among 
those,  who  were  insane ;  for  example,  Mary  Magdalene,  from 
whom,  (Luke  8:  2,)  Jesus  cast  out  seven  devils,  i.  e.  restored  her 
from  a  madness  of  so  violent  a  nature,  that  it  was  supposed  to  be 
caused  by  the  united  agency  of  this  large  number  of  the  spirits  of 
the  dead.  If  the  Saviour  commanded  the  demoniacs  not  to  make 
him  known,  the  reason  was,  that  their  declaration  of  the  subject 
would  do  more  hurt  than  good,  Mark  1:  24.  Luke  4:  34.  Matt.  8: 
29.  Mark  5:  7. 

V.  Whether  the  expulsion  of  actual  demons  from  a  person, 
or  the  healing  of  epileptics,  madmen,  and  hypochondriacs  be  the 
greater  and  most  striking  miracle,  in  the  present  argument,  it  is 
of  but  little  consequence  to  decide.  To  those,  however,  who  de- 
ny in  this  case  the  actual  agency  of  demons,  the  healing  of  these 


222         §  196.   OPINION  OF  CHRIST,  THE  APOSTLES,  ETC. 

maladies  appears  a  more  impressive  exhibition  of  miraculous 
power  than  the  ejection  of  demons,  which  was  likewise  done,  as 
the  advocates  of  the  opposite  opinion  will  themselves  admit,  by 
exorcists. 

§  196.  The  Apostles,  Evangelists,  and  Christ  regarded. 
Demoniacs  as  diseased  Persons. 

The  apostles  and  evangelists,  it  is  contended,  whether  they 
are  introduced  as  speaking,  or  whether  they  appear  as  the  authors 
of  a  narration,  employ  those  expressions,  which  in  their  time  were 
in  common  use.  Hence,  as  was  very  natural,  they  make  use  of 
such  phraseology  as  the  following  ;  "  Demoniacs  came  to  Jesus" 
"  Demoniacs  were  brought  to  Jesus"  "  They  were  possessed  with 
demons"  "  The  demons  were  cast  out"  "  They  departed  from  or 
entered  into  a  person"  fyc.  If  it  be  inquired  what  they  really  un- 
derstood by  such  expressions,  the  answer  is  this. 

Similar  expressions  were  used  in  respect  to  madness  or  insani- 
ty in  that  age,  even  in  cases,  where  there  could  be  no  doubt  in  re- 
spect to  the  natural  cause  of  it,  i.  e.  a  man  might  lose  his  reason  in 
some  way  or  by  some  accident,  which  was  perfectly  well  understood, 
and  still,  as  much  as  in  any  other  case,  the  loss  of  his  reason  was 
attributed  to  the  agency  of  a  demon.  That  was  the  common  mode 
of  speaking.  Furthermore,  demons  were  spoken  of  in  reference  to 
diseases,  in  the  same  way  that  Bacchus  among  the  Greeks  was  used 
tropically  for  wine,  and  Ceres  for  corn.  It  cannot  be  inferred, 
therefore  that  Jesus,  the  apostles,  and  evangelists  supposed,  that 
those  persons,  who  were  represented  as  possessed,  were  in  reality 
possessed  with  demons  or  the  spirits  of  the  dead.  It  cannot  be  in- 
ferred, we  contend,  the  more  especially,  because  they  often  give  in- 
timations  of  a  contrary  opinion,  as  will  appear  from  the  following 
statements. 

Argument  I.  The  evangelists  often  introduce  demoniacs  among 
sick  men,  as  a  separate  class  of  sick,  Matt.  4:  23,  24.  10:  8.  Mark 
1:  32.  Luke  4:  40,  41.  5: 15.  8: 2.  9:  I.  13:  32  ;  and,  what  is  wor- 
thy of  notice,  all  classes  of  sick  persons,  many  of  whom  are  never 
described  by  the  evangelists  as  being  subject  to  demoniacal  posses- 
sions, are  represented  in  Acts  10:  38.  without  any  exception,  as  be- 
ing oppressed  with  the  devil,  xaTudvvccOTSvopevoi  vno  tov  diupo- 


§  196.  OPINION  OF  CHRIST,  THE  APOSTLES,  ETC.  223 

Xov.  From  this  it  clearly  appears,  that,  in  the  view  of  the  sacred 
writers,  to  be  a  sick  person,  and  to  be  a  demoniac  or  vexed  with  the 
devil,  (i.  e.  with  the  subordinate  agents  of  the  devil,  the  spirits  of 
the  wicked  dead,)  were  only  different  expressions  for  the  same 
thing.  The  evangelists,  it  should  be  remarked  in  addition,  in 
some  instances  comprehend  demoniacs  under  the  head  of  sick 
and  diseased  persons,  when,  without  expressly  mentioning  them, 
they  describe  in  general  terms  those  to  whom  the  Saviour  gave 
assistance.  That  is  to  say  ;  when  enumerating  those,  who  had  ex- 
perienced the  healing  power  of  the  Saviour,  they  did  not  deem  it 
necessary  particularly  to  mention  demoniacs  in  distinction  from 
the  rest,  because  they  did  not  conceive,  there  was  any  thing  suf- 
ficiently peculiar  in  their  cases  to  render  it  necessary  always  to 
make  this  distinction,  since  they  might  conveniently  and  justly  be 
considered  as  comprehended,  (even  when  not  expressly  mention- 
ed,) in  a  general  catalogue  of  those  maladies,  which  men  were 
subject  to,  and  which  the  Saviour  had  healed,  Luke  7:  21,  22.  Matt. 
11:5.  On  the  contrary,  the  Evangelists  certainly  would  not  have 
omitted  the  mention  of  them  in  such  an  enumeration,  which  was 
designed  as  a  statement  of  what  the  Saviour  had  done  in  relieving 
the  bodily  woes  of  men,  if  they  had  supposed  the  demoniacs  to 
be  sound  and  in  good  health  with  the  exception,  that  they  were 
possessed  with  a  devil ;  because  in  this  case,  their  situation  and 
recovery  would  have  been  so  peculiar,  as  to  have  demanded  a 
distinct  specification.  The  sacred  historians  frequently  say,  that 
the  demoniacs  were  made  whole,  or  restored,  which  is  an  intima- 
tion at  least,  that  they  were  previously  diseased,  Matt.  6:  16.  12: 
22.  Luke  7:  21.  8:2.  9:  42.  Luke  especially,  (chap.  11:  14.)  when 
speaking  of  a  dumb  spirit,  and  when  describing  the  spirit  of  infirm- 
ity, (chap.  13:  11,)  could  not  certainly  mean  to  be  understood,  as 
speaking  of  a  real  spirit,  but  merely  of  a  disease,  or  of  some  defect 
in  the  bodily  organs.  If,  moreover,  Luke,  who  was  a  physician,  uses 
such  expressions  as  these,  viz.  to  heal,  to  be  healed  from  spirits,  to 
heal  those  oppressed  with  a  devil ;  if  he  uses  such  expressions  in  re- 
ference to  demoniacal  possessions,  it  is  clear,  we  are  to  understand 
possessions  in  Ms  language  to  mean  the  same  with  diseases,  and 
nothing  more,  consult  Luke  7:  21.  8:  2.  and  Acts  10:  38. 

Not  only  the  evangelists  themselves,  but  the  Jews  also,  who 
are  introduced  as  speaking  in  the  gospels  use  the  words  dat^imv 


224       §  196.  opinion  of  christ,  the  apostles,  etc. 


and  daifiopiov  tropically,  (the  same  as  profane  writers,)  when 
they  speak  of  insanity,  hypochondria,  and  natural  madness,  Matt. 
11: 18.  Luke  7:  33.  John  7: 19,  20.  10:  20.  Furthermore,  in  Mark 
3:  21,  22,£i£tOTi]  he  is  beside  himself  is  interchanged  with  BeeXfe- 
§ov\  t%u  he  hath  a  devil.  It  can  be  shown  also,  that  the  word 
demon  is  interchanged  in  the  same  way  with  the  words,  which  sig- 
nify disease  or^  sickness,  as  if  they  were  altogether  synonymous, 
comp.  Mark  7:^29.  and  Matt.  15:  22 — 28  ;  compare  also  Mark  9: 17. 
with  Luke|9:  39.  also  Matt.  17:  15.  and  Luke  13:  10—12. 

Argument  II.  John,  it  is  true  introduces  the  Jews,  as  speaking 
in  the  customary  way  in  respect  to  demoniacs  and  demons,  (chap. 
7:  9 — 20.  10:  20.)  but  let  it  be  carefully  marked,  that  he  himself 'is 
altogether  silent  on  the  subject  of  demoniacal  possessions,  notwith- 
standing that  he  frequently  speaks  of  the  sick,  who  were  healed 
by  the  Saviour,  4:  46.  5:  3.  6:  2.  Paul  also,  in  enumerating  the 
various  kinds  of  miraculous  gifts,  (1  Cor.  12:  9.)  says  nothing  in  re- 
spect to  the  exorcism  of  demons  ;  a  power  which  it  appears,  he 
possessed  himself,  and  which  the  Saviour  had  promised,  Mark  16: 
17.  Matt.  10:  8.  Luke  10:  17.  These  two  apostles  therefore,  con- 
sidered demoniacs  as  no  other  than  persons  afflicted  with  disease  ; 
and  it  was  very  natural  indeed,  that  it  should  be  so,  when  it  is  re- 
membered, that,  in  Asia  Minor,  where  John  composed  his  gospel, 
and  Paul  wrote  his  first  epistle  to  the  Corinthians,  medical  science 
was  in  a  very  flourishing  condition,  and  it  was  very  generally  known, 
that  the  diseases,  attributed  to  demons,  were  merely  natural  diseas- 
es, comp.  the  large  German  edit,  of  this  Work,  P.  I.  Vol.  II.  232. 
pp.  477—480. 

If,  therefore,  it  be  objected  against  us,  that  the  demoniacs  in  the 
New  Testament  acknowledge  themselves  to  be  possessed  with  de- 
mons, we  reply,  that  nothing  else  was  to  be  expected  from  madmen. 
If  it  be  further  objected,  that  the  Jews  of  the  New  Testament  are 
in  the  habit  of  speaking  of  such  possessions,  it  must  be  admitted 
by  our  opponents,  either  that  this  was  the  usus  loquendi  in  respect 
to  diseases,  the  common  language  to  describe  the  causes  and  effects 
of  certain  bodily  maladies,  without  any  particular  belief,  that  those 
maladies  originated  from  the  agency  of  spirits,  or  that  the  Jews  ac- 
tually believed  in  real  possessions. 

If,  moreover,  we  are  told,  that  both  the  apostles  themselves 
and  the  evangelists  inform  us,  that  demoniacs  came  to  Jesus,  or 


§  196.   OPINION  OF  CHRIST,  THE  APOSTLES,  ETC.  225 

were  brought  and  were  healed ;  that  Jesus  also  says,  that  he  casts 
out  devils  :  the  answer  is,  the  ground  of  these  expressions  was  the 
common  mode  of  speaking,  prevailing  at  that  period  ;  and  Jesus, 
the  apostles,  and  evangelists  made  use  of  such  expressions,  when 
they  spoke  of  hypochondria,  insanity,  epilepsy,  and  madness,  in 
order  to  be  understood  by  their  hearers  and  readers.  Nearly  in 
the  same  way  physicians  of  the  present  time  denominate  a  cer- 
tain class  of  sick  persons  lunatics,  i.  e.  persons  under  the  influence 
of  the  moon,  and  tell  us  of  St.  Anthony's  fire,  and  the  night  mare, 
although  the  true  causes  of  these  diseases  are  well  known.  Some- 
thing in  the  same  way  also,  it  is  customary  every  where  to  speak 
of  the  sun's  setting  and  rising,  and  to  designate  certain  of  the 
heavenly  bodies  as  planets  or  wandering-  stars,  although  it  is  not 
philosophically  true,  either  that  the  sun  sets  or  rises,  or  that  the 
planets  describe  that  wandering,  irregular  path  in  the  heavens, 
which  they  appear  to,  to  an  uninstructed  eye. 

If,  finally,  it  be  said,  that  the  diseases  of  demoniacs  are  some- 
times distinguished  from  those  of  other  persons,  the  reason  of  it 
is,  that  these  diseases,  viz.  melancholy,  insanity,  epilepsy,  and 
madness,  are  in  some  respects  peculiar,  and  are  healed  with  diffi- 
culty ;  and  hence  the  curing  of  them  by  a  single  word  of  the  Saviour 
was  a  matter  of  the  greater  moment. 

Argument  III.  It  is  admitted,  that  Jesus  apparently  speaks  to 
the  demons,  threatens  them,  commands  them  to  be  silent,  orders 
them  to  depart  and  not  to  return,  Mark  1:  24.  5:  8.  9:  25.  Matt.  8: 
28.  Luke  4:  35.  8:  30 — 32.  But  it  may  be  remarked  in  explana- 
tion of  this,  that  he  has  reference  partly  to  the  persons  themselves, 
whom  he  commands  to  be  silent  and  whom  he  threatens,  and  part- 
ly to  the  disease,  which  he  orders  to  depart  and  not  to  return. 
Paul,  in  the  same  manner,  (Acts  16:  16.)  addresses  the  spirit  of 
Apollo,  and  commands  him  in  the  name  of  Jesus  to  depart  from 
the  soothsaying  damsel ;  and  yet,  as  we  may  learn  from  1  Cor.  8:  4. 
he  had  not  the  least  faith  in  Apollo,  nor  in  any  other  god  beside 
Jehovah.  Nor  are  we  at  liberty  so  suppose,  that  Luke,  the  histori- 
an of  the  Acts,  who  subjoins  to  the  account,  of  which  we  have  now 
spoken,  that  the  spirit  left  her,  believed  at  all,  that  the  spirit  of 
Apollo  was  really  present.  The  reason,  why  Paul  and  the  Saviour 
made  use  of  such  expressions  on  such  an  occasion,  was,  that  they 
might  excite  the  attention  of  the  bystanders,  and  give  them  to  un- 
29 


t 


226         §  196.  OPINION  OF  CHRIST,  THE  APOSTLES,  ETC. 

derstand,  that  the  disease  had  terminated  at  their  command.  It 
was  for  a  reason  of  the  same  nature,  viz.  to  make  an  impression 
on  the  minds  of  those  present,  that  the  Saviour,  when  the  tem- 
pest was  overruled  and  laid  by  his  miraculous  interference,  com- 
manded in  an  audible  manner  the  winds  and  the  seas  to  be  at  rest. 
Let  those,  who  inquire,  how  Jesus  could  call  the  demon  by  name, 
if  he  did  not  believe  one  to  be  present,  read  the  Greek  text  of  Mark 
5:  9.  and  of  Luke  8:  30.  and  they  will  see,  that  it  is  not  the  demon, 
which  is  addressed  by  name,  but  the  demoniac  himself,  (fjr^curce 
avxov,  i.  e.  av&gumov,  not  avvo,  i.e.  nvtvpa.) 

Jesus,  in  Luke  10:  17.  does  not  assert  the  operations  of  demons 
in  men,  for  he  couples  Satan  with  serpents  and  scorpions,  which 
places  us  under  the  necessity  of  interpreting  all  of  these  words 
tropically,  and  of  understanding  by  them  cunning  and  powerful 
adversaries,  who  opposed  the  progress  of  the  Gospel,  but  with 
all  their  power  were  unable  to  interrupt  its  advancement.  The 
expressions,  which  he  employs,  are  as  follows.  "  1  see,"  Hebrew 
W&p,  "Satan,"  i.e.  all  the  adversaries  of  the  gospel,  who 
are  afterwards  called  serpents,  scorpions,  and  the  enemy's  host, 
"  fall  like  lightning  from  heaven,"  i.  e.  from  the  political  heaven, 
from  power  and  authority.  Consult  Is.  14:  12,13.  Matt.  xxiv.  Luke 
10:  15.  Rev.  12:  7 — 9.  see  also  Cicero,  where  he  says  to  Mark  An- 
tony, you  have  hurled  your  colleagues  down  from  heaven.  (The  ad- 
versaries of  the  gospel  also  occur  in  Luke  22:  31.  under  the  name 
of  Satan.)  "  Behold,"  he  proceeds,  "I  give  unto  you  power  to 
tread  on  serpents  and  scorpions,  and  over  all  the  power  of  the  ene- 
my," i.  e.  of  overcoming  and  subduing  by  your  miraculous  gifts  all 
adversaries,  "  and  nothing  shall  by  any  means  hurt  you,"  i.  e.  oppress 
and  overcome  you,  (comp.  udtxtjoy  with  the  Hebrew  p'^jy.)  "  Not- 
withstanding, in  this  rejoice  not,  that  the  spirits  are  subject  unto 
you,  but  rather  rejoice,  because  your  names  are  written  in  heaven," 
i.  e.  rejoice  rather  in  the  favour  of  God,  than  in  the  power  of  cast- 
ing out  devils,  or  of  healing  the  most  difficult  diseases. 

Jesus,  in  Matt.  12:  24—30.  Mark  3:  22—30.  Luke  11: 16—24. 
employs  against  the  Pharisees  the  argumentum  ad  ho.minem, 
which  has  no  bearing  in  this  case  any  further  than  the  refutation 
of  the  adversary  is  concerned.  The  ground  of  his  employing  this 
species  of  argument  in  the  present  instance  was  this.  The  Pha- 
risees, if  we  may  believe  Josephus,  taught  that  the  demons,  by 


§  196.  OPINION  OF  CHRIST,  THE  APOSTLES,  ETC.  227 

which  men  were  possessed,  were  the  spirits  of  bad  men,  who 
were  dead,  and  were  commissioned  on  their  present  business  of 
tormenting  the  children  of  men  by  Beelzebub.  Jesus,  therefore, 
replied,  provided  this  were  the  true  state  of  the  case,  that  Beel- 
zebub, by  lending  his  assistance  in  casting  out  his  own  devils,  was 
overturning  his  own  kingdom.  He  then  adds,  that  this  powerful 
spirit,  for  such  the  Pharisees  supposed  him  to  be,  could  not  be 
compelled  to  perform  such  an  unwelcome  task,  unless  a  stronger 
one,  than  Beelzebub  himself,  should  first  come,  should  bind  him, 
and  take  away  his  arms. 

The  parable  in  Matt.  12:  43—45.  and  Luke  11:  24—28.  is  to 
be  interpreted  with  a  reference  to  the  explanation,  at  the  end, 
viz.  "  so  shall  it  be  with  this  wicked  generation"  The  demons  in 
these  passages  are  the  vices  of  the  Jews,  which  had  been  in  some 
little  degree,  corrected  by  the  preaching  of  John  the  Baptist  and 
the  Saviour,  but  which  soon  after  developed  themselves  with  great- 
er virulence,  and  to  a  greater  extent  than  ever,  as  Josephus  testi- 
fies was  the  case  in  the  time  of  the  War  with  the  Romans  ;  comp. 
the  large  German  edition  of  this  work,  P.  I.  Vol.  II.  §  232.  p.  490, 
491. 

Finally,  Jesus  liberates  the  woman,  described  in  Luke  13:  12. 
as  bowed  down  with  infirmity,  without  making  any  mention  of  a 
demon ;  if,  therefore,  a  little  after,  he  asserts,  that  she  was  a 
daughter  of  Abraham,  bound  by  Satan  for  eighteen  years,  the 
expressions  are  to  be  considered  as  figurative,  being  an  allusion 
to  the  loosing  of  oxen,  which  it  was  lawful  to  do  on  the  sabbath  in 
order  to  lead  them  to  drink,  and  having  reference  at  the  same 
time  to  an  opinion  among  the  Jews,  that  all  diseases  had  their 
ultimate  origin,  (not  indeed  from  demons,)  but  from  the  devil,  that 
overruling  spirit  of  wickedness,  who  tempted  Eve,  and  to  whom  al- 
lusions are  made  in  Acts  10:  38.  and  in  2  Cor.  12:  7. 

Argument  IV.  That  the  church  Fathers  unanimously  agreed 
in  the  opinion,  that  individuals,  in  the  time  of  Christ,  were  really 
and  truly  possessed  with  demons,  those,  who  maintain  that  De- 
moniacs were  diseased  persons,  plainly  and  expressly  deny. 
They  produce  testimonies  to  the  contrary.  They  assert,  more- 
over, that,  in  point  of  policy,  the  church  fathers  would  not  have 
thought  it  advisable,  to  have  made  such  assertions,  as  are  repre- 
sented, since  they  were  contending  incessantly  with  philosophers, 


228 


§  197.   OPINION  OF  CHRIST,  THE  APOSTLES,  ETC. 


who  believed  in,  and  strenuously  contended  for  the  agency  of  de- 
mons. They  say  further,  that  nothing  is  gained  or  lost,  even  if 
the  fathers  were  unanimous  in  one  opinion,  since,  this  is  not  a  ques- 
tion of  faith  or  doctrine,  in  which  alone  the  united  sentiment  of 
the  Fathers  can  be  considered,  as  possessing  a  binding  authority. 
They  deny  also,  that  it  can  be  concluded  from  the  fact,  that  a 
class  or  order  of  persons,  called  exorcists,  existed  in  the  primitive 
ages  of  the  church,  that  the  church  itself  believed  in  the  real  agen- 
cy of  demons  ;  since  the  popular  superstitions  on  the  subject  might 
have  been,  as  no  doubt  they  were,  the  ground  of  such  an  institution, 
see  Veronius  In  Regul.  Fid.  §  4.  no.  4. 

§  197.  Real  Possessions  inconsistent  with  the  Doctrine  of 
Jesus  and  the  Apostles. 

Those,  who  oppose  the  doctrine  of  real  possessions,  state  that 
Jesus,  the  Apostles,  and  Evangelists,  are  not  to  be  understood  lit- 
erally, when  they  speak  of  the  agency  of  demons,  because  such  a 
supposition  would  make  them  act  contrary  to  the  doctrine,  which 
they  themselves  taught. 

They,  accordingly,  in  support  of  the  point,  that  the  doctrines  of 
the  apostles  and  Jesus  are  contrary  to  that  of  real  demoniacal  pos- 
sessions, advance  the  following  considerations. 

Argument  I.  Jesus  and  the  apostles  teach  us,  that  all  things, 
even  the  most  minute,  are  under  the  direction  of  God.  They 
could  not,  therefore,  for  a  moment  suppose,  that  so  great  miseries 
were  inflicted  by  demons,  (whether  they  were  the  spirits  of  dead 
men,  or  other  evil  spirits,)  or  that  God  would  be  accessory  to  such 
evils,  by  permitting  them  to  exist  in  such  a  way.  They  would 
not  countenance  such  an  opinion  the  more  especially,  because  it 
had  its  origin  among  nations,  which  were  given  to  idolatry.  It 
was  the  common  belief  among  such  nations,  that  the  celestial  di- 
vinities governed  the  world  by  proxy,  entrusting  it  to  inferiour  de- 
ities, and  to  the  spirits  of  the  dead. 

Argument  II.  Jesus  and  the  apostles  teach  us,  that  the  spirits 
of  the  dead  immediately  enter  upon  that  state  or  destiny,  which 
from  their  previous  character  they  deserve ;  both  the  good  and 
the  bad  going  to  a  retribution,  from  which  they  can  never  return, 
Luke  16:  22,   et  seq.  23:  43.   2  Cor.  5:1.    Philip.  1:  21.  3:12. 


5  197.  OPINION  OF  CHRIST,  THE  APOSTLES,  ETC.  229 

Heb.  12:  23.  Some  of  the  wicked  spirits,  as  we  learn  from  2  Pe- 
ter 2:  4.  and  from  Jude  verse  6.  are  reserved  in  custody,  till  the 
day  of  judgment ;  a  statement,  which  cannot  be  reconciled  with 
the  supposition,  that  they  are  straying  about  the  earth,  and  torment- 
ing its  inhabitants. 

Argument  III.  Let  it  be  admitted,  that  Jesus  does  not  in  direct 
terms  contradict  the  prevailing  notions,  and  does  not  expressly 
and  explicitly  say,  that  the  demoniacs  were  not  afflicted  by  the 
agency  of  demons,  but  merely  by  natural  diseases,  (which  was 
the  opinion  maintained  by  the  Sadducees,)  still  it  must  be  confess- 
ed, that,  on  the  other  hand  he  no  where  expressly  denies,  that 
the  effects,  produced  upon  individuals,  who  were  represented  as 
possessed  with  demons,  resulted  from  such  diseases  merely.  The 
fact  is,  as  is  contended,  the  Saviour  neither  took  one  part  nor  the 
other,  neither  denied  nor  asserted  the  reality  of  demoniacal  posses- 
sions. Indeed  it  was  not  necessarily  nor  actually  his  province.  A 
question  of  that  kind,  one  which  involved  the  state  of  the  body 
or  the  mind,  belonged  rather  to  professed  physicians.  The  Apos- 
tles pursue  the  same  course  in  respect  to  this  subject  that  the 
Saviour  does,  with  the  exception  of  John  and  Paul,  who,  having 
resided  much  in  Asia  Minor,  do  not,  as  has  been  already  observed, 
make  use  of  the  customary  and  prevalent  phrases  in  regard  to 
demoniacs.  It  is  stated,  further,  in  defence  of  the  conduct  of  the 
Saviour  and  his  apostles,  that  there  was  no  need  of  their  refuting 
the  vulgar  opinion  in  respect  to  demoniacs,  as  it  was  evidently 
inconsistent  with  their  doctrine  concerning  the  state  of  the  dead, 
and  was  attacked  by  the  physicians  of  that  age  with  great  suc- 
cess. Besides,  an  attempt  at  such  a  refutation,  in  an  age  when 
the  opinion  to  be  attacked  was  yet  so  prevalent,  and  in  a  coun- 
try where  it  was  so  fondly  cherished,  would  have  involved  the  dis- 
ciples and  the  Saviour  in  prolix  disputations,  and  would  have  with- 
drawn their  attention  too  much  from  the  preaching  of  the  Gospel. 

I  have  thus  given  the  statements,  illustrations  and  arguments 
on  both  sides  of  this  question,  and  will  leave  each  one  to  form  his 
own  opinion. 

[Note.  To  give  an  opinion  on  a  question,  where  so  many 
plausible  considerations  have  been  brought  forward  on  both  sides, 
would  be  of  no  avail,  without  various  arguments  to  support  it. 
And  to  do  this,  after  the  statements,  which  have  been  already 


230  §  198.   THE  ANGEL  THAT  TROUBLED  THE  BATH. 


made,  could  hardly  be  expected  here  ;  especially  as  it  seems  to  be 
generally  admitted  by  both  parties,  that  the  adoption  of  either 
sentiment  does  not  necessarily  imply  a  doubt  of  the  divine  authori- 
ty of  the  Saviour,  or  of  the  integrity  of  the  historians  of  the  New 
Testament. — Our  author  has  merely  undertaken  to  give  a  concise 
account  of  the  views  of  the  conflicting  writers  on  this  inquiry  ;  and 
it  is  only  in  pursuance  of  this  design,  that  we  here  mention  for  the 
student's  perusal  the  Lectures  of  the  late  President  Appleton.  In 
this  work,  which  is  generally  accessible  to  the  students  of  this 
country,  but  probably  never  came  to  the  notice  of  Dr.  Jahn,  not 
only  the  common  arguments  in  favour  of  real  possession  are  forci- 
bly presented,  but  a  number  of  specious  objections  to  that  view  of 
the  subject  are  met  and  controverted  in  a  manner,  worthy  of  the 
inquirer's  candid  consideration.] 

§  198.  The  Pool  near  the  Sheep-Market  at  Jerusalem. 

The  pool,  tm  iy  nQofiazixrj,  or  the  receptacle  of  water,  called 
Bethesda,  John  5:  2,  was  a  bath. 

I.  The  first  argument  in  favour  of  this  position  is  to  be  found 
in  the  fact,  that  the  Rabbins  and  the  Chaldaic  paraphrast  on 
Ecclesiastes  make  the  words  nifitt^ia  and  fi^Dli^s,  (the  Greek 
TiQofiuTMTj,)  mean  baths  ;  and  make  the  word  £*t2n3-)D ,  mean  the 
servant  attending  on  a  bath.  The  name  Bethesda,  in  Hebrew  rpa 
fcilpfr,  means,  the  house  or  place  of  favour  or  kindness,  and  agrees 
very  well  with  a  bath,  which  was  both  salutary  and  pleasant. 

II.  Another  proof,  that  the  pool  in  question  was  a  bath,  is  the 
fact,  that  the  blind,  maimed,  and  withered,  were  gathered  around 
it ;  and  that  there  were  likewise  five  porticos,  erected  without  doubt 
for  the  reception  of  those,  who  were  sick  and  infirm.  That  this 
was  the  object  of  the  porticos  is  the  opinion,  expressed  both  in  the 
Peshito  and  by  Suidas. 

The  Angel  that  troubled  the  Bath. 

It  is  related,  (John  5:  2 — 4,  6,  7.)  in  respect  to  this  bath,  that 
an  angel  of  the  Lord  descended  at  certain  times  and  troubled  the 
water,  and  that  the  person,  who  descended  first  after  this  opera- 
tion upon  the  water,  was  healed  of  whatever  infirmity  he  might  la- 
bour under. 

This  account  of  the  descent  of  an  angel,  and  of  the  consequent 


§  198.  THE  ANGEL  THAT  TROUBLED  THE  BATH.  231 


restoration  of  the  first  one,  who  entered  the  water  after  his  de- 
scent, is  omitted  in  certain  Greek  and  Latin  manuscripts,  and 
likewise  in  the  Armenian  version.  It  is  pointed  out  to  the  par- 
ticular notice  of  the  reader  in  some  Greek  manuscripts,  sometimes 
by  an  obelus  or  dagger  [f],  and  sometimes  by  an  asterisk.;^  The 
genuineness  of  the  whole  passage,  therefore,  is  justly  liable  to  sus- 
picion. 

On  the  supposition,  that  the  whole  narration  is  a  genuine  one, 
the  bath  in  question  might  have  been  an  animal  bath,  which  has  a 
beneficial  influence  in  certain  diseases,  and  which,  in  the  present 
case,  was  furnished  with  blood  from  the  temple,  by  means  of  a 
subterranean  passage.  Accordingly,  when  the  blood  flowed  into 
it,  the  water  might  be  said  with  no  impropriety  to  be  disturbed, 
especially  on  festival  days,  when  it  received  a  greater  quantity 
than  usual. 

Or  it  might  have  been,  (and  most  probably  was,)  a  mineral 
bath,  which  derived  its  salutary  powers  from  the  mineral  parti- 
cles, that  were  intermixed  with  the  mud  at  the  bottom.  Accord- 
ingly, when  the  water  was  more  than  usually  disturbed  or  put  in 
motion  by  some  external  cause,  for  instance,  by  showers  or  by 
subterranean  heat,  it  is  natural  to  suppose,  that  it  was  the  more 
strongly  impregnated  with  minerals,  and  of  course  more  than  usu- 
ally efficacious.  The  sick  and  infirm,  therefore,  wished  to  enter 
it  at  this  period,  before  the  mineral  particles  had  subsided,  and  the 
water  had  returned  to  its  ordinary  state.  Eusebius  in  his  Onomas- 
ticon  under  the  word  fit^ada  confirms  the  last  hypothesis  for  he 
states,  that  in  his  time  there  were,  at  that  place,  viz.  Bethesda, 
two  contiguous  receptacles  of  water,  which  were  dry  except  when 
rains  fell.  They  were  then  slightly  tinged  with  a  red  colour,  a 
proof,  that  the  bottom  was  impregnated  with  mineral  particles. 
Consult  Richteri  Dissertatio  Medic,  theol  de  balneo  animali,  p.  107. 
Goetting.  1775,  and  Mead,  Medic,  sacr.  6.  8. 

The  descent  of  the  angel,  and  the  healing  of  the  first  one, 
who  entered  into  the  water,  are  statements  founded  in  the  preva- 
lent popular  opinions.  The  reason,  why  the  historian  did  not 
make  a  statement  of  his  own  on  the  subject,  but  chose  rather,  in 
the  fourth  and  sixth  verses,  to  give  the  popular  belief,  was,  that 
the  reader  might  understand  the  reply  of  the  sick  man,  in  the 
seventh  verse.     >  - 


232 


$  199.   ON  PARALYTICS. 


§  199.  On  Paralytics. 

The  palsy  of  the  New  Testament  is  a  disease  that  is  of  very 
wide  import.  Many  infirmities,  as  Richter  has  demonstrated,  in  the 
seventy  third  and  the  following  pages  of  the  Treatise  referred  to 
in  the  preceding  section,  were  comprehended  under  the  word  which 
is  rendered  pahy  in  the  New  Testament. 

I.  The  apoplexy,  a  paralytic  shock  which  affected  the  whole 
body. 

II.  The  hemiplegy,  which  affects  and  paralyses  only  one  side 
of  the  body. 

III.  The  paraplegy,  which  paralyses  all  the  parts  of  the  sys- 
tem below  the  neck. 

IV.  The  catalepsy.  It  is  caused  by  a  contraction  of  the  mus- 
cles in  the  whole  or  part  of  the  body,  (e.  g.  in  the  hands,)  and 
is  very  dangerous.  The  effects  upon  the  parts  seized  are  very 
violent  and  deadly.  For  instance,  when  a  person  is  struck  with 
it,  if  his  hand  happens  to  be  extended,  he  is  unable  to  draw  it 
back.  If  the  hand  is  not  extended,  when  he  is  struck  with  the 
disease,  he  is  unable  to  extend  it.  It  appears  diminished  in  size, 
and  dried  up.  Hence  the  Hebrews  were  in  the  habit  of  calling  it 
a  withered  hand,  1  K.  13:  4—6.  Zech.  11:  17.  Matt.  12:  10—13. 
John  5:  3. 

V.  The  cramp.  This,  in  oriental  countries,  is  a  fearful  malady, 
and  by  no  means  unfrequent.  It  originates  from  the  chills  of  the 
night.  The  limbs,  when  seized  with  it,  remain  immoveable,  some- 
times turned  in,  and  sometimes  out,  in  the  same  position,  as  when 
they  were  first  seized.  The  person  afflicted  resembles  a  man,  un- 
dergoing the  torture,  paouvL&iAtvoj,  and  experiences  nearly  the 
same  exquisite  sufferings.  Death  follows  this  disease  in  a  few  days, 
Matt.  8:  9,  10.  comp.  Luke  7:  2.  1  Mac.  9:  55—58. 

Note.  The  disease,  denominated  in  Matt.  9:  20.  Mark  5:  25. 
and  Luke  8:  43.  an  issue  of  blood,  is  too  well  known  to  require  any 
particular  explanation.  It  may  be  well,  however,  to  make  this 
single  observation,  that  physicians  themselves  acknowledge,  that  it 
is  a  disorder  which  is  difficult  to  be  cured,  Mark  5:  26. 


§  202.   DISEASE  OF  HEROD  AGHIiTA. 


§  200.  The  Death  of  Judas  Iscariot. 

Judas  Tscariot,  i.  e.  Judas,  the  man  of  Karioth,  ftl^ljl  w^N, 
(Josh.  15:  25.  Jer.  48:  41.  Amos  2:  2.)  we  are  informed  in  Matt.  27: 
5.  (c<7r?;yi;aT0,)  hung  himself.  We  are  further  informed  in  Acts  1:  18. 
{nQ}}vrtg  yevouevog  ikccxtjat  [.lioog,  aul  t££%vd?j  tiuvtcc  r«  anXuy- 
%va  uvtov,  that  he  fell  headlong,  burst  asunder  in  the  midst,  and 
all  his  bowels  gushed  out.  These  two  statements,  which  exhibit 
the  appearance  of  being  not  altogether  harmonious,  have  occasioned 
various  opinions  among  the  learned. 

The  most  easy  and  natural  reconciliation  of  them  is  this.  Pe- 
ter, in  his  discourse,  (Acts  1:  18.)  did  not  deem  it  necessary  to  give 
a  full  narration,  in  every  respect,  of  an  event,  which  was  perfect- 
ly well  known.  He,  therefore,  merely  mentions  the  circumstance, 
which  probably  originated  from  the  rope's  breaking,  or  being 
cut  off,  with  which  he  was  suspended,  at  the  time,  that  he  was 
taken  down  for  interment,  of  his  fall  and  breaking  asunder  in  the 
midst.  This  very  simple  supposition,  which  gives  a  solution  of 
the  whole  difficulty,  appears  to  me  preferable  to  any  farfetched  hy- 
pothesis. 

§  201.  Blindness  op  the  Sorcerer  Bar  Jesus. 

5  - 

Bar  Jesus,  the  sorcerer,  otherwise  called  Ely  mas,  ^/Ac,  a  w^se 

or  learned  man,  was  struck  blind  by  Paul,  Acts  13:  6 — 12.  The 
blindness  in  this  instance  is  properly  denominated  in  Greek  aylvg, 
and  was  rather  an  obscuration,  than  a  total  extinction  of  the  sight. 
It  was  occasioned  by  a  thin  coat  or  tunicle  of  hard  substance, 
which  spread  itself  over  a  portion  of  the  eye,  and  interrupted  the 
power  of  vision.  Hence  the  disease  is  likewise  called  axoro?,  or 
darkness.  It  was  easily  cured,  and  sometimes  even  healed  of  it- 
self, without  resort  to  any  medical  prescription.  Hence  Paul  adds, 
"  not  seeing  the  sun  for  a  season." 

§  202.  Disease  of  Herod  Agrippa. 

Josephus,  (Antiq.  XIX.  8.  2.)  and  Luke,  (Acts  12: 23.)  attribute 
the  disease,  with  which  Herod  died,  to  the  immediate  agency  of 
God  ;  because  he  so  readily  received  the  idolatrous  acclamations 

30 


234 


§  203.  ON  DEATH. 


of  the  people,  who  hailed  and  honoured  him,  as  a  Divinity.  Jose- 
phus  says,  the  disease  was  in  the  intestines.  But  he  perverts  his 
statement  hy  the  intermixture  of  certain  superstitious  and  incredible 
notions. 

Luke,  who  was  a  physician,  says  more  definitely  and  accurately, 
that  Herod  was  consumed  with  worms,  which  in  eastern  countries 
frequently  prey  upon  the  intestines.  Josephus  observes,  that  he 
died  on  the  fifth  day  after  the  attack. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

CONCERNING  DEATH,  BURIALS,  AND 
MOURNING. 

§  203.  On  Death. 

The  Hebrews  regarded  life,  as  a  journey,  as  a  pilgrimage  on 
the  face  of  the  earth.  The  traveller,  as  they  supposed,  when  he 
arrived  at  the  end  of  this  journey,  which  happened  when  he  died, 
was  received  into  the  company  of  his  ancestors,  who  had  gone  be- 
fore him,  Gen.  25:  8.  35:  29.  37:35.  Ps.  39:  12;  comp.  Heb.  11: 
13,  15.  Eccles.  12:  7.  Reception  into  the  presence  of  God  at 
death  is  asserted  in  only  two  passages  of  the  Old  Testament,  viz. 
Haggai  2:  23.  and  Eccles.  12:  7. 

Opinions  of  this  kind,  (viz.  that  life  is  a  journey,  that  death  is 
the  end  of  that  journey,  and  that,  when  one  dies,  he  mingles  with 
the  hosts,  who  have  gone  before,)  are  the  origin  and  ground  of  such 
phrases,  as  the  following  ;  to  be  gathered  to  one's  people,  Vtt  ?]0Nn 
■PBS,  Num.  20:  24,  26.  Deut.  32:  50.  Gen.  25:  8,  9.  35:  29.  49:  29. 
Jer.  8:  2.  25:  33.  and  to  go  to  one' s  fathers,  Vrriaa  ,  fioa  Gen. 
15:  15.  37:  35.  This  visiting  of  the  fathers  has  reference  to  the  im- 
mortal part,  and  is  clearly  distinguished,  in  many  of  the  passages 
above  quoted,  from  the  mere  burial  of  the  body.    See  Gen.  37:  35. 

A  person,  when  dying  was  said  to  go,  to  depart,  or  to  be  dismis- 


§  203.   ON  DEATH. 


235 


sed,  -nogevta^ai,  (iudt&iv,  azioXvt'o&ui,  !}bl"T ,  ^b^  ,  Tob.  3:  6,  13. 
John  7:  33.  8:  21.  16:  16,  17.  2  Cor.  5:  6—9.  Philip,  t:  13.  2  Tim. 
4:  6.  Luke  2:  29.  22:  22.  comp.  the  Septuagint  in  Gen.  15:  2,  15. 
and  Num.  20:  26.  In  those  parts  of  the  Bible,  which  were  writ- 
ten at  a  comparatively  recent  period,  there  occur  such  expres- 
sions, as  the  following  ;  to  sleep  among  one's  fathers,  -pninN  tU? 
2  Sam.  7:  12.  1  K.  11:  21 ;  and  in  all  parts  of  the  Bible,  such  as 
the  following,  to  give  up  the  ghost,  and  no  longer  to  be  or  exist,  in 
Hebrew  ana,  r&3*K,  Gen.  42:  13.  Num.  20:  3,  29.  Gen.  31:  15. 
Ps.  37:  10.  36.  39:  13.  103:  16.  Mark  15:  37. 

Some  suppose,  that  the  expressions  and  descriptions,  which 
occur  in  Gen.  5:  24.  Ecclus.  44:  16.  Wisd.  4:  10.  Heb.  11:  5.  and 
2  K.  2:  12.  are  of  a  poetical  character,  which  convey,  when  truly 
interpreted,  no  other  idea,  than  that  of  natural  death. 

Sometimes  the  Hebrews  regarded  death,  as  a  friendly  messen- 
ger, but  they  were  more  frequently  inclined  to  dread  him,  as  a  for- 
midable enemy.  Impressed  with  a  sense  of  the  terrors,  which 
were  the  consequence  of  his  visitations,  their  imaginations  impart- 
ed to  him  a  poetical  existence  in  the  character  of  a  hunter,  armed 
him  with  a  dart  or  javelin,  m'vigov,  with  a  net,  and  with 

a  snare,  fc"Tj3,  b'MXV  "^&rT,  ^^i0^  "^p^-  Thus  equip- 
ped, this  fearful  invader  commenced  his  artifices  against  the  chil- 
dren of  men,  and  when  he  had  taken  them  captive,  slew  them,  2 
Sam.  26:  6.  Ps.  18:  5,  6.  116:  3.  1  Cor.  15:  55,  56. 

The  wild  fancy  of  some  of  the  Poets  went  still  further,  and 
represented  Death,  n^ft  ,  as  the  king  of  the  Lower  World,  and  fit- 
ted up  for  him  a  subterranean  palace,  denominated  Sheol  and 
Hades,  Vifitiij } " Aib^q,  in  which  he  exercised  sovereignty  over  all 
men,  (including  kings  and  warriours,)  who  had  departed  from  this 
upper  state  of  existence.  This  place  occurs  also  under  the  phra- 
ses, rntt  ''I^TB  ,  and  al  nvXai  tov  qdov,  the  gates  of  Death  or  Hades, 
Job  38:17.  Ps.  9:  13.  49:  15.  107:  18.  Is.  38: 10,  18.  Matt.  16: 
IS.  Such  are  the  attributes  of  this  place,  its  situation,  its  ruler, 
and  its  subjects  that  it  might  very  justly  be  denominated  Death's 
royal  palace,  comp.  2  Sam.  15:  2. 

Mention  is  made  of  the  rivers  of  Hades,  in  Ps.  18:  4,  5. 

The  more  recent  Hebrews,  adhering  too  strictly  to  the  letter 
of  their  Scriptures,  exercised  their  ingenuity,  and  put  in  requisi- 
tion their  faith,  to  furnish  the  monarch  Death  with  a  subordinate 


236         §  204.  TREATMENT  OF  THE  CORPSE,  EMBALMING. 


agent  or  angel,  n?.JB*3  l*^7? ,  viz.  the  prince  of  bad  spirits,  6  Aia- 
(jolog,  otherwise  called  Sammael,  and  also  Ashmodai,  and  known 
in  the  New  Testament  by  the  phrases,  6  ug%a)v  tov  xoopov,  ^"n 
DiriSJT,  o  to  xgcczog  tov  OavuTOv  tywv,  6  migdCcov,  the  prince  of 
this  world,  who  hath  the  power  of  death,  the  tempter.  The  He- 
brews, accordingly,  in  enumerating  the  attributes  and  offices  of  the 
prime  minister  of  the  terrific  king  of  Hades,  represent  him  as  in 
the  habit  of  making  his  appearance  in  the  presence  of  God,  and 
demanding  at  the  hand  of  the  Divinity  the  extinction,  in  any  given 
instance,  of  human  life,  (see  Jude  chap.  i.).  Having  obtained  per- 
mission to  that  effect,  he  does  not  fail  of  making  a  prompt  exhibi- 
tion of  himself  to  the  sick  ;  he  then  gives  them  drops  of  poison, 
which  they  drink  and  die.  Comp.  John  14:  30.  Heb.  2:  14.  Hence 
originate  the  phrases,  "  to  taste  of  death,"  and  "  to  drink  the  cup  of 
death,"  which  are  found  also  among  the  Syrians,  Arabians,  and 
Persians,  tMatt.  16:  28.  Mark  9:  1.  Luke  9:  27.  John  8:  52. 
Heb.  2:  9. 

[Note.  For  some  well  written  and  learned  remarks  on  the  mean- 
ing, which  was  attached  by  the  ancient  Hebrews  to  the  term  Sheol, 
the  reader  is  referred  to  Dr.  Campbell's  Preliminary  Dissertations 
to  the  Gospels,  Diss.  VI.  Pt.  2. 

The  subject  of  the  Devil  and  of  wicked  angels  in  general  is  ex- 
amined in  the  Biblical  Theology  of  Storr  and  Flatt,  recently  trans- 
lated into  English  by  Professor  S.  S.  Schmucker.  The  real  exis- 
tence of  evil  spirits,  and  the  relation  in  which  they  stand  to  the  hu- 
man family,  is  concisely  but  satisfactorily  illustrated  in  that  valua- 
ble work.] 

§  204.  Treatment  of  the  corpse.  Embalming. 

The  friends  or  sons  of  the  deceased  closed  his  eyes,  Gen.  46:  4. 
The  corpse  *j>S>  ,  n^33 ,  ntoSS ,  a)03  ,  n73 ,  was  washed  with  wa- 
ter, and,  except  when  buried  immediately,  was  laid  out  in  an  upper 
room  or  chamber,  Tr\v  vnegtuov  2  K.  4:  21.  Acts  9:  37. 

The  treatment  of  the  lifeless  body  has  not  always  been  the  same 
in  every  age,  but  has  varied  both  in  different  ages,  and  in  different 
countries. 

The  Egyptians  embalmed  D2ft,  the  body.  They  had  three 
methods  of  performing  this  operation,  and,  in  determining  which 


§  204.  TREATMENT  OF  THE  CORPSE,  EMBALMING.  2.37 

of  these  methods  should  be  followed  in  any  given  case,  the  pro- 
minent inquiry  was  in  respect  to  the  rank  and  wealth  of  the  deceas- 
ed person.  The  first  method  was  adopted  in  the  embalming  of  Ja- 
cob and  Joseph ;  it  was  very  costly,  and  required,  in  defrayment  of 
the  expense,  more  than  two  thousand  florins,  Gen.  50:  2,  26. 

Herodotus,  (II.  86—88.)  states,  that  a  priest,  (one,  who  at  the 
same  time  had  some  knowledge  of  the  medical  art,)  designated  to 
the  operator  a  place  below  the  ribs,  on  the  left  side  of  the  deceas- 
ed person,  for  the  incision.  The  operator,  he  observes,  had  no 
sooner  made  the  incision,  than  he  fled  with  the  greatest  precipita- 
tion, for  he  was  immediately  attacked  with  stones  by  the  bystand- 
ers, as  one,  who  had  violated  the  dead.  The  rest  of  the  priests, 
who,  like  the  one,  that  had  designated  the  place  for  the  incision, 
were  in  some  degree  acquainted  with  medicine,  extracted  the  in- 
testines, washed  the  body  externally  with  water,  and  internally 
with  the  wine  of  the  palm  tree,  and  then  anointed  it  with  a  com- 
position of  myrrh,  cassia,  salt  of  nitre,  &.c.  The  brain  was  taken 
out  by  a  crooked  piece  of  iron  through  the  nose,  and  the  cranium 
was  filled  with  aromatic  substances. 

The  whole  body  was  then  wrapped  round  with  linen,  while 
each  member  of  the  body  was  at  the  same  time  bound  separately 
with  pieces  of  the  same  materials.  The  process  of  embalming  oc- 
cupied thirty  or  forty  days,  Gen.  50:  2,  26.  The  two  other  modes 
of  embalming,  which  occupied  but  a  short  time,  it  is  not  espe- 
cially necessary,  that  we  should  undertake,  at  the  present  time  to 
describe. 

After  the  body  was  embalmed,  it  was  placed  in  a  box  of  syca- 
more wood,  which  was  fashioned  externally  so  as  to  resemble  the 
human  form,  and  was  in  this  way  preserved  in  the  house,  some- 
times for  ages,  leaning  against  the  wall,  Exod.  13:  19.  comp.  Gen. 
50:  24,  25.  Josh.  24:  32.  see  also  the  large  German  edit,  of  this 
Work,  P.  I.  Vol.  II.  tab.  X.  no.  I.  This  is  the  account  of  embalm- 
ing, as  far  as  the  Egyptians,  and  those  who  were  immediately  con- 
nected with  them,  are  concerned. 

In  respect  to  this  practice  or  art,  as  it  existed  among  the  He- 
brews, we  have  authority  for  saying  as  far  as  this,  that  it  was 
their  custom,  in  the  more  recent  periods  of  their  history,  to  wrap 
the  body  round  with  many  folds  of  linen,  and  to  place  the  head  in 
a  napkin,  John  11:  44.    (The  general  term,  that  is  used  in  the 


238 


§  205.   OF  FUNERALS. 


New  Testament,  to  include  the  whole  of  the  grave-clothes,  is 
o&ovia.)  It  was  their  custom  likewise  to  expend  upon  the  dead 
aromatic  substances,  especially  myrrh  and  aloes,  which  were  brought 
from  Arabia.  This  ceremony  is  expressed  by  the  Greek  verb  tvxa- 
qia£ti,v}  and  was  performed  by  the  neighbours  and  relations,  Matt. 
26:6—14.  27:59.  John  19:  39,  40.  20:7.  11:44.  Mark  14:  8. 
Acts  9:  37.  There  is  reason  to  believe,  that  the  more  ancient  He- 
brews, although  it  cannot  be  proved  by  direct  and  decisive  testimo- 
ny, pursued  the  same  course  in  regard  to  the  dead,  with  their  de- 
scendants. 

§  205.  Of  Funerals. 

The  ceremonies  at  the  burial  of  the  dead  were  different  in  dif- 
ferent countries ;  but  in  every  country  it  was  considered  a  most 
ignominious  procedure,  to  deprive  the  corpse  of  interment,  and  to 
leave  it  exposed  to  the  depredations  of  wild  beasts  and  birds. 

Heroes,  accordingly,  (such  was  the  disgrace  attached  to  non-in- 
terment,) were  in  the  habit  of  threatening,  as  a  mark  of  their  in- 
dignation and  contempt,  this  dishonour  to  their  adversaries  in  bat- 
tle. The  prophets,  in  like  manner,  when  putting  in  requisition 
the  powers  of  their  imagination  in  order  to  give  an  impressive 
picture  of  any  fearful  and  approaching  devastations  by  war,  re- 
present such  a  state  of  things,  as  a  feast,  which  God  would  make 
from  human  corpses,  for  the  birds  of  heaven,  and  for  the  beasts  of 
the  forest,  1  Sam.  17:  44—46.  31:  8—13.  2  Sam.  4:  12.  21:  9,  10. 
1  K.  14:  11—14.  Jer.  7:  33.  8:  2.  16:  4.  34:  20.  Ezek.  29:  5. 
32:  4.  39:  17—20.  Ps.  63:  10.  79:  2—3.  Is.  14:  19.  The  patri- 
archs buried  their  dead  in  a  few  days  after  death,  Gen.  23:  2 — 4. 
25:  9.  35:  29.  Their  posterity  in  Egypt  seem  to  have  deferred 
burial.  It  is  probable,  that  Moses  in  reference  to  this  practice  ex- 
tended the  uncleanness,  contracted  by  means  of  a  corpse,  to  seven 
days,  in  order  to  make  the  people  hasten  the  ceremony  of  interment. 

In  a  subsequent  age,  the  Jews  imitated  the  example  of  the  Per- 
sians, and  buried  the  body  very  soon  after  death,  Acts  5:  6,  10. 
The  interment  of  Tabitha,  (Acts  9:  37.)  was  delayed  on  account 
of  sending  for  Peter.  The  children,  friends,  relations,  or  servants 
of  the  deceased  took  the  charge  of  his  burial,  Gen.  23:  19.  25:  9. 


§  206.   SITUATION  OF  SEPULCHRES.  239 

35:  29.  48:  7.  Num.  20:  28.  1  K.  13:  30.  2  K.  23:  30.  Mark  6: 
29.  Matt.  27:  59,  GO. 

A  box  or  coffin  for  the  dead,  p^N,  was  not  used,  except  in 
Babylon  and  Egypt.  The  corpse  was  wrapped  in  folds  of  linen, 
and  placed  upon  a  bier,  in  the  Hebrew  and  ni273  ,  Deut.  3: 

J 1  ;  and  was  then  carried  by  four  or  six  persons  to  the  tomb. 
The  bearers  appear  to  have  travelled  very  rapidly  in  the  time  of 
Christ,  as  they  do  at  the  present  day  among  the  modern  Jews, 
Luke  7:  14. 

The  mourners,  who  followed  the  bier,  poured  forth  the  an- 
guish of  their  hearts  in  lamentable  wails :  and  what  rendered  the 
ceremony  still  more  affecting,  there  were  eulogists  and  musicians 
in  attendance,  who  deepened  the  sympathetic  feelings  of  the  oc- 
casion, by  a  rehearsal  of  the  virtues  of  the  departed,  and  by  the 
accompaniment  of  melancholy  sounds,  Gen.  50:  7 — 11.  2  Sam.  3: 
31,  32.  Amos  5:  16.  Matt.  9:  23.  11:  17.  Men,  who  were  distin- 
guished for  their  rank,  and  who  at  the  same  time  exhibited  a 
claim  to  the  love  and  to  the  favour  of  the  people,  for  their  virtues, 
and  their  good  deeds,  were  honoured  with  an  attendance  of  vast 
multitudes,  to  witness  the  solemnities  of  their  interment,  Gen.  50: 
7—14.  1  Sam.  25:  1.  2Chron.  32:  33.  1  K.  14:  13.  To  bury, 
and  to  pay  due  honours  to  the  remains  of  the  dead,  was  consider- 
ed, in  the  later  periods  of  the  Jewish  state,  not  only  an  act  due 
to  decency  and  the  common  feelings  of  humanity,  but  a  religious 
duty,  Tob.  1:  12—19.  2:  4—8.  4:  17,  18.  12:  12,  13.  Eccles.  7: 
31.  Acts  8:  2. 

§  206.  Situation  of  Sepulchres. 

Sepulchres,  otherwise  called  the  everlasting  houses,  were 
commonly  situated  beyond  the  limits  of  cities  and  villages,  Is.  14: 
18.  Eccles.  12:  5.  Luke  7:  12.  Matt.  8:  28.  The  Mosaic  law  re- 
specting defilement  by  means  of  dead  bodies,  seemed  to  render  it 
necessary,  that  they  should  not  be  located  within  them.  And  still 
it  was  as  much  the  custom  among  other  nations,  as  among  the 
Hebrews,  (and  indeed  continues  to  be  the  practice  to  the  present 
day  in  the  East,)  to  bury  out  of  the  city  ;  except  in  the  case  of  kings 
and  very  distinguished  men,  whose  ashes  are  commonly  permitted 


240 


§  207.  SEPULCHRES. 


to  repose  within  it,  comp.  1  Sam.  23:  3.  2  K.  21:  18.  2  Ghroo.  16: 
14.  24:  16. 

The  sepulchres  of  the  Hebrew  kings  were  upon  mount  Zion, 
2  Chron.  21:  20.  24:  25.  28:  27.  2  K.  14:  20. 

With  the  exception  to  be  made  in  respect  to  the  situation  of 
the  tombs  of  their  kings,  the  Hebrews  generally  exhibited  a  pre- 
ference for  burying  their  dead  in  gardens,  and  beneath  shady  trees, 
Gen.  23:  17.  35:  6.  1  Sam.  31:  13.  2  K.  21:  18,  26.  23:  10.  John 
19:  41.  But  as  such  situations,  viz.  groves  and  gardens,  belonged 
of  course  to  individuals,  the  inference  is,  (what  indeed  we  learn 
from  other  sources,)  that  sepulchres  were  the  property  of  a  sin- 
gle person,  or  of  a  number  of  families  united  together,  Gen.  23:  4 
—20.  50:  13.  Judg.  16:  31.  2  Sam.  2:  32.  There  were  some  bu- 
rial places,  however,  which  were  either  common,  2  K.  23:  6.  Jer. 
26:  23,  or  allotted  to  a  certain  class  of  people,  Matt.  27:  7. 

To  be  buried  in  the  sepulchre  of  one's  fathers,  was  a  distin- 
guished honour  ;  to  be  excluded  from  it,  was  as  signal  a  disgrace. 
In  consequence  of  this  feeling,  the  bodies  of  enemies,  who  had  fal- 
len in  war,  were  delivered  up  to  their  friends  to  be  buried,  though 
in  some  instances  when  petitioned  for,  they  were  denied,  Gen.  40: 
29.  50:  13,  25.  Judg.  16:  31.  2  Sam.  19:  37,  38.  2  K.  9:  28.  Jer. 
26:  23.  This  honour  was  denied  to  those,  who  died  while  infect- 
ed with  the  leprosy,  2  Chron.  26:  23.  Those  kings  also,  who  had 
incurred  the  hatred  of  the  people,  were  not  permitted  to  be  bu- 
ried in  the  royal  tombs,  2  Chron.  21:  20.  24:  25.  28:  27.  Hence 
we  are  commonly  informed  in  respect  to  kings  of  an  opposite  char- 
acter, that  they  were  buried  with  funeral  honours,  in  the  tombs  of 
their  ancestors,  1  K.  11:  43.  14:31.  15:  8,  etc.  To  be  buried 
like  an  ass,  i.  e.  without  mourning,  and  lamentation,  was  considered 
a  very  great  disgrace,  Jer.  22:  16 — 19.  35:  30. 

§207.  Sepulchres. 

The  sepulchres  or  burying  places  of  the  common  class  of  peo- 
ple were,  without  doubt,  mere  excavations  in  the  earth,  such  as 
are  commonly  made  at  the  present  day  in  the  East.  Persons,  who 
sustained  a  higher  rank,  were  more  rich,  or  more  powerful,  own- 
ed subterranean  recesses,  crypts,  or  caverns,  which  are  sometimes 
denominated  TTVPfo  ,  sometimes  SrriTtB  ,  ftrjnp,  nia,  sometimes  nij:, 


§  207.   NOTE  I.   ON  THE  SEPULCHRES  OF  THE  KINGS.  241 

tn^ip  (the  usual  name  for  places  of  interment,)  and  in  the  New 
Testament,  xotcpog  and  fivrjfitiov,  Gen.  23:  6.  Matt.  23:  27,  29.  27: 
52,  53.  (The  word  biNtt)  also,  in  Psalm  141:  7.  means  a  burying 
place.)  These  large  subterranean  places  of  interment  were,  in 
some  instances,  the  work  of  nature,  in  some,  were  merely  artificial 
excavations  of  the  earth,  and  in  others,  were  cut  out  from  rocks, 
Gen.  23:  2.  et  seq.  Josh.  10:  27.  Is.  22:  16.  2  K.  13:  21.  John  11: 
38.  19:  41.  Matt.  27:  52,  60.  Numerous  sepulchres  of  this  kind 
still  remain  in  Syria,  in  Palestine,  and  in  Egypt.  The  most  beau- 
tiful, called  the  royal  sepulchres,  are  situated  in  the  north  part  of 
Jerusalem,  and  were  probably  the  work  of  either  Helen,  queen  of 
Assyria,  or  of  the  Herods ;  Josephus,  Jewish  War,  V.  4.  2.  p.  843. 

The  entrance  into  these  sepulchres  was  by  a  decent  over  a 
number  of  steps.  Many  of  them  consisted  of  two,  three,  and  even 
seven  apartments.  There  were  niches  in  the  walls,  where  the 
dead  bodies  were  deposited.  The  interiour  chambers  of  sepul- 
chres, those  the  farthest  removed  from  the  first  entrance,  were 
deeper  than  the  others,  and  were  approached  by  a  flight  of  descend- 
ing steps,  2  Chron.  32:  33.  Ps.  88:  6.  Is.  14:  15. 

The  entrance  was  closed,  either  by  stone  doors,  or  by  a  flat 
stone  placed  against  the  mouth  of  it,  Ps.  5:  9.  John  11:  38.  20:  5, 
11.  Matt.  28:  2.  Mark  16:  3,  4. 

The  doors  of  sepulchres,  indeed  the  whole  external  surface, 
unless  they  were  so  conspicuous  without  it,  as  to  be  readily  dis- 
covered and  known,  were  painted  white  on  the  last  month  of  every 
year,  i.  e.  the  month  of  Adar.  The  object  of  this  practice  was, 
by  a  timely  warning,  to  prevent  those,  who  came  to  the  feast  of 
the  Passover,  from  approaching  them,  and  thus  becoming  contami- 
nated, Matt.  23:  27.  Luke  11:  44.  In  Egypt  there  are  still  found 
the  remains  of  very  splendid  sepulchres,  which,  when  we  consid- 
er their  antiquity,  their  costliness,  and  the  consequent  notice, 
which  they  attracted,  account  for  the  expressions  in  Job  3:  14.  and 
17:  1. 

Note  I.  Maundrell  on  the  Sepulchres  of  the  Kings. 

["^The  next  place  we  came  to  was  those  famous  grots  called 
the  sepulchres  of  the  kings ;  but  for  what  reason  they  go  by  that 
name  is  hard  to  resolve :  for  it  is  certain  none  of  the  kings  either 
of  Israel  or  Judah  were  buried  here,  the  holy  Scriptures  assign- 

31 


242     §  207.   NOTE  I.  ON  THE  SEPULCHRES  OF  THE  KINGS. 


ing  other  places  for  their  sepultures  :  unless  it  may  be  thought 
perhaps  that  Hezekiah  was  here  interred,  and  that  these  were  the 
sepulchres  of  the  sons  of  David,  mentioned  2  Chron.  32:  33.  Who- 
ever was  buried  here,  this  is  certain,  that  the  place  itself  disco- 
vers so  great  an  expense  both  of  labour  and  treasure,  that  we  may 
well  suppose  it  to  have  been  the  work  of  kings.  You  approach 
to  it  at  the  east  side,  through  an  entrance  cut  out  of  the  natural 
rock,  which  admits  you  into  an  open  court  of  about  forty  paces 
square,  cut  down  into  the  rock  with  which  it  is  encompassed  in- 
stead of  walls.  On  the  south  side  of  the  court  is  a  portico  nine 
paces  long  and  four  broad,  hewn  likewise  out  of  the  natural  rock. 
This  has  a  kind  of  architrave  running  along  its  front,  adorned  with 
sculpture,  of  fruits  or  flowers,  still  discernible,  but  by  time  much 
defaced.  At  the  end  of  the  portico  on  the  left  hand  you  descend 
to  the  passage  into  the  sepulchres.  The  door  is  now  so  obstructed 
with  stones  and  rubbish,  that  it  is  a  thing  of  some  difficulty  to  creep 
through  it.  But  within,  you  arrive  in  a  large  fair  room,  about 
seven  or  eight  yards  square,  cut  out  of  the  natural  rock.  Its  sides 
and  ceiling  are  so  exactly  square,  and  its  angles  so  just,  that  no 
architect  with  levels  and  plummets  could  build  a  room  more  reg- 
ular. And  the  whole  is  so  firm  and  entire,  that  it  may  be  called 
a  chamber  hollowed  out  of  one  piece  of  marble.  From  this  room, 
you  pass  into,  I  think,  six  more,  one  within  another,  all  of  the 
same  fabric  with  the  first.  Of  these  the  two  innermost  ,  are  deeper 
than  the  rest,  having  a  second  descent  of  about  six  or  seven  steps 
into  them. 

"  In  every  one  of  these  rooms,  except  the  first,  were  coffins  of 
stone  placed  in  niches  in  the  sides  of  the  chamber.  They  had 
been  at  first  covered  with  handsome  lids,  and  carved  with  gar- 
lands :  but  now  most  of  them  were  broken  to  pieces  by  sacri- 
legious hands.  The  sides  and  ceiling  of  the  rooms  were  always 
dropping  with  the  moist  damps  condensing  upon  them.  To  remedy 
which  nuisance,  and  to  preserve  these  chambers  of  the  dead  polite 
and  clean,  there  was  in  each  room  a  small  channel  cut  in  the  floor, 
which  served  to  drain  the  drops  that  fall  constantly  into  it."  Maun- 
drell's  Travels,  p.  76.] 

Note  II.  Harmer  on  the  white-washing  of  Sepulchres. 

["  The  general  meaning  of  a  comparison  used  by  our  Lord  is 
obvious,  when  he  said,  Wo  unto  you,  Scribes  and  Pharisees,  hypo- 


§207.  NOTE  II.  ON  THE  WHITE- WASHING  OF  SEPULCHRES.  243 

erites  !  for  ye  are  like  unto  ivhited  sepulchres,  which  indeed  appear 
beautiful  outward,  but  are  within  full  of  dead  men's  bones,  and  of  all 
uncleanness,  Matt.  23:  27 ;  but  it  will  appear  with  greater  life,  if 
we  suppose,  that  the  Sepulchres  about.  Jerusalem  were  just  then 
white-washed  afresh,  which  I  should  suppose  is  extremely  probable, 
as  the  present  Eastern  sepulchres  are  fresh  done  upon  the  approach 
of  their  Ramadan. 

"  Such  is  the  account  of  Niebuhr,  in  the  first  volume  of  his 
Travels.  Speaking  there  of  Zebid,  a  city  of  Arabia,  which  had 
been  the  residence  of  a  Mohammedan  prince,  and  the  most  com- 
mercial city  of  all  the  country  of  that  part  of  Arabia,  but  which 
had  lost  much  of  its  ancient  splendour  in  these  respects,  he  adds, 
11  that  however,  Zebid  makes  yet,  at  a  distance,  the  most  beauti- 
ful appearance  of  all  the  cities  of  the  Tehama,  or  low  country, 
which  is  owing  to  their  clergy,  who  have  found  means  insensibly, 
to  appropriate  a  very  large  part  of  the  revenues  of  the  city  and 
adjoining  country,  to  themselves  and  the  mosques.  From  thence 
have  arisen  a  multitude  of  mosques  and  kubbets,  which  at  that 
time,  when  Ramadan  was  near  approaching,*  had  been  almost  all 
white-washed.  The  kubbets  are  little  buildings,  built  over  the 
tombs  of  rich  Mohammedans,  who  pass  for  saints." 

"  The  Passover  was  at  hand  when  our  Lord  made  this  compari- 
son, as  is  evident  from  the  context,  and  therefore,  it  is  likely  they 
were  just  then  whited  afresh,  when  the  season  for  such  rainy  and 
bad  weather  as  is  wont  to  wash  off  these  decorations  was  just 
over,  and  the  time  was  at  hand  when  Israel  were  about  to  assem- 
ble in  Jerusalem  at  their  national  solemnities,  which  were  all 
held  in  the  dry  part  of  the  year,  or  nearly  so :  the  rain  being  at 
least  just  over  at  the  time  of  the  Passover,  by  the  time  of  Pentecost 
it  was  gone  in  Judea,  and  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles  was  observed 
before  the  rain  was  wont  to  return. 

'*  But  whatever  was  the  time  of  white-washing  the  Jewish  se- 
pulchres anew,  we  may  believe  it  was  often  done  ;  since  to  this 
day,  the  people  of  those  countries  have  not  discovered  any  way 
of  so  whitening  these  buildings  as  to  make  it  durable."  Harmer's 
Observations,  Vol.  III.  p.  92.  Obs.  XXVIII.] 

*  Ramadan  is  a  kind  of  Mohammedan  Lent,  followed  by  a  festival,  as 
Lent,  in  the  English  Church,  is  followed  by  Easter. 


244 


§  209.   SEPULCHRAL  MONUMENTS. 


§  203.  Articles  which  were  buried  with  the  Dead. 

The  custom  prevailed  among  many  ancient  nations  of  throw- 
ing pieces  of  gold  and  silver,  also  other  precious  articles,  into  the 
sepulchres  of  those,  who  were  buried.  The  Hebrews  did  not 
think  proper  to  adopt  this  custom,  but  retained  those  precious 
gifts  for  the  use  of  the  living,  which  other  nations  chose  to  bestow 
upon  the  dead.  There  was  this  exception,  however,  in  the  case 
of  the  Hebrews,  that  they  sometimes  buried  with  their  departed 
monarchs  the  appropriate  ensigns  of  their  authority,  and  sometimes 
deposited  in  the  tomb  of  their  lifeless  warriours  the  armour,  which 
they  had  worn  while  living,  Ezek.  32:  27. 

Herod,  when  he  opened  and  examined  the  tomb  of  David, 
found  within  it  the  ensigns  of  royal  authority.  Josephus,  (Antiq. 
XVI.  1.  11.)  states,  that  John  Hyrcanus  found  a  treasure  in  the 
sepulchre  of  David.  If  this  were  the  fact,  the  treasure  in  ques- 
tion could  have  been  no  other,  than  that,  which  was  deposited  there 
by  Antiochus  Epiphanes. 

§  209.  Sepulchral  Monuments,  iTOXB  ,  /Avrj^ie7ov. 

Mention  is  made  of  such  monuments  in  various  instances  from 
the  time  of  Abraham  down  to  the  time  of  Christ,  Gen.  19:  20.  35: 
20.  2  K.  23:  16,  17.  1  Mace.  13:  25—30.  Matt.  23:  29.  The  an- 
cient Arabians  erected  a  heap  of  stones  over  the  body  of  the  dead, 
Job  21:  32.  Among  the  Hebrews,  such  a  heap  was  an  indication, 
that  the  person  was  stoned,  and  was  of  course  a  mark  of  ignominy, 
Josh.  7:  26.  8:  27,  29.  2  Sam.  18:  17. 

In  progress  of  time,  one  stone  only,  instead  of  a  heap,  was  se- 
lected and  raised  up  as  a  monument.  It  was,  as  might  be  expect- 
ed, a  large  one,  and,  at  a  subsequent  period  still,  it  was  customa- 
ry to  hew  it,  and  ornament  it  with  inscriptions.  Sepulchral  stones 
of  this  kind  are  very  ancient,  and  are  common  to  this  day  in  the 
East.  The  Egyptians,  like  the  Arabians,  were  in  the  habit  of 
throwing  together  heaps  of  stones  in  honour  of  the  dead.  After 
the  practice  had  once  commenced,  they  gradually  increased  the 
heap  to  a  very  great  size,  till  at  length  they  exerted  their  inge- 
nuity and  their  power,  in  the  erection  of  those  mountains  of  stone, 
as  they  may  be  termed,  the  pyramids. 

Anciently  monuments  of  another  kind,  resembling  small  obe- 


§210.  BURNING  OF  THE  CORPSE. 


245 


lisks  or  columns  of  a  large  size,  were  likewise  erected,  and  some  of 
them  are  standing  at  the  present  day  in  Syria. 

The  inhabitants  of  the  East  of  the  present  age  are  in  the  habit 
of  erecting  over  the  burial  places  of  those  Mohammedans,  who 
have  been  distinguished  for  the  sanctity  of  their  life,  small  houses, 
supported  on  four  columns,  and  displaying  an  arched  roof.  These 
edifices  are  repaired  and  ornamented  by  the  great,  who  desire  to 
obtain  the  popular  favour,  in  much  the  same  way,  that  those  of 
the  prophets  were  in  the  time  of  Christ,  Matt.  23:  29. 

The  monument,  erected  in  honour  of  the  Maccabees  at  Modin,  is 
described  in  the  first  Book  of  Maccabees,  13:  27.  It  was  raised  of 
square  stones,  and  was  very  high.  In  the  front  of  it  were  seven 
pyramids,  and  round  about  many  columns,  upon  the  tops  of  which 
were  placed  large  stones,  extending  from  one  to  the  other.  The 
delineation  of  some  parts  of  this  monument  is  still  seen  upon  an- 
cient coins.  As  far  as  we  can  judge  from  the  representation  of 
it,  given  upon  these  coins,  one  would  conclude  that  it  resembled 
in  some  degree  the  monuments  of  those  Mohammedans,  who  had 
gained  a  celebrity  for  their  piety. 

§  210.  Burning  of  the  Corpse. 

The  ancient  Hebrews  considered  burning  the  body  a  matter  of 
very  great  reproach,  and  rarely  did  it,  except  when  they  wished, 
together  with  the  greatest  punishment,  to  inflict  the  greatest  ig- 
nominy, Gen.  38:  24.  The  body  of  Saul,  which  had  been  suspend- 
ed by  the  Philistines  on  the  walls  of  Bethshan,  was  burnt  by  the 
inhabitants  of  Jabesh  Gilead  from  necessity,  not  to  inflict,  but  to 
preserve  it  from  further  disgrace,  1  Sam.  31:  12. 

The  sentiment  in  respect  to  the  burning  of  bodies  seems  at  a 
later  period  to  have  been  changed.  An  hundred  and  forty  years 
after  Saul,  king  Asa  was  burnt  with  many  aromatic  substances,  not 
as  an  indication  of  disgrace,  but  as  an  honour.  This  ceremo- 
ny in  the  case  of  Asa  is  not  spoken  of,  as  if  it  were  a  new  thing, 
and  it  had  probably  been  introduced,  at  least  some  little  time  pre- 
viously. After  the  time  of  Asa,  the  revolution  of  sentiment  in  re- 
gard to  burning  was  so  complete,  that,  while  burning  was  consid- 
ered the  most  distinguished  honour,  not  to  be  burnt  was  regarded 
a  most  signal  disgrace,  2  Chron.  16:  14.  21:  19.  Amos  6:  10.  Jer. 
34:  5. 


246 


§211.   OF  MOURNING. 


Another  change  of  sentiment  eventually  took  place.  After 
the  captivity,  the  Jews  conceived  a  great  hatred  to  this  rite.  The 
Talmudists  in  consequence  of  this  endeavoured  to  pervert  the  pas- 
sages respecting  it,  and  to  induce  a  belief,  that  the  aromatic  sub- 
stances alone,  and  not  the  body,  were  burnt. 

§  21 1.  Of  Mourning. 

The  grief  of  the  Orientals  formerly,  on  an  occasion  of  death, 
was,  as  it  is  to  this  day  in  the  East,  very  extreme.  As  soon  as  a 
person  dies,  the  females  in  the  family  with  a  loud  voice  set  up  a 
sorrowful  cry.  They  continue  it  as  long  as  they  can,  without 
taking  breath,  and  the  first  shriek  of  wailing  dies  away  in  a  low 
sob.  After  a  short  space  of  time,  they  repeat  the  same  cry,  and 
continue  it  for  eight  days.  Every  day,  however,  it  becomes  less 
frequent  and  less  audible. 

Until  the  corpse  is  carried  away  from  the  house,  the  women, 
who  are  related  to  the  deceased,  sit  on  the  ground  together,  in  a 
circle,  in  a  separate  apartment.  The  wife,  or  daughter,  or  other 
nearest  relation  of  the  deceased  occupies  the  centre,  and  each  one 
holds  in  her  hand  a  napkin. 

At  the  present  day,  there  are  present  on  such  an  occasion,  as 
there  were  anciently,  eulogists,  ni2Dp73  who  chant  in  mournful 
strains  the  virtues  of  the  dead.  When  the  one,  who  sat  in  the  cen- 
tre gave  the  sign  with  her  napkin,  the  persons  who  recalled,  (so 
much  to  their  credit,)  the  memory  of  the  departed,  remained  si- 
lent. The  rest  of  the  females  arose,  and,  wrapping  together  their 
napkins,  ran,  like  mad  persons.  But  the  nearest  relation  remain- 
ed in  her  position,  tearing  her  hair,  and  wounding  her  face,  arms, 
and  breast  with  her  nails,  comp.  Gen.  50:  3.  Num.  20:  29.  Deut. 
34:  8.  1  Sam.  31:  13.  In  addition  to  the  persons,  whose  appropri- 
ate business  it  was  to  eulogize  the  dead,  there  were  sometimes 
employed,  on  such  occasions,  professed  musicians  and  singers, 
^i-p ,  "^V"  particularly  in  ancient  times,  Amos  5:  16.  Jer.  9:  20.  48: 
36.'  Matt.  9:  23.  Luke  7:  32. 

The  lamentations,  which  are  denominated  in  Hebrew  ,  ^r»D , 
,  rtS^P,  began,  for  the  most  part,  as  follows.  "  Alas,  alas,  my 
brother  /"  or  "  Alas,  alas,  my  sister  !  Or  if  the  king  were  dead, 
"Alas,  alas,  the  king!"  1  Kgs.  13:29,30.  2  Chron.  35.  2  Sam. 
1:  12.  3:  33.  Jer.  34:  5.    The  men  at  the  present  day  are  more 


§211.  OF  MOURNING. 


247 


moderate  in  their  grief ;  yet  there  are  not  wanting  instances  notv, 
nor  were  there  wanting  such  formerly,  in  which  they  indulged  in 
deep  and  overwhelming  sorrow,  2  Sam.  1:  11,  12.  19:  4.  It  was 
customary  for  the  women  after  the  burial  to  go  to  the  tomb,  and 
to  pour  out  their  grief  and  their  lamentations  there,  John  11:31. 
There  were  many  other  indications  of  a  person's  grief  at  the  death 
of  his  friends,  beside  those,  which  have  been  mentioned.  Among 
the  most  common  was  that  of  rending  the  garment,  (either  the 
outer  garment  or  the  inner,  or  both)  from  the  neck  in  front,  down 
to  the  girdle.  Such  is  the  custom  at  the  present  day  in  Persia, 
Gen.  37:  34.  Judg.  11:  35.  2  Sam.  1:  2.  3:  31.  2  K.  5:  7,  8.  6:  30. 
We  see,  in  this  custom,  the  origin  of  the  word  pip  sack-cloth,  from 

the  Arabic  word  i^Jtjk  to  tear  or  rend. 

The  Hebrews,  when  in  mourning,  sometimes  walked  with 
their  shoes  off,  and  with  their  heads  uncovered.  They  concealed 
the  chin  with  their  outer  garment,  tore  or  dishevelled  their  hair 
and  beard,  or  at  least  neglected  to  take  proper  care  of  them. 
They  were  forbidden  to  shave  off  their  eyebrows  on  such  occa- 
sions, Deut.  14:  1,  2.  Oppressed  with  sensations  of  grief,  they 
refused  to  anoint  their  heads,  to  bathe,  or  to  converse  with  peo- 
ple; they  scattered  dust  and  ashes  into  the  air,  or  placed  them 
upon  their  heads,  or  laid  down  in  them,  Job  1:  20.  2:  12.  Lev.  10: 
6.  13:  45.  21:  10.  2  Sam.  1:  2—4.  14:  2.  13: 19.  15:  30.  19:  4.  Jer. 
6:  26.  They  struck  together  their  hands,  or  tossed  them  towards 
the  sky,  smote  the  thigh  and  breast,  and  stamped  with  the  foot,  2 
Sam.  13:  19.  Jer.  31:  19.  Ezek.  6:  11.  21:  12.  Est.  4:  1,  3.  They 
wounded  their  faces  with  their  nails,  although  this  was  expressly 
prohibited  in  Leviticus  19:  28.  and  Deuteronomy  14:  1,  2.  They 
fasted,  abstained  from  wine,  and  avoided  mingling  in  festivals,  2 
Sam.  1:  11,  12.  3:  35.  12:  16.  Jer.  25:  34.  Elegies  were  compos- 
ed on  the  death  of  those  who  held  a  distinguished  rank  in  socie- 
ty, 2  Sam.  3:  33.  After  the  burial,  the  persons,  who  lived  near 
the  mourners,  prepared  food  for  them,  in  order  to  refresh  them, 
after  such  a  season  of  suffering  and  grief.  The  refreshment  sup- 
plied at  such  a  season  was  sometimes  denominated  t^DTN  Efrb  the 
bread  of  bitterness,  and  sometimes  CPfchDn  D13  the  cup  of  consola- 
tion, 2  Sam.  3:  35.  Jer.  16:  4,  7.  Hos.  9:4.  Ezek.  24:  16,  17. 

In  the  time  of  Christ,  if  we  may  credit  Josephus,  the  mourn- 
ers themselves  gave  the  entertainment  subsequent  to  the  burial. 


248 


§212.   OTHER  CAUSES  OF  MOURNING. 


The  mourning,  or  rather  the  ceremonies  indicative  of  the  grief 
in  case  of  death  continued  eight  days.  When  kings,  or  any  per- 
sons, who  held  a  very  distinguished  rank,  died,  the  mourning  was 
general,  including  the  whole  people,  and  commonly  continued  dur- 
ing thirty  days,  Gen.  50:  4.  1  Sam.  25:  1.  1  Mac.  13:  26. 

Note.  The  grief  exhibited  by  the  Greeks  at  the  departure 
of  their  friends  from  life,  which  is  mentioned  by  Paul  in  1  Thess. 
4:  13.  agreed  in  many  particulars  with  that  of  the  Orientals  ; 
with  this  exception,  however,  that  it  was  still  more  excessive.  It 
was  so  very  marked  and  extreme,  as  to  be  made  the  subject  of 
ridicule  by  Lucian  de  Luctu.  For  among  the  other  extravagan- 
cies, which  they  exhibited,  they  bestowed  reproaches  even  upon 
the  dead  themselves,  because  they  did  not  remain  in  life  ;  uttered 
accusations  and  curses  against  the  gods,  and  gave  many  other  exhi- 
bitions of  their  grief  of  a  kindred  character. 

§  212.  Other  Causes  of  Mourning. 

Indications  of  mourning  were  not  only  exhibited  on  the  death 
of  friends,  but  also  in  the  case  of  many  public  calamities,  such  as 
famines,  the  incursions  of  enemies,  defeat  in  war,  etc.  On  such 
occasions  the  feelings  of  the  prophets  mingled  with  the  deep  sen- 
sations of  the  people,  and  they  gave  utterance  to  them  by  the  com- 
position of  elegies,  Ezek.  26:  1—18.  27:  1—36.  30:  2,  et  seq.  32: 
2 — 32.  Amos  5:  1,  et  seq. 

Thus  David,  when  a  fugitive  from  his  rebellious  son,  like  a 
mourner,  who  had  lost  a  friend  by  death,  walked  bare-foot,  V\tji , 
and  with  head  covered  ;  and  all  the  others  followed  his  example, 
2  Sam.  15:  30  comp.  1  Sam.  4:  12.  Josh.  7:  6.  1  K.  21:  27.  2  K. 
19:  I.  Is.  15:  2.  16:  2,  3.  22:  12.  61:  3.  Joel  1:  12,  13.  Mic.  2:  3 
— 5.  7:  16.  Amos  5:  1,  2.  etc.  It  was  customary  particularly  for 
a  person  to  rend  his  clothes,  when  he  heard  blasphemy.  This  was 
done  by  the  high  priest  himself.  1  Mac.  11:  71.  Matt.  26:  65,  who 
was  forbidden  by  law  to  indulge  in  the  usual  expressions  of  grief, 
even  for  the  dead,  Lev.  10:  6. 

Fast-days  were  accounted  days  of  grief,  and  we  find  in  many 
instances,  that  fasting  and  mourning  go  together,  Jonah  3:  5 — 7.  1 
Mac.  3:  47.  Whatever  was  the  cause  of  the  grief,  it  was  not  the 
case,  that  all  the  indications  of  it  were  exhibited  in  the  same  in- 
stance, but  sometimes,  some,  and  at  other  times,  others. 


PART  SECOND 

ON 


32 


CHAPTER  I. 
ON  THE  HEBREW  COMMONWEALTH. 

§  213.  Patriarchal  Government. 

The  posterity  of  Jacob,  while  remaining  in  Egypt,  maintained, 
notwithstanding  the  augmentation  of  their  numbers,  that  patriar- 
chal form  of  government,  which  is  so  prevalent  among  the  No- 
mades.  Every  father  of  a  family  exercised  a  father's  authority 
over  those  of  his  own  household.  Every  tribe  obeyed  its  own 
prince,  fiOtoa ,  who  was  originally  the  first-born  of  the  founder  of 
the  tribe,  but,  in  progress  of  time,  appears  to  have  been  elected. 
As  the  people  increased  in  numbers,  various  heads  of  families 
united  together,  and  selected  some  individual  from  their  own  body, 
who  [was  somewhat  distinguished,  for  their  leader.  Perhaps  the 
choice  was  sometimes  made  merely  by  tacit  consent ;  and,  with- 
out giving  him  the  title  of  ruler  in  form,  they  were  willing,  while 
convinced  of  his  virtues,  to  render  submission  to  his  will.  Such 
an  union  of  families  was  denominated  in  Hebrew  mutt  tf%  and 
55$  rP2 ,  and  also  ,  Num.  3:  24,  30,  35.    In  other  instances, 

although  the  number  varied,  being  sometimes  more  and  sometimes 
less  than  a  thousand,  it  was  denominated  d^&bi*,  £]?.fi$,  a  thousand, 
1  Sam.  10:  19.  23:  23.  Judg.  6: 15.  Num.  26:5— 50^  The  heads  of 
these  united  families  were  designated  in  Hebrew  by  the  phrases, 

rns^       ^fin,  e^s&h  "^an,  and  ^anfer  ^s&n  *$an,  Num. 

1:  16.  10:  4.  They  held  themselves  in  subjection  to  the  princes 
of  the  tribes,  who  were  called,  by  way  of  distinction  from  other 
chiefs,  ftW&fc  and  b^ip1;  "lE|!Wj  Wi|53  .  Both  the  princes  and 
heads  of  families  are  mentioned  under  the  common  names  of 
tT3,p,t  seniors  or  senators,  and  tPtjatt)  ^tf^  heads  of  tribes.  Fol- 
lowing the  law  of  reason,  and  the  rules  established  by  custom, 
they  governed  with  a  parternal  authority  the  tribes  and  united 
families,  and  while  they  left  the  minor  concerns  to  the  heads  of 
individual  families,  aimed  to  superintend  and  promote  the  best  in- 


252 


§  214.   THE  FUNDAMENTAL  LAW 


teresta  of  the  community  generally.  Originally  it  fell  to  the  prin- 
ces of  the  tribes  themselves  to  keep  genealogical  tables  ;  subse- 
quently they  employed  scribes  especially  for  this  purpose,  who 
in  the  progress  of  time,  acquired  so  great  authority,  that  under 
the  name  of  E^ntsic  [translated  in  the  English  version  officers,] 
they  were  permitted  to  exercise  a  share  in  the  government  of  the 
nation,  Exod.  5:  14,  15,  19.  It  was  by  magistrates  of  this  descrip- 
tion, that  the  Hebrews  were  governed,  while  they  remained  in 
Egypt,  and  the  Egyptian  kings  made  no  objection  to  it,  Exod.  3:  16. 
5:  1,  14,  15,  19. 

§  214.  The  Fundamental  Law  of  the  Mosaic  Institutions. 

The  posterity  of  Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob  were  set  apart 
and  destined  to  the  great  object  of  preserving  and  transmitting 
the  true  religion,  Gen.  IS:  16—20.  comp.  Gen.  17:9—14.  12:3. 
22:  18.  28:  14.  Having  increased  in  numbers,  it  appeared  very 
evident,  that  they  could  not  live  among  nations  given  to  idolatry, 
without  running  the  hazard  of  becoming  infected  with  the  same 
evil.  They  were,  therefore,  in  the  providence  of  God,  assigned 
to  a  particular  country,  the  extent  of  which  was  so  small,  that 
they  were  obliged,  if  they  would  live  independently  of  other  na- 
tions, to  give  up  in  a  great  measure  the  life  of  shepherds,  and 
devote  themselves  to  agriculture.  Further ;  very  many  of  the 
Hebrews  during  their  residence  in  Egypt  had  fallen  into  idola- 
trous habits.  These  were  to  be  brought  back  again  to  the  know- 
ledge of  the  true  God,  and  all  were  to  be  excited  to  engage  in 
those  undertakings,  which  should  be  found  necessary  for  the  sup- 
port of  the  true  religion.  All  the  Mosaic  institutions  aim  at  the 
accomplishment  of  these  objects.  The  fundamental  principle, 
therefore,  of  those  institutions  was  this,  that  the  true  God,  the 

CREATOR  AND  GOVERNOR  OF  THE  UNIVERSE,  AND  NOME  OTHER,  OUGHT 

to  de  worshipped.  To  secure  this  end  the  more  certainly,  God, 
through  the  instrumentality  of  Moses,  offered  himself  as  king  to 
the  Hebrews,  and  was  accepted  by  the  united  voice  of  their  com- 
munity. Accordingly  the  land  of  Canaan,  which  was  destined  to 
be  occupied  by  them,  was  declared  to  be  the  land  of  Jehovah,  of 
which  He  was  to  be  the  king,  and  the  Hebrews  merely  the  he- 
reditary occupants.    In  consideration  of  their  acknowledgment  of 


OF  THE  MOSAIC  INSTITUTIONS. 


253 


God,  as  their  ruler,  they  were  bound,  like  the  Egyptians,  to  pay  a 
twofold  tythe,  Exod.  19:  4—8.  Lev.  27:  20—34.  Num.  18:  21,  22. 
Deut.  12:  17—19.  14:  22,  29.  26:  12—15.  In  compliance  with 
the  duties,  which  naturally  fall  to  the  immediate  ruler  of  a  people, 
God  promulgated,  from  the  clouds  of  mount  Sinai,  the  prominent 
laws  for  the  government  of  the  people,  considered  as  a  religious 
community,  Exod.  xx.  These  laws  were  afterwards  more  fully 
developed  and  illustrated  by  Moses.  The  rewards,  which  should 
accompany  the  obedient,  and  the  punishments,  which  should  be  the 
lot  of  the  transgressor,  were  at  the  same  time  announced,  and  the 
Hebrews  promised  by  a  solemn  oath  to  obey,  Exod.  xxi. — xxiv. 
Deut.  xxvii. — xxx. 

In  order  to  keep  the  true  nature  of  the  community  fully  and 
constantly  in  view,  all  the  ceremonial  institutions  had  reference  to 
God,  not  only  as  the  sovereign  of  the  universe,  but  as  the  king  of 
the  people.  The  people  were  taught  to  feel,  that  the  tabernacle 
was  not  only  the  temple  of  Jehovah,  but  the  palace  of  their  king ; 
that  the  table,  supplied  with  wine  and  shew-bread,  was  the  royal 
table  ;  that  the  altar  was  the  place,  where  the  provisions  of  the 
monarch  were  prepared  ;  that  the  priests  were  the  royal  servants, 
and  were  bound  to  attend  not  only  to  sacred  but  secular  affairs, 
and  were  to  receive,  as  their  salary,  the  first  tythes,  which  the  peo- 
ple, as  subjects,  were  led  to  consider  a  part  of  that  revenue,  which 
was  due  to  God,  their  immediate  sovereign.  Other  things  of  a  less 
prominent  and  important  nature  had  reference  to  the  same  great 
end.  Since,  therefore,  God  was  the  sovereign,  in  a  civil  point  of 
view  as  well  as  others,  of  Palestine  and  its  inhabitants,  the  com- 
mission of  idolatry  by  any  inhabitant  of  that  country,  even  a  for- 
eigner, was  a  defection  from  the  true  king.  It  was  in  fact  treason, 
was  considered  a  crime  equal  in  aggravation  to  that  of  murder, 
and  was,  consequently,  attended  with  the  severest  punishment. — 
Whoever  invited  or  exhorted  to  idolatry,  was  considered  seditious, 
and  was  obnoxious  to  the  same  punishment.  Incantations  also,  ne- 
cromancy, and  other  practices  of  this  nature  were  looked  upon  as 
arts  of  a  kindred  aspect  with  idolatry  itself,  and  the  same  punish- 
ment was  to  be  inflicted  upon  the  perpetrators  of  them,  as  upon 
idolaters.  The  same  rigour  of  inquiry  after  the  perpetrators  of 
idolatry  was  enforced,  that  was  exhibited  in  respect  to  other 
crimes  of  the  deepest  aggravation  ;  and  the  person,  who  knew  of 


254 


§215.    CONDITION  OF   THE  HEBREWS 


the  commission  of  idolatry  in  another,  was  bound  by  the  law  to 
complain  of  the  person  thus  guilty  before  the  judge,  though  the 
criminal  sustained  the  near  relationship  of  a  wife  or  a  brother,  a 
daughter  or  a  son. 

The  law  with  the  penalty  attached  to  it,  as  may  be  learut  from 
other  sources,  had  reference  only  to  the  overt  acts  of  idolatry ;  it 
was  rather  a  civil  than  a  religious  statute,  and  the  judge,  who 
took  cognizance  of  the  crime,  while  he  had  a  right  to  decide  upon 
the  deed,  the  undeniable  act  in  any  given  instance,  evidently  went 
beyond  his  province,  if  he  undertook  to  decide  upon  the  thoughts 
and  feelings  of  a  person  implicated,  independently  of  an  overt  com- 
mission of  the  crime,  Deut.  13:  2 — 19.  17:  2 — 5. 

It  has  been  observed,  that  the  law  was  not  so  much  a  religious, 
as  a  civil  one.  The  distinction  is  obvious.  A  religious  law  has 
reference  to  the  feelings,  and  those  laws,  consequently,  which 
command  us  to  love  God,  to  exercise  faith  in  him,  and  to  render 
him  a  heartfelt  obedience  are  of  this  nature,  Deut.  6:  4 — 9.  10: 
12.  11:  1,  13.  It  ought  to  be  remarked,  that  the  severe  treat- 
ment of  idolatry,  of  which  we  have  given  a  statement,  was  de- 
manded by  the  condition  of  the  times.  That  was  an  age,  in  which 
each  nation  selected  its  deity,  not  from  the  dictates  of  con- 
science, but  from  the  hope  of  temporal  aid.  It  was  an  age,  when 
idolaters  were  multiplied,  and  when  nothing  but  the  utmost  severity 
in  the  laws  could  keep  them  from  contaminating  the  soil  of  the  He- 
brews. 

§  215.  Condition  of  the  Hebrews  as  respected  other  Nations. 

That  the  Hebrews,  surrounded  on  every  side  by  idolatrous 
nations,  might  not  be  seduced  to  a  defection  from  their  God  and 
king,  it  was  necessary,  that  they  should  be  kept  from  too  great  an 
intercourse  with  those  nations.  This  was  the  object  of  those  sin- 
gular rites,  which,  though  both  proper  and  useful,  were  uncom- 
mon among  the  Gentiles.  For  the  Hebrews,  having  once  been  ac- 
customed to  them,  could  not  readily  mingle  with  other  nations; 
since  it  was  extremely  difficult  to  desert  and  condemn  those  insti- 
tutions, to  which  they  had  been  accustomed  from  youth.  But 
lest  this  seclusion  from  them  should  be  the  source  of  hatred  to 
other  nations,  Moses  constantly  taught,  that  they  should  love  their 


AS  RESPECTING  OTHER  NATIONS. 


255 


neighbour,  S>"\ ,  i.  e.  every  one,  with  whom  they  had  any  thing  to 
do,  including  "foreigners,  Exod.  22:  21.  23:9.  L,ev.  19:  34.  Deut. 
10:  18,  19.  24:  17.  27:  19.  To  this  end  he  teaches  them,  that 
the  benefits,  which  God  had  conferred  upon  them  in  preference 
to  other  nations  were  undeserved,  Deut.  7:  6 — 8.  9:  4 — 24.  But 
although  the  Hebrews  individually  were  debarred  from  any  close 
intimacy  with  idolatrous  nations,  by  various  rites  ;  yet  as  a  nation 
they  had  liberty  to  form  treaties  with  gentile  states,  with  the  follow- 
ing exceptions. 

I.  The  Canaanites,  (including  the  Philistines,  who  were 
not  of  Canaanitish  origin,)  were  excepted. 

They  were  neither  to  be  admitted  to  treaty  nor  to  servitude,  but 
to  be  destroyed  by  war,  or  driven  from  the  country.  This  was  to 
be  done,  not  only  because  they  unjustly  retained  the  pasturing 
grounds  of  the  Patriarchs,  but  because  they  were  esteemed  of  des- 
picable faith,  both  as  servants  and  companions,  and  were,  moreover, 
addicted  to  idolatry.  Being  idolators,  they  were  considered  no  less 
than  traitors  in  the  kingdom  of  God,  and  therefore,  were  not  to  be 
tolerated,  since  there  was  a  probability  of  their  leading  the  Israel- 
ites to  the  commission  of  the  same  sin,  Exod.  23:  32,  33.  34:  12, 
16.  Deut.  7:  1—11.  20:  1—18.  The  Phenicians  were  not  includ- 
ed in  this  deep  hostility,  as  they  dwelt  on  the  northern  shore  of  the 
country,  were  shut  up  within  their  own  limits,  and  had  occupied 
none  of  the  pasturing  grounds  of  the  patriarchs.  We  learn  from 
Josh.  11:  19,  that  the  Canaanites  might  have  avoided  the  exercise  of 
the  hostility  of  the  Hebrews  by  leaving  the  country,  which  in  truth 
many  of  them  did.  Such  as  pursued  this  course  fled  to  the  Phe- 
nicians, and  were  transported  by  them  into  Africa,  Procopius  de 
Vandal.  II.  10.  p.  258. 

II.  The  Amalekites  or  Canaanites  op  Arabia  Petrea  were 
in  like  manner  to  be  destroyed  with  universal  slaughter. 

This  was  to  be  done,  because  they  had  attacked  the  weak  and 
weary  Hebrews  in  their  journey  through  Arabia ;  and  because  the 
robberies,  which  were  committed  by  them  on  the  southern  borders 
of  Palestine,  could  not  be  restrained  in  any  other  way,  Exod.  17:  8, 
14.  Deut.  25:  17.  comp.  Judges  6:  3—5.  1  Sam.  15:  1,  et  seq.  27: 
8,  9.  and  the  30th  chapter. 

III.  The  Moabites  and  Ammonites  were  to  be  excluded  for- 
ever from  the  right  of  treaty  or  citizenship  with  the  Hebrews,  but 
were  not  to  be  attacked  in  war,  Deut.  2:  9 — 19.  23:  7. 


256        $216.   PRINCIPAL  OFFICERS  IN  THE  HEBREW  STATE. 


The  reason  of  taking  this  middle  course  was,  that,  while  the/ 
had  granted  to  the  Hebrews  a  passage  through  their  country, 
they  had  refused  to  supply  them  with  provisions,  even  if  paid,  Deut. 
2:  29.  23:  5.  Afterwards  in  conjunction  with  certain  Midianitish 
tribes,  they  invited  the  prophet  Balaam  to  curse  the  Hebrews,  and 
finally  they  allured  them  to  idolatry,  i.  e.  to  the  crime  of  treason, 
Deut.  23:  3—8.  comp.  Deut.  2:  9—19,  37.  The  Hebrews,  how- 
ever, did  not  feel  themselves  at  liberty  to  carry  on  wars  against 
them,  except  when  provoked  by  previous  hostility,  Judg.  3:  12 — 30. 
1  Sam.  14:  47.  2  Sam.  8:  2,  et  seq.  12:  26,  et  seq. 

They  ultimately  crushed  the  Midianites,  who  had  conspired 
with  the  Moabites  in  their  plans,  in  a  war  of  dreadful  severity, 
Num.  25:  16,  17.  31:  1—24. 

War  had  not  been  determined  on  against  the  Amorites,  who 
had  anciently  taken  away  the  region  beyond  Jordan  from  the  Mo- 
abites and  Ammonites  by  arms,  for  they  were  not  in  possession  of 
any  of  the  pasturing  lands  of  the  Patriarchs.  But  as  their  kings, 
Sihon  and  Og,  not  only  refused  a  free  passage,  but  opposed  the 
Hebrews  with  arms,  they  were  attacked  and  beaten,  and  their 
country  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Israelites,  Num.  21:  21 — 35. 
Deut.  1:  4.  2:  24—37.  3:  1—18.  4:  46—49.  comp.  Judg.  11:  13—23. 

Treaties  were  permitted  with  all  other  nations.  David,  ac- 
cordingly, maintained  a  friendly  national  intercourse  with  the 
kings  of  Tyre  and  Hamath  ;  and  Solomon  with  the  kings  of  Tyre 
and  Egypt,  and  with  the  queen  of  Sheba.  Even  the  religious 
Maccabees  made  treaties  with  the  Romans.  The  prophets  eve- 
ry where  condemn  the  treaties,  which  were  made  with  the  nations, 
not  because  they  were  contrary  to  the  laws  of  Moses  ;  but  be- 
cause they  were  injurious  to  the  commonwealth,  which  the  event 
proved,  Is.  tn.  xxxvi.  xxxvu.  2  K.  xvm.  xix.  Hos.  5:  15.  7:  11. 
12:  1,  et  seq.  Is.  30:  2—12.  31:  1—2.  2  K.  17:  4. 

§  216.  Principal  officers  or  Rulers  in  the  Hebrew  state. 

Many  things  in  the  administration  of  the  government  remained 
the  same  under  the  Mosaic  economy,  as  it  had  been  before.  The 
authority,  which  they  had  previously  possessed,  was  continued,  in 
the  time  of  Moses  and  after  his  time,  to  the  princes  of  the  tribes, 
to  the  heads  of  familes  and  combinations  of  families,  and  to  the 


§216.   PRINCIPAL  RULES  OF  THE  IIEBilEW  STATE.  257 


genealogists,  Num.  11:  16.  Deut.  16:  18.  20:  5.  31:  28.  Yet  Mo- 
ses by  the  advice  of  Jethro,  his  father-in-law,  increased  the  num- 
ber of  rulers  by  the  appointment  of  an  additional  number  of  judges, 
CUBittj;  some  to  judge  over  ten,  some  over  fifty,  some  over  an 
hundred,  and  others  over  a  thousand  men,  Exod.  18:  13 — 26. 
These  judges  were  elected  by  the  suffrages  of  the  people  from 
those,  who,  by  their  authority  and  rank,  might  be  reckoned  among 
the  rulers  or  princes  of  the  people.  The  inferiour  judges,  i.  e. 
those  who  superintended  the  judicial  concerns  of  the  smaller  num- 
bers, were  subordinate  to  the  superiour  judges,  or  those  who 
judged  a  larger  number;  and  cases,  accordingly,  of  a  difficult  na- 
ture, went  up  from  the  inferiour  to  the  superiour  judges.  Those 
of  a  very  difficult  character,  so  much  so  as  to  be  perplexing  to  the 
superiour  judges,  were  appealed  to  Moses  himself,  and  in  some 
cases  from  Moses  to  the  high  priest.  The  judges,  of  whom  we 
have  now  spoken,  sustained  a  civil  as  well  as  a  judicial  authority ; 
and  were  included  in  the  list  of  those,  who  are  denominated  the 
elders  and  princes  of  Israel.  That  is  to  say  ;  supposing  they 
were  chosen  from  the  elders  and  princes,  they  did  not  forfeit  their 
seat  among  them  by  accepting  a  judicial  office,  and,  on  the  contra- 
ry, the  respectability  attached  to  their  office,  (supposing  they 
were  not  chosen  from  them,)  entitled  them  to  be  reckoned  in  their 
number,  Deut.  31:  28.  comp.  Josh.  8:  33.  23:  2.  24:  I.  The  vari- 
ous civil  officers  that  have  been  mentioned  in  this  section,  viz. 
judges,  heads  of  families,  genealogists,  elders,  princes  of  the  tribes, 
&/C.  were  dispersed,  as  a  matter  of  course,  in  different  parts  of  the 
country.  Those  of  them,  accordingly,  who  dwelt  in  the  same  city, 
or  the  same  neighbourhood,  formed  the  comitia,  senate,  or  legisla- 
tive assembly  of  their  immediate  vicinity,  Deut.  19:12.  25:8,9. 
Judg.  8.  14.  9:  3—46.  11:  5.  1  Sam.  8:  4.  16:  4.  When  all,  that 
dwelt  in  any  particular  tribe,  were  convened,  they  formed  the  le- 
gislative assembly  of  the  tribe,  and  when  they  were  convened  in 
one  body  from  all  the  tribes,  they  formed  in  like  manner  the  le- 
gislative assembly  of  the  nation,  and  were  the  representatives  of  all 
the  people,  Judg.  1:  1—11.  11:5.  20:  12—24.  Josh.  23:  1,  2.  24:  1. 
The  priests,  who  were  the  learned  class  of  the  community,  and 
besides  were  hereditary  officers  in  the  state,  being  set  apart  for 
civil  as  well  as  religious  purposes,  had,  by  the  divine  command,  a 
right  to  a  sitting  in  this  assembly,  Exod.  32:  29.  Num.  36:  13.  8: 

33 


258    §  217.  CONNEXION  OF  THE  TRIBES  WITH  EACH  OTHER. 

5 — 26.  Being  thus  called  upon  to  sustain  very  different  and  yet 
very  important  offices,  they  became  the  subjects  of  that  envy, 
which  would  naturally  be  excited  by  the  honour  and  the  advanta- 
ges, attached  to  their  situation.  In  order  to  confirm  them  in  the 
duties  which  devolved  upon  them,  and  to  throw  at  the  greatest 
distance  the  mean  and  lurking  principle  just  mentioned,  God,  after 
the  sedition  of  Korah,  Dathan,  and  Abiram,  sanctioned  the  separa- 
tion of  the  whole  tribe,  which  had  been  previously  made,  to  the 
service  of  religion  and  the  state,  by  a  most  evident  and  striking 
miracle,  Num.  16:  1 — 17. 

§217.  Connexion  of  the  Tribes  with  each  other. 

Each  tribe  was  governed  by  its  own  rulers,  and  consequently 
to  a  certain  extent  constituted  a  civil  community,  independent  of 
the  other  tribes,  Judg.  20:  1 1—46. 2  Sam.  2:  4.  Judg.  1:21,27—33. 
If  any  affair  concerned  the  whole  or  many  of  the  tribes,  it  was  de- 
termined by  them  in  conjunction,  in  the  legislative  assembly  of 
the  nation,  Judg.  11:  1—11.  1  Chron.  5:  10,18, 19.  2  Sam.  3:  17.  1 
K.  12:  1 — 24.  If  any  one  tribe  found  itself  unequal  to  the  exe- 
cution of  any  proposed  plan,  it  might  connect  itself  with  another, 
or  even  a  number  of  the  other  tribes,  Judg.  1:  1 — 3,22.  4:  10.  7: 
23,  24.  S:  2 — 3.  But  although  in  many  things  each  tribe  existed 
by  itself,  and  acted  separately,  yet  in  others,  they  were  united, 
and  formed  but  one  community.  For  all  the  tribes  were  bound 
together,  so  as  to  form  one  church  and  one  civil  community,  not 
only  by  their  common  ancestors,  Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob,  not 
only  by  the  common  promises,  which  they  had  received  from 
those  ancestors,  not  only  by  the  need,  in  which  they  stood  of  mu- 
tual counsel  and  assistance  ;  but  also  by  the  circumstance,  that 
God  was  their  common  king,  that  they  had  a  common  taber- 
nacle for  his  palace,  and  a  common  sacerdotal  and  Leviti- 
cal  order  for  his  ministers.  Accordingly  every  tribe  exerted 
a  sort  of  inspection  over  the  others,  as  respected  their  observ- 
ance of  the  Law.  If  any  thing  had  been  neglected  or  any  wrong 
been  done,  the  particular  tribe  concerned  was  amenable  to  the 
others,  and,  in  case  justice  could  not  be  secured  in  any  other  way, 
might  be  punished  with  war,  Josh.  22:  9 — 34.  Judg.  20:  1,  et  seq. 
It  is  possible,  that  a  community  thus  constituted  may  be  prosper- 


§]218.   COMITIA  OR  LEGISLATIVE  ASSEMBLIES.  259 


ous  and  tranquil,  but  it  will  probably  want  promptness  in  securing 
that  justice,  which  is  its  ,due,  and  will  also  be  exposed  to  external 
and  internal  wars.  We  find  examples  of  these  evils  during  the 
time  of  the  judges.  In  such  a  community,  it  was  to  be  expected 
likewise,  that  the  more  powerful  tribes  would  be  jealous  of  each 
other,  and  rivals.  Accordingly  we  find  this  rivalship  existing  be- 
tween the  tribe  of  Judah,  to  which  belonged  the  right  of  primo- 
geniture, and  the  tribe  of  Joseph,  which  had  a  double  portion,  Gen. 
49:  8 — 10.  48:  5,  6.  The  right  of  possessing  a  double  portion,  in 
consequence  of  which  the  tribe  of  Joseph  was  divided  into  those 
of  Ephraim  and  Manasseh,  and  which  was  equivalent  in  fact  to 
the  right  of  primogeniture,  placed  these  two  tribes  on  nearly  the 
same  footing,  and  caused  them  to  look  upon  each  other  with  the 
captious  and  unfriendly  eye  of  competitors.  From  rivalships  of 
this  kind  a  sad  schism  finally  arose,  which  sundered  the  nation, 
1  K.  xii. 

§  218.  The  Comitia  or  Legislative  Assemblies. 

(1.)  Persons,  who  composed  the  Comitia. 

They  have  been  mentioned  in  a  preceding  section,  and  were  as 
follows,  viz.  judges,  i.  e.  those,  who  exercised  the  office  in  the  judi- 
cial sense  of  the  word,  heads  of  families,  genealogists,  elders,  and 
the  princes  of  the  tribes. 

(2.)  Titles  applied  to  them  in  their  collective  capacity. 

Ti^Xl  ^r.pXf       elders  of  the  assembly  or  of  the  people. 

tSIJWI"'^^  rH:?n~73  ,  "HO,  the  whole  assembly.  At  the  conven- 
tions designated  by  these  words,  not  only  the  persons  mentioned 
at  the  head  of  this  section  were  present,  but  also  in  some  instances 
the  whole  body  of  the  people.  The  words,  therefore,  may  mean  a 
national  legislative  congress,  where  only  the  lawfully  constituted 
members  are  present,  or  they  may  mean  an  assembly,  which  in- 
cludes the  whole  mass  of  the  people. 

•"H^vJ  >  the  princes  of  the  assembly  or  congregation. 

^rnj>,  i-n?n  \Np*"lp  ,  those  called  to  the  assembly. 

•"•"HsJ  *T*     i  those  deputed  to  the  assembly. 


260 


§218.   POWERS,  ETC.  OF  THE  COMITIA. 


Examine  in  reference  to  this  point,  Exod.  19:  7.  24:  3 — 8.  34: 
31,  S2.  Lev.  4:  13.  8:  3—5.  9:  5. 

(3.)  Method  and  Place  of  convening  the  Comitia. 

They  were  convened  by  the  judge  or  ruler,  for  the  time  be- 
ing, and  in  case  of  his  absence,  by  the  high  priest,  Num.  10:  2 — 4. 
Judg.  20:  I,  27,  28.  Josh.  23:  1,  2.  The  place  of  their  assembling 
appears  to  have  been  at  the  door  of  the  tabernacle,  Num.  10:  3. 
Judg.  20:  1,  27,  28.  1  Sam.  10:  17.  Sometimes  some  other  place, 
commonly  one  of  some  celebrity,  was  selected  as  the  place  of  meet- 
ing, Josh.  24:  1.  1  Sam.  11:  14,  15.  1  K.  12:  1.  As  long  as  the 
Hebrews  resided  in  camps  in  the  Arabian  wilderness,  the  comitia 
were  summoned  together  by  the  blowing  of  the  holy  trumpets.  It 
appears  from  Num.  10:  2 — 4,  that  the  blowing  of  one  trumpet  only 
was  the  signal  for  a  somewhat  select  convention,  composed  merely 
of  the  heads  of  the  clans  or  associated  families,  and  of  the  princes 
of  the  tribes.  The  blowing  of  two  trumpets  was  the  signal  for  con- 
vening the  great  assembly,  composed  not  only  of  the  heads  of  fami- 
lies, and  the  princes  of  the  tribes,  but  of  the  elders,  judges,  and 
genealogists  ;  and  in  some  instances  including,  as  has  been  already 
remarked,  the  whole  body  of  the  people.  When  the  Hebrews  had 
become  fairly  settled  in  Palestine,  the  comitia  were  assembled,  on 
account  of  the  members  living  in  places  distant  from  each  other,  not 
by  the  sound  of  trumpet,  but  by  messengers  sent  to  them,  see  Deut. 
29:  9,  10.  Judg.  xx. 

(4.)  Powers,  etc.  of  the  Comitia. 

Moses,  while  he  sustained  the  office  of  ruler  among  the  He- 
brews announced  to  these  public  assemblies  the  commands  of 
God,  which  were  afterwards  repeated  to  the  people  by  the  Shote- 
rim,  a*ntgi25 ,  [whom,  for  want  of  a  better  term  in  English,  we 
have  denominated  genealogists.]  In  the  comitia,  (those,  which 
met  where  the  people  were  not  present,)  the  rights  of  sovereign- 
ty were  exercised,  wars  were  declared,  peace  was  concluded, 
treaties  were  ratified,  civil  rulers  and  generals,  and  eventually 
kings  were  chosen.  The  oath  of  office  was  administered  to  its  mem- 
bers by  the  judge,  or  the  king  of  the  stale ;  and  the  latter  in  turn 


§  219.   FORM  OF  GOVERNMENT  A  MIXED  ONE.  261 

received  their  oath  from  the  comitia,  acting  in  the  name  of  the  peo- 
ple, Exod.  19:  7.  24:  2—8.  Josh.  9:  15—21.  Judg.  20:  1,  11—14. 
21:  13—20.  1  Sam.  10:  24.  11:  14.  2  Sam.  11:  14.  2:4.  G:  17— 
19.  5:  1—3.  1  K.  xii. 

The  comitia  acted  without  instructions  from  the  people,  on 
their  own  authority,  and  according  to  their  own  views.  Nor  does 
any  instance  occur,  in  which  the  people  exhibited  any  disposition 
to  interfere  in  their  deliberations  by  way  of  dictating  what  they 
ought,  or  what  they  ought  not  to  do.  Still  the  comitia  were  in 
the  habit  of  proposing  to  the  people  their  decisions  and  resolves 
for  their  ratification  and  consent,  1  Sam.  11:  14,  15.  comp.  Josh.  8: 
33.  23:  2,  et  seq.  24:  1,  et  seq.  When  God  was  chosen,  as  the 
special  king  of  the  Hebrews,  it  was  not  done  by  the  comitia,  inde- 
pendently of  those,  whom  they  commonly  represented,  but  by  the 
people  themselves,  all  of  whom,  as  well  as  their  rulers,  took  the 
oath  of  obedience,  even  the  women  and  children,  Exod.  24:  3 — 8. 
Deut.  29:  9 — 14.  The  people  commonly  approved  what  was  done 
by  the  senate,  but  sometimes  objected. 

§  219.  Form  of  Government  a  mixed  one. 

When  we  remember,  that  God  was  expressly  chosen  the  king 
of  the  people,  and  that  He  enacted  laws  and  decided  litigated 
points  of  importance,  Num.  17:  1—11.  27:  1 — 11.  36:  1 — 10; 
when  we  remember  also,  that  He  answered  and  solved  questions 
proposed,  Num.  15:  32—41.  Josh.  7:  16—22.  Judg.  1:  1,  2.  20:  18, 
27,  28.  1  Sam.  14:  37.  23:  9—12.  30:  8.  2  Sam.  2:  1  ;  that  He 
threatened  punishment,  and  that,  in  some  instances,  He  actually  in- 
flicted it  upon  the  hardened  and  impenitent,  Num.  11:  33 — 35.  12: 
1 — 15.  16:  1 — 50.  Lev.  26:  3 — 46.  Deut.  xxvi.  xxx;  when,  final- 
ly, we  take  into  account,  that  He  promised  prophets,  who  were  to 
be,  as  it  were  his  ambassadors,  Deut.  xvin.  and  afterwards  sent 
them  according  to  his  promise,  and  that,  in  order  to  preserve  the 
true  religion,  He  governed  the  whole  people  by  a  striking  and  pe- 
culiar providence,  we  are  at  liberty  to  say  that  God  was  in  fact 
the  monarch  of  the  people,  and  that  the  government  was  a  theo- 
cracy. And  indeed  it  is  worthy  of  remark,  that  a  form  of  govern- 
ment, in  some  degree  theocratical  in  its  nature,  was  well  suited 
to  the  character  of  that  distant  age.    The  countries,  that  border- 


262  §  219.  FORM  OF  GOVERNMENT  A  MIXED  ONE. 

ed  on  Palestine,  had  their  tutelar  deities ;  and  there  existed 
among  them  nearly  the  same  connexion  between  religion  and  the 
civil  government,  which  there  existed  among  the  Hebrews.  There 
was  this  difference,  however,  in  the  two  cases.  The  protection, 
which  the  false  deities  were  supposed  to  afford  to  the  nations  in 
the  vicinity  of  Palestine,  was  altogether  a  deception  ;  while  the 
protection,  which  the  true  God  threw  around  the  children  of  Is- 
rael, was  a  reality  and  a  truth.  There  was  likewise  this  further 
point  of  difference,  that  while  among  the  former,  religion  was 
supposed  to  be  the  prop  of  the  state ;  it  was  a  fact,  that  among 
the  Hebrews  the  state  was  designed  to  be  the  supporter  and 
preserver  of  religion.  But  although  the  government  of  the  Jews 
was  a  theocracy,  it  was  not  destitute  of  the  usual  forms,  which  ex- 
ist in  civil  governments  among  men.  God,  it  is  true,  was  the 
king,  and  the  high  priest,  if  we  may  be  allowed  so  to  speak,  was 
his  minister  of  state  ;  but  still  the  political  affairs  were  in  a  great 
measure  under  the  disposal  of  the  elders,  princes,  etc.  It  was  to 
them  that  Moses  gave  the  divine  commands  ;  determined  express- 
ly their  powers  ;  and  submitted  their  requests  to  the  decision  of 
God,  Num.  14:  5.  16:  4,  et  seq.  27:  5.  36:  5,  6.  It  was  in  refer- 
ence to  the  great  power  possessed  by  these  men,  who  formed  the 
legislative  assembly  of  the  nation,  that  Josephus  pronounced  the 
government  to  be  aristocratical.  But  from  the  circumstance,  that 
the  people  possessed  so  much  influence,  as  to  render  it  necessary 
to  submit  laws  to  them  for  their  ratification,  and  that  they  even 
took  it  upon  themselves  sometimes  to  propose  laws  or  to  resist 
those,  which  were  enacted ;  from  the  circumstance  also,  that  the 
legislature  of  the  nation  had  not  the  power  of  laying  taxes,  and 
that  the  civil  code  was  regulated  and  enforced  by  God  himself,  in- 
dependently of  the  legislature,  Lowman  and  John  David  Michaelis 
are  in  favour  of  considering  the  Hebrew  government  a  democracy. 
In  support  of  their  opinion  such  passages  are  examined,  as  the  fol- 
lowing, Exod.  19:  7,  8.  24:  3—8.  comp.  Deut.  29:  9—14.  Josh.  9: 
18,  19.  23:  1,  et  seq.  24:  2,  et  seq.  1  Sam.  10:  24.  11:  14,  15. 
Num.  27:  1 — 8.  86:  1 — 9.  The  truth  seems  to  lie  between  these 
two  opinions.  The  Hebrew  government,  putting  out  of  view  its 
theocratical  features,  was  of  a  mixed  form,  in  some  respects  ap- 
proaching to  a  democracy,  in  others  assuming  more  of  an  aristocra- 
tical character. 


§  220.  RULER  OF  THE  ISRAELITISH  COMMUNITY.  203 


§  220.  The  Ruler  of  the  Israelitish  Community. 

From  what  has  been  said,  it  is  clear,  that  the  ruler,  the  su- 
preme HEAD  OF  THE  POLITICAL  COMMUNITY  IN  QUESTION  WAS  GoD, 

who,  with  the  design  of  promoting  the  good  of  his  subjects,  conde- 
scended to  exhibit  his  visible  presence  in  the  tabernacle,  wherever 
it  travelled,  and  wherever  it  dwelt. 

Part  sustained  by  Moses. 

If,  in  reference  to  the  assertion,  that  God  was  the  ruler  of  the 
Jewish  state,  it  should  be  inquired  what  the  part  was,  sustained  by 
Moses,  the  answer  is,  that  God  was  the  ruler,  the  people  were  his 
subjects,  and  Moses  was  the  mediator  or  internuncio  between  them. 
But  the  title  most  appropriate  to  Moses,  and  most  descriptive  of  the 
part  he  sustained,  is  that  of  Legislator  of  the  Israelites  and  their 
Deliverer  from  the  Egyptians.  It  is  clear,  however,  that  a  man 
may  originate  laws  and  may  be  the  meritorious  leader  of  an  emigra- 
tory expedition,  without  being  in  the  proper  sense  of  the  word,  the 
ruler  of  a  people.  Accordingly  Moses  had  no  successor  in  those 
employments,  in  which  he  was  himself  especially  occupied,  for  the 
Israelites  were  no  longer  oppressed  with  Egyptian  bondage,  and 
those  laws  were  already  introduced,  which  were  immediately 
necessary  for  the  well-being  of  the  people.  It  was  on  this  ground, 
viz.  that  the  employments,  in  which  he  was  especially  engaged, 
were  of  a  peculiar  nature,  and  having  been  accomplished  while  he 
was  living,  ceased  when  he  was  dead,  that  the  council  of  seven- 
ty elders,  who  were  assigned  him  to  assist  him  in  the  discharge 
of  his  oppressive  duties,  no  longer  had  an  existence  after  his  de- 
cease. 

Part  sustained  by  Joshua. 

If  the  same  question  should  be  put  in  respect  to  Joshua,  that 
was  supposed  in  regard  to  Moses,  the  answer  would  be,  that  he 
was  not  properly  the  successor  of  Moses,  and  that,  so  far  from  be- 
ing the  ruler  of  the  state,  he  was  designated  by  the  ruler  to  sustain 
the  subordinate  office  of  military  Leader  of  the  Israelites  in  their 


264 


§221.   THE  THEOCRACY. 


conquest  of  the  land  of  Canaan.  Consequently,  having  been  desig- 
nated to  a  particular  object,  and  having  accomplished  that  object, 
it  was  not  necessary,  when  he  died,  that  he  should  have  a  succes- 
sor, nor  was  this  the  case. 

Part  sustained  by  the  Judges. 

But,  although  the  Hebrew  state  was  so  constituted,  that  beside 
God,  the  invisible  king,  and  his  visible  servant,  the  high  priest, 
there  was  no  other  general  ruler  of  the  commonwealth,  yet  it  is 
well  known,  that  there  were  rulers  of  a  high  rank,  appointed  at 
various  times,  called  t3S>Vjj ,  a  word,  which  not  only  signifies  a 
judge  in  the  usual  sense  of  the  term,  but  any  governor,  or  admin- 
istrator of  public  affairs,  comp.  1  Sam.  8:  20.  Is.  11:  4.  1  K.  3:  9. 
The  power  lodged  in  these  rulers,  who  are  commonly  called  judges 
in  the  scriptures,  seems  to  have  been  in  some  respects  paramount 
to  that  of  the  general  comitia  of  the  nation,  and  we  find,  that  they 
declared  war,  led  armies,  concluded  peace,  and  that  this  was  not 
the  whole,  if  indeed  it  was  the  most  important  part  of  their  du- 
ties. For  many  of  the  judges,  for  instance  Jair,  Ibzan,  Elon,  Abdon, 
Eli,  and  Samuel,  ruled  the  nation  in  peace.  They  might  appro- 
priately enough  be  called  the  supreme  executive,  exercising  all 
the  rights  of  sovereignty,  with  the  exception  of  enacting  laws,  and 
imposing  taxes.  They  were  honoured,  but  they  bore  no  exter- 
nal badges  of  distinction  ;  they  were  distinguished,  but  they  en- 
joyed no  special  privileges  themselves,  and  communicated  none  to 
their  posterity.  They  subserved  the  public  good  without  emo- 
lument, that  the  state  might  be  prosperous,  that  religion  might  be 
preserved,  and  that  God  alone  might  be  king  in  Israel.  It 
ought  to  be  observed,  however,  that  not  all  of  the  judges  ruled  the 
whole  nation.  Some  of  them  presided  over  only  a  few  separate 
tribes. 

§  221.  The  Theocracy. 

God,  in  the  character  of  king,  had  governed  the  Israelites  for  six- 
teen ages.  He  ruled  them  on  the  terms,  which  he  himself,  through 
the  agency  of  Moses,  had  proposed  to  them,  viz.  that  if  they  ob- 
served their  allegiance  to  Him,  they  should  be  prosperous  ;  if  not, 


§  221.   THE  THEOCRACY. 


265 


adversity  and  misery  would  be  the  consequence,  Exod.  19:  4,  5. 
23:  20—33.  Lev.  26:  3—46.  Deut.  xxvm— xxx.  We  may  learn 
from  the  whole  book  of  Judges,  and  from  the  first  eight  chapters  of 
Samuel,  how  exactly  the  result,  from  the  days  of  Joshua  down  to 
the  time  of  Samuel,  agreed  with  these  conditions.  In  the  time  of 
Samuel,  the  government,  in  point  of  form,  was  changed  into  a 
monarchy.  The  election  of  king,  however,  was  committed  to 
God,  who  chose  one  by  lot.  So  that  God  was  still  the  ruler,  and 
the  king  the  vicegerent.  The  terms  of  the  government,  as  re- 
spected God,  were  the  same  as  before,  and  the  same  duties  and 
principles  were  inculcated  on  the  Israelites,  as  had  been  original- 
ly, 1  Sam.  8:  7.  10:  17—23.  12:  14,  15,  20—22,  24,  25.  In  con- 
sequence of  the  fact,  that  Saul  did  not  choose  at  all  times  to  obey 
the  commands  of  God,  the  kingdom  was  taken  from  him  and  given 
to  another,  1  Sam.  13:  5—14.  15:  1—31.  David,  through  the 
agency  of  Samuel,  was  selected  by  Jehovah  for  king,  who  thus 
gave  a  proof,  that  he  still  retained,  and  was  disposed  to  exercise 
the  right  of  appointing  the  ruler  under  him,  1  Sam.  16:  1 — 3.  Da- 
vid was  first  made  king  over  Judah,  but  as  he  received  his  ap- 
pointment from  God,  and  acted  under  his  authority,  the  other 
eleven  tribes  submitted  to  him,  2  Sam.  5:  1 — 3.  comp.  1  Chron. 
28:  4 — 6.  David  expressly  acknowledged  God,  as  the  sovereign, 
and  as  having  a  right  to  appoint  the  immediate  ruler  of  the  peo- 
ple, 1  Chron.  28:  7 — 10  ;  he  religiously  obeyed  His  statutes,  the 
people  adhered  firmly  to  God,  and  his  reign  was  prosperous. 
The  paramount  authority  of  God,  as  the  king  of  the  nation,  and  his 
right  to  appoint  one,  who  should  act  in  the  capacity  of  his  vicege- 
rent, are  expressly  recognized  in  the  books  of  Kings  and  Chronicles, 
but  dissensions  and  tumults,  notwithstanding,  arose  upon  the  death  of 
Solomon.  The  principles,  recognized  in  Kings  and  Chronicles,  are 
repeated  in  the  Psalms  and  the  Prophets.  And  all  these  books  in- 
culcate faith  towards  God,  and  obedience,  and  the  keeping  of  his 
commandments,  and  threaten,  unless  his  commands  are  kept,  and 
faith  and  obedience  exercised,  the  infliction  of  those  punishments, 
and  that  captivity,  which  are  mentioned  by  Moses,  Deut.  28:  49, 
63—65.  29:  17 — 27.  But  the  same  prophets,  who  predicted  the 
miseries  of  the  Captivity,  promised  also  a  return,  a  greater  constan- 
cy in  religion,  tranquillity  and  prosperity,  a  once  more  independent 
theocracy,  the  propagation  of  the  knowledge  of  the  true  God 
34 


266        TABLES  OF  HISTORICAL  EVENTS  AND  SUCCESSIONS 


through  all  nations,  and  the  final  overthrow  of  the  Hebrews,  and 
their  ultimate  and  effectual  expulsion  from  their  native  country. 
All  which  accordingly  followed.  Thus  under  the  government  and 
guardianship  of  God,  the  true  religion  was  preserved  among  the 
Hebrews,  and  at  length  propagated  to  other  nations,  as  was  prom- 
ised, Gen.  18:  18.  22:  18.  26:  4.  28:  14. 


TABLES 

OF ;THE  PROMINENT  HISTORICAL  EVENTS,  AND  OF  THE  SUCCESSIVE  KINGS 
BOTH  IN  PALESTINE,  AND  IN  THOSE  NEIGHBOURING  NATIONS,  WHOSE 
HISTORY  IS  MOST  INTIMATELY  INTERWOVEN  WITH  THAT  OF  THE  JEWS. 


TABLE  FIRST. 


Be  rove  1 
Christ.  1 

After 
deluge. 

2332 

292 

Birth  of  Abraham. 

2257 

367 

Calling  of  Abraham,  being  75  years  of  age. 

2232 

392 

Birth  of  Isaac. 

2192 

432 

Marriage  of  Isaac. 

2172 

452 

Birth  of  Esau  and  Jacob. 

2157 

467 

Death  of  Abraham,  being  175  years  of  age. 

2052 

572 

Death  of  Isaac,  being  180  years  of  age. 

2051 

573 

Joseph,  being  30  years  old,  made  a  ruler  in  Egypt. 

2044 

580 

Beginning  of  the  Egyptian  famine. 

2042 

582 

Jacob,  aged  130  years,  emigrates  into  Egypt. 

2025 

599 

Jacob  dies  at  the  age  of  147. 

1971 

653 

Joseph  dies  at  the  age  of  110. 

1684 

932 

Birth  of  Moses. 

1644 

972 

Flight  of  Moses  into  Arabia. 

1604 

1012 

Exodus  of  the  Hebrews  from  Egypt. 

IN  PALESTINE  AND  THE  NEIGHBOURING  COUNTRIES.  267 


TABLE  SECOND. 

This  Table  gives  a  chronological  view  of  historical  events  from  the 
Departure  from  Egypt  to  the  revolt  of  the  Ten  Tribes;  a  period 
extending  from  the  year  1563  to  1015  before  Christ. 

Before  I  After  Depar- 
Christ.  I  ture  fr.  Egypt. 

1563  40  Moses  dies  at  the  age  of  120  years. 
1546        57    Joshua  dies  at  the  age  of  1 10  years. 

Othniel  dies  at  the  age  of  40  years. 

Ehud. 

Shamgar. 

Deborah  and  Barak. 

Gideon  judged  Israel  40  years. 

Abimelech,  king  of  Shechem. 

Tola. 

Jair. 

1263       340    Jephthah,  Judg.  11:26. 
Ibzan. 
Elon. 
Abdon. 
Samson. 

1196       407    Eli  succeeds  as  a  Judge  of  Israel. 
1156       447    Eli  dies. 

1 136       467    Samuel  sustains  the  office  of  Judge. 
1096       507    Saul  chosen  king. 
1056       547    David  made  king. 
1015       587    Solomon  succeeds  him. 


> 


268       TABLES  OF   HISTORICAL  EVEN  i  S  AND  ST'CCESSluNS 


TABLE  THIRD. 


After 

Revolt 

f"'         7             4    1  * 

£>■  Kj. 

of  JOT. 

'  3  j<lah. 

Israel. 

975 

1 

Rehoboam  reigns  17yrs. 

Jeroboam  I.  22  years. 

958 

17 

Abijam,  3  years. 

17 

955 

20 

Asa,  41  years. 

20 

954 

22 

o 
<w 

Nadab,  2  years. 

952 

24 

4 

Baasha,  21  years. 

930 

45 

25 

Ela  reigns  1  year. 

929 

46 

26 

Omri,  11  years. 

918 

57 

37 

Ahab,  21  years. 

914 

61 

Jehoshaphat  35  years. 

4 

897 

78 

17 

Ahaziah,  1  year. 

896 

79 

18  • 

Jehoram,  13  vears. 

891 

84 

Jehoram,  8  years. 

5 

884 

91 

Ahaziah,  1  year. 

12 

884 

91 

Athaliah,  7  years. 

Jehu,  18  years. 

877 

98 

Jehoash,  40  years. 

7 

856 

119 

21 

Jehoahaz,  17  years. 

840 

135 

37 

Joash  or  Jehoash,  16  years. 

838 

137 

Amaziah,  27  years. 

2 

826 

149 

14 

15 

825 

150 

15 

Jeroboam  II.  41  years. 
Jonah,  the  prophet. 

811 

164 

Uzziah,  52  years. 

27 

Amos,  the  prophet. 

797 

178 

14 

41 

785 

190 

25 

Hosca,  the  prophet. 

784 

191 

26 

Interregnum  of  12  years. 

774 

201 

37 

10 

773 

202 

38 

Zechariah,  6  months. 

Shallum,  1  month. 
Menahem,  10  years. 

772 

203 

39 

761 

214 

50 

Pekahiah,  2  years. 

759 

216 

Jotham,  16  years. 

Pekah,  20  years. 

Isaiah,  Micah. 

753 

222 

6 

6 

747 

228 

12 

12 

743 

232 

Ahaz,  16  years. 

16 

740 

235 

3 

19 

739 

236 

4 

Interregnum  8  or  9  years. 
5 

734 

241 

9 

733 

242 

10 

6 

731 

244 

12 

8 

730 

245 

12 

Hosea,  9  years. 

728 

247 

Hezekiah,  29  years. 

2 

726 

249 

2 

4 

722 

253 

6 

Overthrow  of  Israel. 

IN  PALESTINE  AND  THE  NEIGHBOURING  COUNTRIES.  269 


TABLE  FOURTH. 
This  table  gives  the  royal  successions  during  the  latter  part  of  the  pe- 
riods, mentioned  in  the  third  table,  in  Assyria,  Media,  and  Babylon. 


B.  C. 

After 
Revolt 
oflO  T 

Assyria. 

Media. 

Babylo  n. 

~826 
820 
811 

149 
150 
164 

Arbaces29yrs. 
2 

15 

797 

785 
784 
774 
773 
772 
761 
759 
753 
747 
743 

178 

190 
191 
201 

202 
203 
214 
216 

222 
228 
232 

Phul  21  years 

2 

3 
14 
16 

Tiglath-pileser  19  years. 
6 
10 

Interregnum  ) 
79  years.  ) 

12 
13 

23 
24 
25 
36 
38 
44 
50 
54 

Nabonassar  14 
4 

740 

(  He  conquers  Damascus, 
\  Galilee  and  Gilead. 

o  i 

7 

739 
734 
733 

236 
241 

242 

12 

Salmanassar  14  years 
2 

58 
63 
64 

8 
13 

Nadius  2  years. 

731 

244 

4 

66 

i  Chinzirus  or 
)  Porus  5  yrs. 

730 
728 
726 

722 

245 
247 
249 

253 

5 
8 
10 

13 

67 
69 
71 

76 

2 
5 

Jugaeus  5  yrs. 
i  Merodach 
\  Baladan. 

270        TABLES  OF    HISTORICAL  EVENTS  AND  SUCCESSIONS 


TABLE  FIFTH. 


The  following  is  a  view  of  the  royal  successions  in  the  kingdom  of 
Judah  after  the  overthrow  of  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  and  also  of 
those  in  the  neighbouring  nations  of  Assyria,  Media,  and  Babylon. 


B.C 


C  o 

>  -a 

O  T 

2  2 

<>  o 


Judah. 


Assyria. 


Media 


Babylon. 


722253 

720  255 
718257 
714261 
713262 
709,266 
704271 
702273 
699276 
693282 
692283 


7 
9 
14 
15 
19 
24 
26 

Manasseh  55 
6 
7 

Nahum. 
Joel. 

Uabakkuk. 
11 
19 
21 
34 
41 

6441331  Amon  2  yrs. 
643332}  2 
642333  Josiah31  y. 


6881287 
680|295 
678297 
665  311 
658317 


636 
630 


339 
345 


629346 


625350 


6 
12 

1st  Reform 
under  Josiah 
Zephaniah 
13 


**  -  Jeremiah. 


18 

2c?  Reform 
under  Josiah 


13 

Sennacherib  7  y. 
2 

Sennach.  in  Jud. 
Esar-haddon  35. 
4 
9 
11 
14 
20 
21 


25 
33 

Sardochaeus  20  y 
14 

Chyniladan  22  y. 
14 
15 
16 

Saracus  13  yrs 
6 


13 

Nineveh  over- 
thrown. 


76 
77 

Dejoces  53  y. 

4 

5 

9 
14 
16 
19 
25 
26 


30 
38 
40 

Phraortes  20  y 
7 
21 

Cyaxares  I.  40 
2 
7 
13 


(  Merodach  Ba- 
( ladan  12  yrs. 

2 
4 
7 

8 

Arkianus  5  yrs. 
Interregn.  2  yrs. 
Belibus  3  yrs. 
Apronadius6yrs. 
Rigebelus  1  yr. 
Messomordacus 
[4  yrs. 


Interregnum  8  y. 
Is  joined  to  As- 
4  [syria 

16 

22 

36 

37 

38 

44 

50 


14 
18 


5, 

\Nabopolassar  o- 
[verturns  Nineveh 
reigns  20  yrs. 


IN  PALESTINE  AND  THE  NEIGHBOURING  COUNTRIES. 


271 


611 

610 


Judah. 


606  369 


364  Jehoahaz  3  mo. 

365  Jehoiakim  11  yrs. 


605 
603 
599 


599 

595 

594 
590 
588 
569 

562 

560 
556 
556 
539 


Beginning  of  the  Baby- 
lonish Captivity,  Daniel 
carried  away  captive. 
370!  5 
372  7 
376  Jehoiakim  3  mo. 
Ezekiel  carried  away 
captive. 
3;6  Zedekiahll  yrs. 
Obadiah. 

380  Zedek.  goes  to  Baby 
Ion,  Jer.  51:  59. 

381  Ezekiel,  proph. 
385-Zedekiah  rebels 
387  Jem.  overthrown. 

19 

(  Jehoiakim  freed 
(from  bondage. 


Media. 


32 
33 
37 


38 

Astvages34yrs. 
4 


4 

8 

9 
14 
16 

CyaxaresII.32y 


9 
13 
13 
30 


Babylon. 


14 
15 
19 


Nebuchadnezzar  43  yrs. 
3 
6 


10 

11 

16 
18 

36 


Evil-merodach  2 


yrs. 


Neriglissor  4  yrs. 
Laborasoarchad  9  mo. 
Nabonned  17  yrs. 
Baby,  taken  by  Cyrus. 


272       TABLES  OF   HISTORICAL  EVENTS  AND  SUCCESSIONS 


TABLE  SIXTH. 


This  table  extends  from  the  time  of  the  return  of  the  Jews  from 
captivity,  till  the  death  of  Alexander  the  Great,  giving  in  con- 
nexion with  the  Jewish  chronology,  the  corresponding  successions 
in  the  Persian  Dynasty. 

B.  C.  )  The  Hebrews.  Persian  Monarch?. 


Hebrews  from 


536,  , 

(  captivity. 

529  7th  year  after  Return. 
52215 

5°1  16  [  Temple  forbidden 


to  be! 


51522 


rebuilt. 
Temple  completed. 

Haggai  and  Zechariah 
485('41 

478  48       Ezra,  Esther. 

46472 

444  92 

432  104  Nehemiah  comes  to  Jerus. 
424  112  Neh.  returns  to  Persia. 
423  113 
412124 

408  128  Neh.  2d  return  to  Jerus. 
404  132 
358  178 
337  199 

335  202  Alexander  at  Jerusalem. 
331  207  Conquers  Darius. 
324  214  Alexander  dips.  1 


Cyrus  reigns  seven  years. 

Cambyses  reigns  7yrs.  &,  7  mo. 
Pseudo-Smerdis  seven  months. 

Darius  Hystaspes  36  yrs. 
6 

Xerxes  reigns  21  years. 
7 

Artaxerxes  Longimanus  40  y  3  m. 
20 

32 

Xerxes  II.  2  mo.  Sogdianus  7  mo. 
Darius  Nothus  reigns  19  yrs. 

11 

15 

Artaxerxes  Mnemon  46  yrs. 
Darius  Ochus  21  yrs. 
Arses  two  years. 
Darius  Codomanus  4  yrs. 
Overthrow  of  Persian  Mon. 


IN  PALESTINE  AND  THE  NEIGHBOURING  COUNTRIES.  273 


TABLE  SEVENTH. 


This  table  gives  the  succession  of  the  Syrian  and  Egyptian  kings  in 
connexion  with  the  History  of  the  Jews  from  the  year  323  to  27 
before  Christ. 

B.C.)  Syrian  Kings.  I     Egyptian  Kings.      |  Hebrews. 


3231 

32o| 

312Seleucus  I.  Nicator. 
302  10 
300  12 
292  20 
284  28 
280,Antiochus  I.  Sidetes. 
260'Antiochus  II.  Theos. 


246 


14 


245  SeleucusII.Callinicus 
225  SeleucusIII.Keraunus 
223  AntiochusTII.  Magnus 
221  2 
204  19 
192  24 
186  Seleucus  IV.  Philopat 
180J  6 
175  Antiochus  IV.Epipha. 
1671  8 
166j  9 
164|AntiochusV.  Eupator. 
l62jDemetrius  Soter. 
159  3 
l50'Alexand.  Balas. 
l45|Demetr.  Nicalor. 
144!  2 
]40jA:«tiochus  VI.  Sidetes 
135|  5 
130  Demetrius  Nicat.  II. 
l25!Zebina. 

123'AntiochusVII.Grypus 
116 
1051 
1041 

92  Philip. 

83  Tigranes. 

80  3 

77  6 

69  14 
*U6Q>  The  Romans 

65 

64 

54 

51 

37 

34 

28 

27 


Ptolemy  Lagus. 
4 
11 
21 

23 
31 

Ptolemy  Philadel. 
4 
24 

Ptolemy  Evergetes. 

21 

23 

Ptolemy  Philopator 
Ptolemy  Epiphanes 
5 
18 

PtolemyPhilometor 
5 
13 
14 
16 
18 
22 
30 

Physcon. 
2 
6 
11 
15 
20 
22 

Lathyrus. 
12 
13 
24 
33 

Alexander. 
3 
11 
14 
Auletes. 
2 
12 

Cleopatra. 
14 
17 
23 

-The  Romans. 
35 


j  At  this  time  subject  to  the  Syrians 
jMany  carried  into  Egypt. 

At  this  time  subject  to  Egyptians. 
Simon  the  Just,  High  Priest. 
Simon  the  Just  dies. 
Jesus,  the  son  of  Sirach. 


Ptol. 


Ptol. 


Ptol. 


Ptol. 


Simon  II.  the  High  Priest  dies. 


Mattathias. 

Judas  Maccabee  reigned  7  yrs. 
3 
5 

Jonathan  ruled  14  yrs. 
9 
14 

Simon  8  years. 

5 

John  Hyrcanus,  prince  29  yrs. 
5 
10 
12 
20 

Aristobulus  1. 1  year. 
Alexander  Jannaeus  27  yrs. 

12 

21 

24 

Alexander  9  yrs. 
Aristobulus  II.  4  yrs. 

3 

4 

Pompey  at  Jeru.  Hyrcanus  II. 9y. 
Hyrcanus  II.  High  Priest. 
Hyrcanus  II.  again  prince. 
Antigonus,  king. 
Herod  king,  he  takes  Jerusalem. 
Hyrcanus  II.  slain. 

9 

36.  Birth  of  Christ. 


274   TABLES  OF  HISTORICAL  EVENTS  AND  SUCCESSIONS,  ETC. 


TABLE  EIGHTH. 

This  table  gives  a  view  of  the  Hebrew  rulers,  independently  of  other 
nations  and  in  chronological  order,  from  the  time  of  Christ  till 
the  destruction  of  Jerusalem. 

A.  C.  Hebrews. 

2  Archelaus,  ethnarch  nine  years. 

12  Judea,  a  Roman  Province,  Judas  of  Galilee. 

21  Pontius  Pilate,  procurator  twelve  years. 

34  Jesus  Christ  is  crucified. 

35  Philip,  the  tetrarch  dies. 

38  Herod  Agrippa,  king  of  the  tetrarchate  of  Philippi. 

42  Herod  Antipas  recalled,  and  his  tetrarchate  added  to  that  of 
Herod  Agrippa. 

44  Herod  Agrippa  dies. 

45  Fadus,  procurator. 

46  Tiberius,  procurator. 

47  Cumanus,  procurator. 
53  Felix,  procurator. 

60  Festus,  procurator. 

63  Albinus,  procurator. 

65  Florus,  procurator. 

66  Beginning  of  the  war  between  the  Jews  and  Romans. 
71  The  destruction  of  Jerusalem. 


> 


275 


CHAPTER  II. 

OF  KINGS,  OFFICERS  OF  STATE,  AND 
OTHER  MAGISTRATES. 

§  223.  The  Anointing  of  Kings. 

When  we  hear  of  the  anointing  of  the  Jewish  kings  we  are  to 
understand  by  it  the  same,  as  their  inauguration ;  in  as  much  as 
anointing  was  the  principal  ceremony  on  such  an  occasion,  2  Sam. 
2:  4.  5:  3. 

As  far  as  we  are  informed,  however,  Unction,  as  a  sign  of  in- 
vestiture with  the  royal  authority,  was  bestowed  only  upon  the 
two  first  kings,  who  ruled  the  Hebrews,  viz.  Saul  and  David  ;  and, 
subsequently,  upon  Solomon  and  Joash,  who  ascended  the  throne 
under  such  circumstances,  that  there  was  danger  of  their  right  to 
the  succession  being  forcibly  disputed,  1  Sam.  10:  24.  2  Sam.  2:  4. 
5:  1—3.  1  Chron.  11:  1,  2.  2  K.  11:  12—20.  2  Chron.  23:  1—21. 
That  the  ceremony  of  regal  anointing  should  be  repeated  in  every 
instance  of  succession  to  the  throne,  was  not  to  be  expected  from 
the  fact,  that  the  unction,  which  the  first  one,  who  held  the  sceptre 
in  any  particular  line  of  princes,  had  received,  was  supposed  to  suf- 
fice for  the  succeeding  incumbents  in  the  same  descent. 

In  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  those,  who  were  inducted  into  the 
royal  office,  appear  to  have  been  inaugurated  with  some  addition- 
al ceremonies,  2  K.  9:  13.  The  private  anointings,  which  we  learn 
to  have  been  performed  by  the  prophets,  (2  K.  9:  3,  comp.  1  Sam. 
10:  1.  16:  1 — 13,)  were  only  prophetic  symbols  or  intimations, 
that  the  persons,  who  were  thus  anointed,  should  eventually  receive 
the  kingdom.  Without  the  consent,  however,  of  the  rulers  of  the 
nation,  (of  the  public  legislative  assembly,)  they  communicated  no 
legal  right  to  the  crown ;  no  more  than  the  prophecies  of  dissen- 
tions  and  civil  wars  gave  a  right  to  attempt  perpetrations  of  that 
kind,  1  K.  11:  29—40.  12:  20.  2  K.  8:  11—14. 

The  ceremonies  mentioned  in  the  Bible,  which  were  customary  at 
the  inauguration  of  kings,  were  as  follows. 


276 


§  223.  THE  ANOINTING  OF  KINGS. 


I.  The  king,  surrounded  with  soldiers,  was  conducted  into 
some  public  place,  (latterly  into  the  temple,)  and  was  there  anoint- 
ed by  the  high  priest  with  the  sacred  oil.  The  circumstance, 
that  there  is  no  mention  made  of  anointings  on  these  occasions,  in 
the  history  of  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  as  separate  from  that  of  Ju- 
dah,  is  to  be  accounted  for  from  the  fact,  that  the  rulers  of  that 
kingdom  had  not  the  opportunity  of  obtaining  possession  of  the 
sort  of  oil,  denominated  sacred ;  as  no  other  was  thought  to  an- 
swer the  purpose,  1  K.  1:  32—34.  2  K.  11:  12—20.  2  Chron.  23: 
1 — 21.  We  see  in  this  ceremony  the  ground  of  the  epithet  rpU5J9 
or  anointed,  which  is  applied  to  kings,  and  a  reason  also,  (when  it  is 
taken  into  consideration,  that  kings  were  virtually  the  vicegerents  of 
Jehovah,  and  were  appointed  by  his  authority,)  why  they  were  de- 
nominated the  anointed  of,  i.  e.  by  the  Lord,  irhrp  hp*ij72 ,  1  Sam. 
24:  6,  10.  26:  9,  11,  16,  23.  2  Sam.  23:  1.  Ps.  2:  2.  89:  38.  Habak. 
3:  13,  etc.  Whether  the  king  was  likewise  girded  with  a  sword 
at  the  time  of  his  succession  to  the  throne,  is  a  point  which  can- 
not be  determined  at  any  rate,  as  some  have  imagined,  from  the  for- 
ty-fifth Psalm. 

II.  It  appears  from  2  Sam.  1:  10.  Ezek.  21:  26.  and  Ps.  45:  6, 
that  a  Sceptre  was  presented  to  the  monarch  at  his  inauguration, 
and  that  a  diadem  was  placed  upon  his  head. 

III.  The  Covenant,  rP""]3 ,  which  defined  and  fixed  the  prin- 
ciples, according  to  which  the  government  was  to  be  conducted, 
i"C  5)^72  n  t3B'd;2  ,  and  likewise  the  Laws  of  Moses,  were  presented 
to  him,  and  he  accordingly  took  an  oath,  that  he  would  rule  accor- 
ding to  the  principles  of  that  Covenant,  and  of  the  Mosaic  Law,  1 
Sam.  10:  25.  2  Sam.  5:  3.  1  Chron.  11:  3.  2  K.  11:  12.  2  Chron. 
23:  11,  comp.  Deut.  17:  18.  The  principal  men  of  the  kingdom, 
princes,  elders,  &-c.  promised  obedience  on  their  part,  and  as  a 
pledge  and  a  proof  of  their  determination  to  do  what  they  had  pro- 
mised, they  kissed,  as  it  seems,  either  the  feet  or  the  knees  of  the 
person  inaugurated,  Ps.  2:  13. 

IV.  After  the  ceremonies  were  completed,  and  the  individual 
concerned  was  legally  constituted  the  ruler  of  the  kingdom,  he 
was  conducted  into  the  city  with  great  pomp,  amid  the  acclama- 
tions and  the  applauses  of  the  people,  and  the  cries  of  "  Long  live 
the  King!"  ?jb3£f?1  !  The  joy,  which  was  the  natural  result 
of  such  an  occasion,  expressed  itself  likewise  in  songs,  and  on  in- 


§  224.   ROYAL  ROBE,  DIADEM,  AND  CROWN. 


277 


struments  of  music.  Sacrifices,  which,  in  the  later  ages  of  the 
nation,  were  converted  into  feasts,  were  offered  up,  and  were  in- 
tended probably  as  a  confirmation  of  the  oath,  which  had  been 
taken,  1  K.  1:  1,  11,  19,  24,  34,  39,  40.  2  K.  11:  12,  19.  2  Chron. 
23:  11.  comp.  Matt.  21:  1 — 11.  John  12:  3.  There  are  allusions 
in  many  passages  of  Scripture  to  the  public  entrance  into  cities, 
which  took  place  at  the  time  of  coronation,  and  to  the  rejoicings 
and  acclamations  on  that  occasion,  Ps.  47:  2 — 9.  83:  1,  2.  97:  1. 
99:  1. 

V.  Finally,  the  king  is  seated  upon  the  throne,  and,  as  the 
concluding  ceremony  at  his  accession,  receives  the  congratulations, 
which  are  then  customarily  presented,  1  K.  1:  35,  48.  comp.  2  K. 
9:  13.  11:  19. 

It  is  almost  unnecessary  to  remark,  that,  at  the  accession  of 
king  Saul  to  the  monarchy,  when  there  was  neither  diadem,  throne, 
nor  sceptre,  many  of  these  ceremonies  were  not  observed.  The 
most  of  them  also  were  omitted  in  the  case  of  conquest,  when  the 
conqueror  himself,  without  consulting  the  people  or  their  principal 
men,  designated  the  king  for  the  nation,  whom  he  had  subdu- 
ed, merely  gave  him  another  name,  in  token  of  his  new  dignity, 
exacted  the  oath  of  fidelity,  and  signalized  the  event  by  a  feast, 
2  K.  23:  34.  24:  17.  2  Chron.  36:  4. 

§  224.  Royal  Robe,  Diadem,  and  Crown. 

The  robe,  which  was  worn  by  kings,  as  might  be  expected 
from  their  elevated  rank,  was  costly  and  gorgeous ;  and  the  retinue 
which  attended  them,  was  both  large  in  point  of  number,  and  splen- 
did in  respect  to  appearance,  Ezek.  28:  13 — 20.  1  K.  iv.  The 
materials,  of  which  their  robe  was  made,  was  fine,  white,  linen  or 
cotton  ;  the  usual  colour  was  purple,  nogcf  uga  xul  fivaaog,  y^S 
fmiun  ,  Luke  16:  18.  Rev.  18:  12,  16.  The  kings  of  Media  and 
Persia  appear  to  have  used  silk,  Est.  6:  8.  10:  11.  8:  15. 

Among  the  appropriate  ornaments  of  the  king's  person,  there 
was  none  so  rich  and  valuable  anciently,  and  there  is  none  so  cost- 
ly and  splendid  at  the  present  day  in  Asia,  as  the  royal  diadem  ; 
which  is  irradiated  with  pearls  and  gems.  This  article  of  their 
dress,  also  the  chain  for  the  neck  and  the  bracelets  for  the  arms, 
were  worn  by  them  constantly.    In  Persia  a  diadem  was  worn  not 


278  §  225.   THE  THRONE. 

only  by  the  king  himself,  but  likewise,  with  a  little  different  shape 
in  its  construction,  by  his  relations  and  others,  to  whom  special  fa- 
vours had  been  conceded,  Est.  8:  15. 

As  far  as  respects  the  form  of  the  diadem,  (in  Hebrew  denom- 
inated ^T3 ,)  we  have  only  to  observe,  that  it  was  a  fillet,  two 
inches  broad,  bound  round  the  head,  so  as  to  pass  the  forehead 
and  temples,  and  tied  behind.  It  had  its  origin  from  the  fillet  or 
ribband,  which,  in  the  most  ancient  times,  was  tied  round  the  hair 
for  the  purpose  of  confining  it,  and  which  was  used,  subsequently, 
to  secure  the  head-dress  upon  the  head. 

The  colour  of  the  diadem  seems  to  have  varied  in  different 
countries.  That  of  the  diadem  of  the  Persian  kings,  (according  to 
Curtius  VI.  11.)  was  purple  mingled  with  white^  Ps.  89:  39.  2  Sam. 
1:  10.  2  K.  11:  12.  2  Chron.  23:  11. 

Crowns,  ni"lD^ ,  l"l*Tt}>,  were  likewise  in  use,  2  Sam.  12:  30. 
Zech.  6:  11,  14.  Ps.  21:  3.  These  words  are  also  used,  in  some 
instances,  to  denote  a  diadem,  and  likewise  an  ornamental  head- 
dress for  the  ladies.  It  may  be,  moreover,  that  they  are  used  to 
signify  a  sort  of  mitre,  which  ascends  very  high  and  is  made  of 
metal ;  of  which  we  have  given  an  engraved  representation  in 
the  large  German  Edition  of  this  Work,  Part  I.  Vol.  II.  tab.  IX. 
No.  4  and  8.  It  is  possible,  that  the  forms  of  those  crowns,  which 
were  worn  by  kings  at  the  earliest  period,  resembled  that  of  the  mi- 
tre in  the  engraving  referred  to,  but  it  is  a  point,  which  is  by  no 
means  determined. 

§  225.  The  Throne,  tf&3  . 

The  Throne  was  a  seat  with  a  back  and  arms,  and  of  so  great 
height,  as  to  render  a  footstool  dHH,,  necessary,  Gen.  41:  40.  Ps. 
110:  1.  Curtius  V.  7. 

The  throne  of  Solomon,  which  consisted  wholly  of  gold  orna- 
mented with  ivory,  was  made  in  this  manner,  excepting  that  the 
,  back  was  a  little  curved,  and  contiguous  to  each  arm  or  side,  was 
placed  the  figure  of  a  lion,  (the  symbol  of  a  king,)  1  K.  10:  18 — 20. 
2  Chron.  9:  17.  This  throne  was  placed  on  a  flooring,  elevated 
six  steps,  on  each  of  which  steps,  and  on  either  side,  was  the  figure 
of  a  lion,  making  twelve  of  them  in  the  whole. 

It  was  customary  for  the  high  priest,  previous  to  the  time  of 


$  226.  THE  SCEPTRE. 


279 


the  monarchy,  if  not  to  sit  upon  a  throne  properly  so  called,  at 
least,  to  take  a  position  on  an  elevated  seat,  1  Sam.  1:9.  4:  18. 

Both  the  "  throne"  itself,  and  likewise  "  sitting  upon  the  throne" 
are  expressions  used  tropically,  to  denote  power,  and  government, 
2  Sam.  3:  10.  Ps.  9:  7.  89:  44.  Is.  47:  1.  etc.  That  the  throne  of 
the  Hebrew  kings  is  also  called  the  "  throne  of  Jehovah"  origina- 
ted from  the  fact,  that  those  kings  were  in  reality  his  vicegerents, 
and  exercised  in  respect  to  God  a  vicarious  authority,  2  Chron. 
9:  8. 

In  some  passages,  a  throne  is  assigned  to  God,  not  only  as  the 
king  of  the  Hebrews,  but  also  as  the  ruler  of  the  universe,  Job  23: 
3.  Exod.  17:  16.  Is.  6:  1.  1  K.  22:  19.  It  is  represented,  as  a 
chariot  of  thunder,  drawn  by  cherubim,  d^anS ,  Ezek.  1:3,  et 
seq.  2  K.  19:  15.  1  Chron.  13:  6.  Ps.  18:  11.  Hence  the  cheru- 
bim, placed  over  the  ark  of  the  covenant,  represented  the  throne  of 
God,  as  the  ark  itself  was  his  footstool,  Ps.  99:  5.  132:  7.  1  Chron. 
28:  2.  These  images  are  magnified  and  rendered  more  intense, 
when  it  is  said  of  God,  "  that  heaven  is  his  throne  and  earth  his 
footstool,"  Is.  66:  1.  Matt.  5:  34. 

§  226.  The  Sceptre. 

The  sceptre  of  king  Saul  was  a  spear,  rP2ft,  1  Sam.  18:  10.  22: 
6.  This  agrees  with  what  Justin,  (Lib.  43.  c.  3,)  relates,  viz.  that 
in  ancient  times  kings  bore  a  spear,  instead  of  a  sceptre. 

But  generally,  as  appears  from  the  Iliad  itself,  the  sceptre, 
DSl??  (cornp.  Ezek.  19:  11.)  was  a  wooden  rod  or  staff,  which  was 
not  much  short,  in  point  of  length,  of  the  ordinary  height  of  the 
human  form,  and  was  surmounted  with  an  ornamental  ball  on  the 
upper  extremity,  as  may  still  be  seen  in  the  ruins  of  Persepolis. 
This  sceptre  was  either  overlaid  with  gold,  or,  according  to  the  re- 
presentation of  Homer,  was  adorned  with  golden  studs  and  rings. 

If  we  endeavour  to  seek  for  the  origin  of  this  ensign  of  royal 
authority,  we  shall  find  the  first  suggestion  of  it  either  in  the  pasto- 
ral staff,  that  was  borne  by  shepherds,  or  in  those  staves,  which, 
at  the  earliest  period,  were  carried  by  persons  in  high  rank,  mere- 
ly for  show  and  ornament,  Gen.  38:  18.  Num.  17:  7.  Ps.  23:  4. 

A  sceptre  is  used  tropically  for  the  royal  dignity  and  authority, 


280 


§  227.   THE   ROYAL  TABLE. 


and  a  just  sceptre  for  just  government,  Gen.  49:  10.  Num.  24:  7. 
Amos  1:  5,  8.  Jer.  48:  17.  Ps.  45:  6. 

§  227.  The  Royal  Table. 

The  table  of  the  Hebrew  kings,  and  every  thing  connected  with 
it,  exhibited  the  same  marks  of  exorbitant  luxury,  as  may  be  wit- 
nessed at  this  day  under  like  circumstances  in  Asia.  Vast  num- 
bers of  persons,  who  acted,  in  some  capacity  or  other,  as  the  ser- 
vants or  the  officers  of  the  king,  were  reckoned  among  those,  who 
drew  their  sustenance  from  the  palace  ;  and  hence  it  very  naturally 
happened,  that  immense  quantities  of  provisions  were  consumed, 
1  K.  4:  22,  23. 

In  the  earlier  periods  of  the  Hebrew  monarchy,  the  table  of 
the  kings  was  set  with  numerous  articles  of  gold,  especially  on 
occasion  of  feasts,  of  which  there  was  no  deficiency,  1  K.  10;  21. 
To  impart  an  eclat  and  a  joy  to  feasts,  that  were  prepared  by  the 
king,  there  were  present  not  only  musicians,  but  also  ladies,  whose 
business  it  was  to  dance ;  although  this  latter  class  of  personages 
do  not  appear  to  be  spoken  of  among  "  the  singing  men,  and  the 
singing  women,"  that  are  mentioned  in  2  Sam.  19:  35.  The  splen- 
dour of  preparation,  which  has  been  alluded  to,  and  the  class- 
es of  persons,  who  were  invited  in  order  to  increase  the  hilarity 
of  the  occasion,  we  must  suppose,  found  a  place,  (more  or  less 
according  to  circumstances,)  in  all  the  royal  festivals,  of  which  we 
have  an  account  in  the  Bible,  Gen.  40:  20.  Dan.  5:  1.  Matt.  22:  1, 
et  seq.  Mark  6:  21. 

In  Persia  the  queen  herself  seems  to  have  made  one  of  the  par- 
ty at  such  times,  and  at  Babylon  other  ladies  of  distinction  ;  but 
they  were  in  the  habit  of  retiring,  as  soon  as  the  men  gave  indica- 
tions, that  they  began  to  feel  the  effects  of  the  wine,  Dan.  5:  2.  Est. 
1:  9.  5:  4,  8.  7:  1.  Curtius  V.  5.  Herod.  I.  199. 

But  among  the  Hebrews,  there  was  a  class  of  royal  festivals  of 
a  peculiar  kind  ;  such  as  were  not  known  in  other  nations.  As 
God  was  their  king,  they  were  in  the  habit,  at  the  season  of  the  great 
national  festivals,  of  preparing  a  feast,  either  at  the  tabernacle  or 
in  Jerusalem,  of  the  thank-offering  sacrifices,  and  in  this  way  they 
participated  in  a  season  of  joy,  of  which  God  himself,  who  was  the 
ruler  of  the  nation,  might  be  considered,  as  the  immediate  author. 


§  228.   SECLUSION  OF  KINGS,  JOURNEYS,  ETC. 


281 


The  blood  of  the  sacrifices,  which  were  thus  appropriated,  was 
shed  at  the  foot  of  the  altar,  and  some  parts  of  them  burnt  upon  it. 

§  228.  Seclusion  of  Kings,  Journeys,  etc. 

In  the  East,  those,  who  sustain  the  office  of  kings,  very  rarely 
make  their  appearance  in  public,  and  to  obtain  access  to  them  in 
any  way,  is  a  matter  of  great  difficulty.  Among  the  Persians,  a  per- 
son was  forbidden  to  make  his  appearance,  in  the  presence  of  a 
monarch,  without  being  expressly  invited,  under  the  penalty  of 
punishment  with  death,  Est.  4:  It.  Herod.  III.  48.  In  more  re- 
mote times,  when  kings  had  more  to  do  personally  in  the  manage- 
ment of  their  affairs,  it  may  well  be  concluded,  that  they  lived  in 
less  seclusion,  and  it  is  quite  certain,  that  there  was  a  very  free 
access  to  the  monarchs  of  the  Jews,  2  Sam.  18:  4.  19:  7.  2  K.  22: 
10.  Jer.  38:  7. 

It  was  esteemed  a  good  and  propitious  omen,  if  any  one  was  so 
fortunate,  as  to  behold  the  face  of  the  king,  Prov.  29:  26.  Is.  33: 
17.  The  tropical  expressions,  therefore,  "  to  see  God"  must  be 
understood  to  signify  the  same,  as  to  experience  his  favour. 

When  the  kings  of  Asia  perform  long  journeys,  they  are  sur- 
rounded with  a  great  and  splendid  retinue.  When  they  journey 
into  the  Provinces,  one  runs  before,  who  announces  the  approach 
of  the  distinguished  guest,  in  order  that  the  roads  may  be  in  readi- 
ness, and  every  thing  else,  that  is  necessary,  may  be  prepared. 
The  forerunner,  on  such  an  occasion,  is  denominated  in  the  Persian 
"  the  joyful  messenger."  Comp.  evccyytXtoiyQ  and  ^tfbft, 

Mai.  3:  1.  Is.  62:  10—12. 

The  Talmudists  contend,  that  God  himself  has  such  a  forerun- 
ner. They  call  him,  "rntatttt ,  and  'J!nt2t2tt,  Metatron.  They 
consult  the  following  passages  in  respect  to  his  existence  and 
character,  viz.  Zech.  3:  1,  3.  4:  5,  et  seq.  Gen.  16:  10—14.  22:  15. 
Exod.  3:  4—20.  20:  2,  3.  23:  20—23.  Is.  48:  16.  43:  14  ;  and 
think,  that  they  are  at  liberty  to  conclude  from  them,  that  Meta- 
tron  is  supreme  and  uncreated,  that  in  his  character  he  approach- 
es nearest  to  God  himself,  and  is  the  same  being,  who  anciently  ap- 
peared to  the  patriarchs,  and  is  expressly  called  God.  Consult 
Buxtorf's  Chaldaic,  Talmudic,  and  Rabbinic  Lexicon,  col.  1192, 

36 


282 


§  230.  TITLES  OF  KINGS,  ETC. 


and  also  the  Appendix  to  my  Hermeneutics,  Fasc.  I.  p.  58 — 
63. 

The  Hebrew  kings,  when  they  travelled,  either  rode  on  asses 
and  mules,  (2  Sam.  13:  29.  17:  23.  1  K.  1:  33—38.)  or  were  car- 
ried on  chariots,  being  preceded  by  the  soldiers,  who  sustained  the 
part  of  body-guards,  1  K.  1:  5.  2  K.  9:  17,  21.  10:  15. 

§  229.  The  Royal  Palace  and  Gardens. 

The  monarchs  of  the  East  were  accustomed  to  seek  for  glory 
by  building  magnificent  palaces  and  temples,  by  hewing  sepulchres 
out  of  stone,  by  planting  gardens,  and  building  fortifications  ;  in  a 
word  by  doing  any  thing,  which  might  tend  to  strengthen  and 
ornament  their  cities,  especially  the  one,  which  held  the  distin- 
guished rank  of  a  metropolis.  Such  were  the  associations  of  dig- 
nity, and  worth,  and  elevation,  connected  with  the  metropolis,  that 
a  person  was  said  "  to  ascend  up  into  it"  or  "  to  descend  from  it" 
even  though  it  were  situated,  as  was  the  case  with  Babylon, 
upon  a  plain,  1  K.  12:  27,  28.  22:  2.  Ezra  7:  6,  7.  Acts  8:  5,  15. 
15:  2.  18:  22.  24:  1,  etc. 

Among  the  edifices,  upon  which  were  expended  much  ingenui- 
ty and  wealth,  in  order  to  render  them  suitably  splendid,  the  royal 
palace  deserves  particular  mention.  The  palace  of  the  kings  oc- 
curs, in  the  most  ancient  times,  as  well  as  at  the  present  day,  un- 
der the  name  of  "  the  Gate,"  2  Sam.  15:  2.  Dan.  2:  49.  Est.  2:  19, 
21.  3:  2,  3.  comp.  Matt.  16:  18. 

§  230.  Veneration  paid  to  Kings,  and  Titles  which  were  be- 
stowed UPON  THEM. 

It  was  contrary  to  the  law  of  Moses  for  a  man  to  speak  ill  of  a 
magistrate,  even  in  a  clandestine  manner.  Although  this  law  was 
not  enforced  by  a  penalty,  it  was  religiously  observed;  and  kings, 
especially,  were  the  objects  of  the  greatest  veneration,  1  Sam,  24: 
4 — 15.  26:  6 — 20.  Those,  who  from  a  neglect  to  render  that  ve- 
neration, which  was  due  to  his  character,  had  given  offence  to  the 
king,  were  liable  to  be  punished  with  death.  Still  there  were  not 
wanting  regicides,  especially  in  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  in  which 
morals  were  more  corrupted,  than  in  that  of  Judah. 


§  230.   TITLES  OF  KINGS,  ETC.  283 

Magistrates  are  sometimes  called  gods,  both  in  poetry, 

Ps.  82:  1,  6,  7.  138:  1,  and  sometimes  in  prose  likewise,  Exod.  4: 
16.  7:  1.  The  Hebrew  word  etymologically  means  one,  who  is  to 
be  feared  or  venerated,  and  this  is  the  ground  of  its  application  in 
the  present  instance.  It  is  worthy  of  remark,  however,  that  it  is 
never  applied  to  kings,  except  perhaps  in  Ps.  45:  7,  8.  In  other  in- 
stances, the  word  fl*l&;  the  Lord,  rjr ;73  ,  the  king,  rni"P  rp"«B»  the 
anointed  or  inaugurated  of  Jehovah,  are  the  usual  appellations  ap- 
plied to  a  monarch,  and  the  customary  titles  of  address,  1  Sam.  12: 
3—5.  24:7—11.  26:9—11,16,23.  2  Sam.  19:21.  23.1.  Ps. 
132:  17.  The  word  flhtftt  the  anointed,  is  synonymous  with  ^», 
king.  Accordingly  we  find  in  Is.  45:  i.  the  following  expressions 
in  regard  to  Cyrus,  "  Thus  saith  the  Lord  to  his  anointed,  to  Cy- 
rus, whose  right  hand  I  have  holden"  etc. 

In  poetry  the  king  is  sometimes  denominated  the  son  of  God, 
a  phraseology,  which  has  its  origin  from  2  Sam.  7:  14.  and  1  Chron. 
17:  13.  We  see  in  this  an  adequate  and  a  satisfactory  reason,  why 
the  inauguration  of  a  king  is  called  in  poetry  his  birth,  Ps.  2:  6 — 8, 
12  ;  and  why  a  king,  who,  from  any  circumstance,  is  peculiarly 
exalted,  is  denominated  the  first-born  of  the  kings  of  the  earth,  i.  e. 
the  most  illustrious,  Ps.  89:  27.  Among  the  appellations  of  honour, 
usually  bestowed  upon  monarchs,  which  have  been  mentioned,  the 
Messiah  and  the  Son  of  God  were  in  a  subsequent  age  particu- 
larly applied  to  Jesus,  the  memorable  descendant  of  David,  who  had 
been  so  long  predicted,  John  1:  41,  49.  4:  25.  Matt.  1:  16—18.  16: 
16.  Luke  4:  41. 

In  many  nations,  it  appears,  that  there  existed  a  sort  of  ap- 
pellative for  their  monarchs,  which  was  applied  indiscriminately  to 
every  individual,  who  sat  upon  the  throne. 

Appellatives  for  monarchs. 

(1.)  Cesar,  a  general  name  for  king  or  emperor  among  the  Ro- 
mans. 

(2.)  Ptolemy,  an  appellative  used  in  the  same  way  among  the 
more  recent  Egyptians. 

(3.)  Agag.  This  was  the  common  name  for  the  kings  of  the 
Amalekites,  1  Sam.  15:  20.  comp.  Num.  24:  7. 

(4.)  Had  ad,  Adad,  or  Ben  Had  ad,  the  name  for  the  kings  of 
Syria,  2  K.  8:  9.  1  K.  15:  18. 


284  $231.  DUTIES  OF  THE  HEBREW  MONARCHS. 

(5.)  AbIxMelech,  the  same  among  the  Philistines,  Ps.  34:  1. 
Gen.  20:  2.  26:  10.  comp.  1  Sam.  21:  12. 

(6.)  Candace,  the  usual  appellation  of  the  Ethiopian  queens, 
Strabo.  p.  281.    Dio  Cassius,  Lib.  IV.  p.  525  comp.  Acts  8:  27. 

The  word  Pharaoh,  used  so  often  in  reference  to  the  mon- 
archs  of  Egypt,  is  not,  as  some  might  be  induced  to  suppose,  an  ap- 
pellative of  this  kind,  nor  the  word  Darius,  which  is  applied  in  a 
similar  way  to  those  of  Persia.  The  proper  signification  of  both 
these  words  is  no  other  than  that  of  king  or  monarch,  and  this  signi- 
fication is  itself  sufficient  to  account  for  the  frequent  recurrence  of 
these  words  in  connexion  with  the  rulers  of  those  nations.  That  my 
assertion  in  respect  to  Darius  is  not  without  foundation,  will  appear 
by  collating  the  Zendish  word  "SV-n  Darafesch,  which  is  the  same 
with  the  Persian  *nan  Dara,  king.  It  is  explained,  however,  in 
Herodotus  (VI.  98.)  by  the  word  ig^afjg  conqueror.  Compare  my 
Introduction  to  the  Old  Testament,  P.  II.  §  57  and  §  66. 

We  find  in  poetry,  that  kings  are  sometimes  denominated 
shepherds ;  and  sometimes  indeed  the  husbands  of  the  state.  The 
state  on  the  contrary  is  called  sometimes  the  wife  of  the  king, 
sometimes  a  virgin,  and  sometimes  the  mother  of  the  citizens.  It  is 
likewise  represented,  as  a  widow,  and  in  some  instances,  as  childless. 
Hence  God,  who  was  the  king  of  the  Hebrews,  was  the  husband 
of  the  state,  and  we  find  that  the  Hebrew  commonwealth,  as  might 
be  expected  from  the  general  aspect  of  this  language,  is  represent- 
ed, as  his  spouse.  Whenever,  therefore,  she  became  idolatrous, 
she  was  denominated,  to  keep  up  a  consistency  of  language,  an 
adulteress  or  fornicatress. 

§  231.  The  Duties  of  the  Hebrew  Monarchs. 

At  first,  kings  fulfilled  those  offices,  which  subsequently  de- 
volved upon  the  persons,  who  acted  as  generals,  as  judges,  and 
as  high  priests,  Gen.  14:  18,  19.  This  accounts  for  the  circum- 
stance, that  the  word  "jtnb  signifies  both  a  priest,  and  the  supreme 
civil  magistrate,  Exod.  2:  16.  3:  1.  It  occurs  with  this  last  signifi- 
cation, as  late  as  the  time  of  David,  2  Sam.  8:  18.  comp.  1  Chron. 
18:  19.  In  respect  to  the  kings  of  the  Hebrews,  however,  it  ap- 
pears, that  they  were  not  at  liberty  to  assume,  or  to  exercise  the 
sacred  functions,  which  were  conferred  upon  the  tribe  of  Levi, 


§  232.   EXTENT  OF  ROYAL  POWER  AND  PREROGATIVES.  285 


and  upon  the  family  of  Aaron,  2  Sam.  15:  1,  et  seq.  2  Chron.  26: 
16,  et  seq. 

They  had  the  oversight  of  them,  nevertheless,  so  far  as  to  see, 
that  all  things  were  done  rightly,  a  privilege  which  was  well  used 
by  David,  Jehoshaphat,  Hezekiah,  and  Josiah,  but  abused  by  many 
others  to  the  purpose  of  introducing  idolatry. 

The  Hebrews  were  accustomed  to  expect  of  their  kings,  the 
fulfilment  of  two  offices  at  least,  those  of  judge  and  chieftain  ;  both 
of  which,  they  in  truth  did  fulfil,  either  themselves,  or  with  the 
assistance  of  other  persons,  whom  they  had  chosen,  1  Sam.  8:  5.  12: 
12.  comp.  2  Chron.  26:  21.  Is.  16:5.  We  learn,  that  kings  em- 
ployed generals  to  conduct  their  armies,  as  early  as  Genesis,  (21: 
22.)  and  that  David,  though  a  warriour,  did  not  always  go  to  battle. 
The  Mosaic  institutions  themselves  recognized  the  existence  of  a 
class  of  inferiour  judges,  and  the  only  trouble,  that  was  occasioned 
to  the  kings  afterwards  on  the  subject,  was  that  of  selecting  them 
and  seeing  that  they  fulfilled  their  duty,  1  Chron.  23:  4.  26:  29, 
et  seq.  2  Chron.  19:  5—11. 

It  was  the  duty  of  the  king  to  try  appeals  from  these  judges. 
This,  clearly,  was  a  much  better  course,  than  if  he  had  underta- 
ken to  try  all  the  causes  himself,  or  even  the  greater  part  of  them, 
2  Sam.  15:  2,  et  seq.  1  Sam.  17:  9—19. 

§  232.  Extent  of  the  Royal  Power  and  Prerogatives. 

It  is  known,  that  the  kings  of  Asia  at  the  present  day  exercise 
the  most  unlimited  and  arbitrary  power,  but  this  was  not  the  state 
of  things  anciently  in  all  instances,  however  it  might  have  been  in 
some;  for  the  power  of  the  Phenician  and  Philistine  kings  was  re- 
stricted. 

Moses  himself,  it  seems,  (Deut.  17:  14 — 20.)  imposed  certain 
conditions  upon  the  kings,  who  should  afterwards  arise  in  Pales- 
tine ;  and  "  the  elders  of  Israel"  as  they  are  termed,  those,  who 
from  their  rank  had  the  principal  management  in  the  civil  con- 
cerns of  the  nation,  exacted  conditions  likewise  in  writing,  respect- 
ing the  manner,  in  which  they  should  exercise  the  government, 
both  from  David  and  Saul,  which  they  received  with  an  oath  for 
themselves  and  their  successors,  1  Sam.  10:  25.  2  Sam.  5:  3.  comp. 
1  K.  12:  1 — 18.  It  may  be  added  in  confirmation  of  the  fact, 
that  the  power  of  the  Hebrew  kings  was  restricted,  that  the  heads 


286         §  233.   METHODS  OF  PROMULGATING  LAWS,  ETC. 

of  tribes,  or  the  princes,  possessed  of  themselves  very  great  pow- 
er, and  so  far  may  be  considered,  as  having  a  negative  on  the  au- 
thority of  the  king.  It  may  likewise  be  remarked,  that  the  pro- 
phets felt  themselves  at  liberty,  in  the  character  of  divine  messen- 
gers, to  reprove  those  monarchs,  who  had  violated  their  prerogatives 
by  doing  that  which  was  wrong.  But  notwithstanding  all  this,  it  is 
a  fact,  that  many  kings  abused  to  bad  purposes,  the  power,  which 
was  committed  to  them. 

As  the  king  acted  the  part  of  vicegerent  to  Jehovah  himself, 
(a  point,  which  is  very  clearly  established  in  the  Mosaic  Institutes,) 
it  was  his  duty  and  his  right,  as  a  matter  of  course,  to  secure 
obedience  to  the  Laws  of  the  state,  and  to  punish  the  violations  of 
them.  He,  accordingly,  had  the  power,  not  only  to  issue  his  com- 
mands, in  the  manner  of  the  Judges,  but  also  to  enact  permanent 
laws,  2  Chron.  19:  11.  Is.  10:  1.  When  we  say,  that  the  Hebrew 
kings  had  the  power  of  enacting  permanent  laws,  it  seems  natu- 
ral to  observe,  that  they  had  not  the  right  of  making  laws  of  the 
same  character  with  those  of  the  Persian  kings,  which,  it  appears, 
were  immutable,  and  could  never  be  changed,  Est.  1:  19.  Dan.  6: 
16.  It  may  be  inferred  from  2  Sam.  xiv.  that  the  Hebrew  kings, 
in  some  instances,  dispensed,  on  their  own  authority,  with  the  in- 
fliction of  the  penalty,  which  was  threatened  against  an  infringe- 
ment of  the  Mosaic  Laws  ;  but  a  liberty  of  this  kind  was  certainly 
very  rarely  taken  by  those  kings,  who  had  a  well-founded  claim  to 
being  called  religious. 

David,  accordingly,  (2  Sam.  21:  1 — 14,)  delivered  up  the  hom- 
icides to  be  punished  by  the  avengers  of  blood,  and,  in  first  Kings, 
(2:  1 — 9,)  left  orders  to  his  successor  to  punish  certain  persons, 
whom  he  himself,  on  account  of  his  situation,  had  not  been  able  to 
treat,  as  they  deserved. 

§  233.  Methods  of  promulgating  Laws,  etc. 

The  Laws  of  Moses,  as  well  as  the  temporary  edicts  of  Joshua, 
(1:  11,  12.  3:  2,  et  seq.)  were  communicated  to  the  people  by 
means  of  the  genealogists,  [in  the  English  version,  officers.]  The 
laws  and  edicts  of  those,  who  subsequently  held  the  office  of  kings, 
were  proclaimed  publicly  by  criers,  (Jer.  34:  8,  9.  Jon.  3:  5 — 7.) 
a  class  of  persons,  who  occur  in  Daniel,  (3:  4.  5:  29.)  under  the 


§  234.  ON  THE  ROYAL  REVENUES. 


287 


word  tfTI^S.  They  were  made  known  in  distant  provinces,  towns, 
and  cities  by  messengers,  sent  for  that  purpose,  1  Sam.  11:  7. 
Amos  4:  5.  2  Chron.  36:  22.  Ezra  1:  1. 

The  message  thus  to  be  communicated  in  any  town,  or  city, 
was  publicly  announced,  when  the  messenger  had  arrived,  in  the 
gate  of  the  city,  or  in  some  other  public  place.  At  Jerusalem, 
it  was  announced  in  the  temple,  where  there  were  always  a  great 
many  persons  present.  It  was  for  the  same  reason,  viz.  on  account 
of  the  concourse  of  people  there  assembled,  that  the  prophets  were 
in  the  habit  of  uttering  their  prophecies  in  the  temple,  which  were 
the  edicts  of  God,  the  Supreme  King. 

In  a  more  recent  age,  the  learned,  the  Saviour  himself,  and  the 
Apostles  taught  in  the  same  place,  Jer.  7:  2,  3.  11:  6.  17:  19,  20. 
36:  9—19.  John  10:  3.  Luke  2:  46.  Matt.  26:  55.  Mark  12:  35. 
Acts  3:  11.  5:  12. 

§  234.  On  the  Royal  Revenues. 

The  conquerors  of  a  country  not  only  exacted  tribute  from 
those,  whom  they  had  subdued,  but  were  likewise,  in  the  habit  of 
compelling  them  to  render  certain  menial  services,  [which  in  Eng- 
lish are  denominated  soccage,  i.  e.  services  in  husbandry  and  the 
like,  rendered  to  the  lord  of  the  fee,  as  a  sort  of  consideration  for 
the  tenure  of  the  lands.]  Both  tribute  and  soccage  are  compre- 
hended under  the  word  Oft ,  though  they  are  sometimes  expressed 
by  the  word  TiftZJi  which  usually  signifies  a.  gift,  Exod.  1:  11.  Josh. 
16:  10. 

But  whatever  they  might  exact  from  those,  whom  the  fortunes 
of  war  had  placed  in  their  power,  it  does  not  appear,  that  kings 
demanded  from  their  own  people,  or  exacted,  when  they  chose  and 
of  their  own  arbitrary  will,  either  labour,  or  burdens  of  any  kind 
whatever,  Gen.  47:  19—27.  Herod.  III.  97.  In  fact  the  Hebrews 
were  so  tenacious  of  their  personal  rights  in  this  respect,  that  they 
went  so  far,  as  to  define  in  express  terms,  by  a  particular  agree- 
ment or  covenant  for  that  purpose,  what  services  should  be  ren- 
dered to  the  king,  and  what  he  could  legally  require,  1  Sam.  10: 
25.  2  Sam.  5:  3. 

It  is  not  precisely  known  to  us  what  the  terms  of  this  cove- 
nant were,  but  it  certainly  did  not  give  the  king  the  liberty  of  ex- 


288  §  234.  sources  of  the  royal  revenue. 

acting  from  the  people  all  the  various  services,  which  are  enumera- 
ted in  1  Sam.  vm.  As  there  seems  then  to  be  nothing  especial- 
ly peculiar  in  respect  to  this  subject  among  the  Hebrews,  it  is  very 
natural  to  conclude,  that  the  sources  of  revenue  to  their  kings, 
were  nearly  the  same  with  those  in  other  oriental  countries.  With 
this  general  remark  in  view,  and  with  the  aid  of  various  hints, 
which  occur  in  the  Scriptures,  relative  to  the  point  in  question,  we 
proceed  to  make  the  following  statement. 

Sources  of  the  royal  Revenue. 

I.  Presents,  which  were  given  voluntarily,  1  Sam.  10:  27.  16: 

20. 

II.  The  produce  of  the  royal  flocks,  1  Sam.  21:  7,8.  2  Sam.  13: 
23.  2  Chron.  26:  10.  32:  28,  29,  comp.  Gen.  47:  6. 

III.  The  royal  demesnes,  vineyards,  and  olive  gardens,  which 
had  been  taken  up  from  a  state  of  nature  by  the  authority  of  the 
sovereign,  or  were  the  confiscated  possessions  of  criminals  ;  they 
were  tilled  either  by  slaves  or  by  conquered  nations,  1  K.  21:9 — 16. 
Ezek.  46:  16—18.  1  Chron.  27:  28.  2  Chron.  26:  10. 

IV.  That  the  Hebrews  by  agreement  promised  the  payment  of 
certain  tributes  appears  from  1  Sam.  17:  25.  [Consult  Gesenius 
on  the  word  ""iisn .]  Perhaps  they  were  the  same  with  the  tythe 
or  tenth  part  of  their  income,  which,  as  may  be  inferred  from  1 
Sam.  8:  15.  was  paid  by  other  nations  to  their  kings.  The  collec- 
tion and  management  of  imposts  and  taxes  appear  to  have  been 
committed  to  the  officers,  who  are  mentioned,  1  K.  4:  6 — 9.  1 
Chron.  27:  25.  Whatever  the  amount  of  the  customary  tax  was, 
it  appears  to  have  been  increased  in  the  reign  of  Solomon  ;  and  the 
people  after  his  death  expressed  a  wish  to  have  it  diminished, 
1  K.  12:  13.  Something  appears  also  to  have  been  paid  to  the 
king  as  a  tribute  in  ready  money,  which  occurs  under  the  word 
^272  commonly  rendered  a  present,  2  Chron.  17:  5.  comp.  Ezek. 
45:  13—18. 

V.  One  source  of  revenue  to  the  king  was  the  spoils  of  con- 
quered nations,  to  whose  share  the  most  precious  of  them  fell.  It 
was  in  this  way,  that  David  collected  the  most  of  his  treasures. 
The  nations,  which  were  subdued  in  war,  likewise  paid  tribute, 
which  was  also  denominated  nrj:».    It  was  paid  partly  in  ready 


§  235.  MAGISTRATES  UNDER  THE  MONARCHY. 


289 


money,  partly  in  flocks,  grain,  etc.  1  K.  4:  21.  Ps.  72:10.  2 
Chron.  27:  5. 

VI.  The  tribute  imposed  upon  merchants,  who  passed  through 
the  Hebrew  territories,  1  K.  10:  15. 

In  Persia,  Darius  the  Median,  the  same  with  Cyaxares  II.  was 
the  first  person  who  enforced  a  system  of  taxation,  ttfn ,  «T7?£ , 
Dan.  6:  2,  3.  Strabo,  accordingly,  is  in  an  error,  when,  (p.  735.) 
on  the  authority  of  Polycritus,  he  makes  Darius  Hystaspes  the  au- 
thor of  this  mode  of  raising  a  revenue.  It  is  true,  however,  that 
the  system  of  taxation,  which  had  been  laid  aside  for  three  years  by 
Pseudo-Smerdis,  was  renewed  by  Darius  Hystaspes,  and  that  the 
amount,  raised  in  this  way,  was  increased  by  Xerxes,  Est.  10:  1. 

Other  sources  of  revenue  to  the  king,  besides  those  already 
mentioned,  were  the  excise  S^M  or  tax  on  articles  of  consumption, 
and  the  toll  *fen  ,  Ezra  4:  14,  :19,  20. 

§  235.  Magistrates  under  the  Monarchy. 

Judges,  genealogists,  the  heads  of  families  or  clans,  and  those 
who,  from  the  relation  they  sustained  to  the  common  class  of  peo- 
ple, may  be  called  the  princes  of  the  tribes,  retained  their  author- 
ity after,  as  well  as  before,  the  introduction  of  a  monarchical  form 
of  government,  and  acted  the  part  of  a  legislative  assembly  to  the 
respective  cities,  in  or  near  which  they  resided,  I  K.  12:  1 — 24. 
1  Chron.  23:  4.  26: 29,  et  seq.  28:  1—21.  29:  6.  The  judges  and  ge- 
nealogists were  appointed  by  the  king,  as  were  other  royal  officers, 
the  principal  of  whom  were  as  follows. 

I.  The  royal  counsellors,  1  K.  12:  6—12.  1  Chron.  27:  32. 
Is.  3:  3.  19:  11—13.  Jer.  26:  11. 

II.  The  prophets,  who  were  consulted  by  pious  kings,  2  Sam. 
7:  2.  1  K.  22:  7,  8.  2  K.  19:  2—20.  22:  14—20.  Others  of  a  dif- 
ferent character  imitated  the  example  of  heathen  kings,  and  call- 
ed in  to  their  aid  soothsayers  and  false  prophets,  1  K.  18:  22. 
22:  6.  compare  Exod.  7:  11.  8:  18.  Dan.  1:  20.  2:  2.  5:  8.  Jer. 
27:  9. 

III.  The  secretary  or  scribe,  ■steTHfcJ,  who  committed  to 
writing  not  only  the  edicts  and  sayings  of  the  king,  but  every  thing 
of  a  public  nature,  that  related  to  the  kingdom  ;  and  whose  busi- 
ness it  was  likewise  to  present  to  the  king  in  writing  an  account 

37 


290 


§  236.   OFFICERS  OF  THE  PALACE. 


of  the  state  of  affairs,  2  Sam.  8:  16.  20:  24.  1  K.  4: 3.  2  K.  18:  18,  37. 
1  Chron.  18:  15.  2  Chron.  32:  8.  Is.  36:  3.  Est.  3:  12.  6:  1.  10:  2. 
comp.  Herod.  VI.  100.  VII.  9.  VIII.  90. 

IV.  The  high  priest  is  to  be  reckoned  among  those,  who  had 
access  to  the  king  in  the  character  of  counsellors,  2  Sam.  8:  17. 
1  Chron.  18:  16  ;  as  one  would  naturally  expect  from  the  prevalent 
notions  in  respect  to  a  theocracy. 

§  236.  Officers  of  the  Palace. 

In  oriental  countries,  the  persons,  who  are  immediately  attach- 
ed to  the  palace,  and  make,  as  it  were,  the  king's  domestic  esta- 
blishment, are  commonly  numerous.  The  principal  among  them 
are  as  follows, 

I.  ttJnShtl  1  Chron.  27:  25—31 ;  who,  (1  K.  4:  5,  7—19.) 
are  denominated  tPSaB ,  and,  in  1  K.  20:  15.  are  called  ^ijj 
rn2"H?2n .  They  merely  supplied  the  king's  table,  and  are  not  to 
be  confounded  with  those,  who  exacted  the  tribute,  Gfa ,  (1  K.  4:  6.) 

II.  rV3fT  bs>  T,:.2  ,  otherwise  called  rPSn  iSjfi?  ,  the  g  over  no  ur 
of  the  palace,  answering,  as  to  his  employment  and  standing,  to  the 
stewards,  who  were  employed  by  rich  men,  to  superintend  their 
affairs.  He  had  charge  of  the  servants,  and  indeed  of  every 
thing,  which  pertained  to  the  palace,  1  K.  4:  6.  18:  3.  2  K.  18: 
18.  2  Chron.  28:  7.  Is.  36:  3.  37:  2.  22:  15,  et  seq.  He  wore,  as  a 
mark  of  his  office,  a  robe  of  a  peculiar  make,  bound  with  a  pre- 
cious girdle,  and  carried  on  his  shoulder  a  richly  ornamented  key, 
Is.  22:  22. 

III.  ftr1ftb73.il  b&  ^Vto  the  keeper  of  the  wardrobe,  the  place,  in 
which  were  deposited  the  garments,  destined  by  the  king  for  those, 
whom  he  designed  particularly  to  honour,  2  K.  10:  22. 

III.  Sj^3|H  Or  5*2,  the  king's  friend  or  intimate.  It  was 
the  person,  who  sustained  this  relation  to  the  king,  with  whom  he 
conversed  with  the  greatest  familiarity,  who  sometimes  had  the 
oversight  of  the  palace,  and  sometimes  even  the  charge  of  the 
kingdom,  1  K.  4:  5.  1  Chron.  27:  33.  In  the  time  of  the  Macca- 
bees, however,  the  king's  friend  was  a  phrase  of  somewhat  broader 
signification,  and  was  applied  to  any  one,  who  was  employed  to  ex- 
ecute the  royal  commands,  or  who  sustained  a  high  office  in  the 
government,  1  Mace.  10:  65.  11:  26,  27. 


236.   OFFICERS  OF  THE  PALACE. 


291 


V.  The  king's  lifeguard.  They  were  denominated  by  the 
Egyptians  and  Babylonians  tPfpltt  executioners ;  and,  by  the  He- 
brews, in  the  time  of  David,  VP-O  cherethites,  i.  e.  extirpators, 
Gen.  37:  36.  39:  1.  2  K.  25:  8.'  10:  11—20.  2  Sam.  20:  23.  1  K. 
I:  38.  2:  25,  34.  The  commander  of  this  body  of  men  was  called 
the  prefect  or  the  captain  of  the  guard,  tPfratan  "lip,  likewise 
tl^Haaifl  in,  Gen.  40:  3,  4.  Jer.  39:  9—11.  40:  1—5.  41:  10.  43: 
6.  52:  12—20.  Dan.  2:  14,  15.  They  derived  their  name  from  the 
fact,  that  they  were  the  persons,  whose  business  it  was  to  execute 
the  sentence  of  death,  when  it  had  been  pronounced  by  the  king. 

In  the  time  of  David,  they  were  likewise  called  nt3^S 
pelethites,  i.  e.  the  expeditious.  In  the  reign  of  Saul,  and  also 
subsequently  to  the  time  of  David,  the  name  commonly  applied  to 
them  was  that  of  runners,  STS'n  ;  for  although  they  were  soldiers, 
and  it  was  their  particular  business  to  guard  the  palace,  they  were, 
nevertheless  employed  to  transmit  the  royal  laws  and  edicts  to 
distant  places,  to  run  before  the  king's  chariot,  as  a  part  of  his  re- 
tinue, and  likewise,  as  we  have  no  reason  to  doubt,  when  the  king 
walked  out  with  his  wives,  to  drive  the  multitude  from  the  way  ;  a 
custom  which  still  prevails  in  the  East,  2  Sam.  15:  1.  1  K.  14:  27. 
2  K.  10:  14. 

In  Persia,  the  king's  runners  were  a  class  of  persons,  distinct 
from  his  guards.  In  order  that  they  might  be  known,  where  they 
went,  they  bore  a  peculiar  sort  of  poniard,  called  changar,  in  the 

Persian^  ry  a  Ay.  They  had  the  liberty  of  compelling  any  one, 
whom  they  met,  to  furnish  them  with  a  horse  or  other  animal  to 
ride  on,  or  to  go  himself,  and  show  the  way.  Hence  the  origin  of 
the  exotic  Greek  word  dyyaQsvtiv,  angariare,  Matt.  5:  41.  27:  32. 
Mark  15:  21. 

The  lifeguard,  (otherwise  called  the  pretorian  band,)  of  the 
Maccabees,  and  subsequently  of  Herod  and  his  sons,  were  foreign- 
ers. They  bore  a  lance  or  long  spear,  and  were  thence  denominat- 
ed in  Greek,  onexovlazajgeg,  Mark  6:  27. 


292 


^237.  the  king's  harem. 


§  237.  The  King's  Harem. 

The  women  of  the  king's  Harem  are  to  be  considered,  as 
making  a  part  of  his  retinue  or  equipage ;  since,  generally 
speaking,  they  were  merely  destined  to  augment  the  pomp,  that 
was  wont  to  be  attached  to  his  character  and  his  situation.  The 
multiplication  of  women  in  the  character  of  wives  and  concubines 
was  forbidden,  it  is  true,  by  Moses,  (Deut.  17:  17.)  but  the  Hebrew 
kings,  especially  Solomon,  gave  but  too  little  heed  to  his  admoni- 
tions, and  too  readily  and  wickedly  exposed  themselves  to  the  dan- 
gers, which  Moses  had  anticipated,  as  the  result  of  pursuing  the 
course,  which  he  had  interdicted,  IK.  11:  1 — 3.  2  Chron.  11:21. 
13:21. 

The  kings  willingly  encountered  any  expense,  (whatever  it 
might  be,)  which  might  be  deemed  necessary,  in  ornamenting  the 
persons  of  their  women,  and  of  the  eunuchs,  (the  black  ones  espe- 
cially,) who  guarded  them.  It  may  be  remarked  here,  that  eu- 
nuchs were  brought  at  a  great  expense  from  foreign  countries,  in 
as  much  as  castration  was  contrary  to  the  Mosaic  law,  Lev.  22: 
24.  Deut.  23:  1.  For  proof  of  the  employment  of  eunuchs  at  the 
Hebrew  court,  see  the  following  passages,  1  K.  22:  9.  2  K.  8:  6. 
9:32,33.  20:18.  23:11.  Jer.  13:  23.  38:7.  39:10.  41:16. 
The  maids  of  the  Harem  were  considered,  (at  least,  when  he  wish- 
ed to  have  them  so  considered,)  in  the  light  of  concubines  to  the 
king.  But  the  successor  to  the  throne,  although  he  came  into  pos- 
session of  the  Harem,  was  not  at  liberty  to  have  any  intercourse 
with  the  members  of  it. 

Adonijah,  accordingly,  who,  in  his  zeal  to  obtain  Abishag,  a 
concubine  of  David's,  that  had  been  untouched,  let  fall  certain  un- 
advised expressions  relative  to  the  kingdom,  was  punished  with 
death ;  having  given  both  by  the  nature  of  the  request,  which 
was  not  customary  and  unlawful,  and  by  the  manner  in  which  it 
was  made,  too  evident  indications  of  a  seditious  spirit,  1  K.  2:  13 
— 15,  et  seq.  Though  the  king  had  unlimited  power  over  the 
Harem,  yet  the  wife  who  was  chiefly  in  favour,  and  especially  the 
mother  of  the  king,  had  no  little  authority  and  weight  in  .  political 
concerns,  IK.  11:3.  2  Chron.  21:6.  22:  3.  Hence  in  the 
Books  of  Kings  and  Chronicles  the  mother  of  the  king  is  every 


.        §  238.   INTERCOURSE  OF  OFFICERS  WITH  THE  KING.  293 

where  spoken  of ;  and  in  truth,  in  Jer.  29:  2.  is  expressly  mention- 
ed among  the  royal  counsellors. 

§  238.  The  Method  in  which  the  Officers  and  others  held 
Intercourse  with  the  King. 

The  kings  of  the  East,  as  has  been  already  observed,  are 
almost  inaccessible.  Those,  who  seek  any  favour,  or  wish  to  pre- 
sent any  accusation,  are  under  the  necessity  of  giving  a  paper  to 
that  effect  to  one  of  the  officers,  attached  to  the  court,  in  order 
that  it  may  be  handed  by  him  to  the  king,  2  K.  4:  13.  In  case 
no  one  is  willing  to  receive  it,  they  themselves  take  the  opportuni- 
ty, when  the  king  is  promenading  in  public,  to  present  it  to  him 
in  person.  If  the  inhabitants  of  a  province  wish  to  accuse  thr 
governour,  many  hundreds  of  them,  assembling  at  the  Harem, 
utter  loud  exclamations,  tear  their  clothes,  and  scatter  dust  in  the 
air,  till  a  messenger  is  sent  from  the  king  to  inquire  the  cause, 
Exod.  5:  15—19. 

But  to  the  kings  of  the  Hebrews,  as  has  also  been  stated,  there 
was  more  easy  access,  2  Sam.  14:  2,  3.  15:  2,  3. 

Those,  who  went  before  the  king,  even  the  principal  officers 
in  the  government,  appeared  in  his  presence  with  the  accustomary 
obeisance  and  ceremony,  and  stood,  like  servants  before  their  mas- 
ter. Hence  to  "  stand  before  the  king"  is  a  phrase,  which  means 
the  same,  as  to  be  occupied  in  his  service  and  to  perform  some  du- 
ty for  him,  Gen.  41:  46.  1  Sam.  22:  6,  7.  1  K.  10:  8.  12:  6 — 8. 
Dan.  1:  18.  The  same  expressions  are  used  in  respect  to  the 
priests  and  Levites,  who  were  the  ministers  or  officers  of  God,  to 
denote  the  religious  services,  which  it  was  their  part  to  perform, 
Deut.  10:  8.  17:  12.  Jer.  15:  1.  18:  20.  28:5.  Ps.  24:  3.  Luke  18: 
11,  13. 

Those,  who  sustained  the  station  of  servants  and  officers  to  the 
king,  were  entirely  dependent  on  his  will,  and,  on  the  other  hand, 
they  exercised  a  similar  arbitrary  power,  (for  instance  the  gover- 
nours  of  provinces,)  over  those,  who  were  immediately  subject  to 
themselves.  Hence  it  is,  that  the  prophets  frequently  complain  of 
their  oppressions,  and  violence. 

The  royal  officers  of  every  grade  are  denominated  the  servants 
of  the  king,  and,  like  the  Orientals  of  the  present  day,  they  took  a 


294      §  MAGISTRATES  DURING  AND  AFTER  THE  CAPTIVITY. 

pride  in  being  thus  denominated.  To  this  appellation  is  wont  to 
be  attached  the  glory  of  prompt  obedience,  prompt,  though  the 
command  should  be  unjust. 

Those,  who  have  the  management  of  the  collection  of  the 
revenues,  or  are  entrusted  indeed  in  any  way,  are  not  customari- 
ly called  to  an  account.  In  case  they  are  called  upon  to  render 
an  account  of  their  proceedings,  they  show  themselves  prompt  at 
the  arts  of  deception  ;  but  the  consequence  of  an  attempt  at  mis- 
representing or  defrauding,  is  almost  certain  destruction,  Luke  16: 
2.  It  should  be  observed,  however,  that  the  case  was  somewhat 
different  in  respect  to  Persia,  in  as  much  as  the  magistrates  in  the 
provinces  were  visited  yearly  by  a  legate  from  the  king,  who,  being 
supported  in  his  duties  by  the  attendance  of  an  army,  examined  in- 
to the  condition  of  affairs,  and  the  prevalent  management  of  the 
governours,  Zech.  1:  7 — 12. 

§  239.  Magistrates  during  and  after  the  Captivity. 

The  Hebrews,  during  the  captivity,  and  after  that  period,  con- 
tinued among  them  that  class  of  officers,  denominated  heads  of 
families,  and  perhaps  likewise  the  princes  of  the  tribes  ;  who,  under 
the  direction  of  the  royal  governours,  ruled  their  respective  tribes, 
and  family  associations,  Ezek.  14:  I.  20:  1 — 8.  Ezra  1:  5.  4:  3.  5: 
5.  6:  8.  Neh.  2:  16.  4:  13.  6:  17,  18.  But  it  is  most  probable,  that 
Jehoiachin,  and  afterwards,  Shealtiel,  and  Zerubbabel  held  the 
first  rank  among  them,  or  in  other  words,  were  their  princes. 

After  their  return  to  their  native  country,  the  Hebrews  obey- 
ed their  nftE  or  president.  Such  were  Zerubbabel,  Ezra,  and 
Nehemiah,  who  were  invested  with  ample  powers  for  the  pur- 
poses of  government,  Ezra  7:  25.  When  from  any  cause,  there 
was  no  person  to  act  as  president,  authorised  by  the  civil  govern- 
ment, the  high  priest  commonly  undertook  the  government  of  the 
state. 

This  state  of  things  continued,  while  the  Hebrews  were  under 
the  Persians  and  Greeks,  till  the  time  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  in 
whose  reign,  they  appealed  to  arms,  shook  off  the  yoke  of  foreign 
subjugation,  and  having  obtained  their  freedom,  made  their  high 
priests  princes,  and  at  length  kings. 

The  Jews  likewise,  who  were  scattered  abroad,  and  had  taken 


§  240.  TETRARCHS. 


295 


up  their  residence  in  countries  at  a  distance  from  Palestine,  had 
rulers  of  their  own.  The  person,  who  sustained  the  highest  office, 
among  those  who  dwelt  in  Egypt,  was  denominated  Alabarchus  ; 
the  magistrate  at  the  head  of  the  Syrian  Jews  was  denominated 
Archon. 

While  the  Jews  were  under  the  Roman  Government,  they  en- 
joyed the  privilege  of  'referring  litigated  questions  to  referees, 
whose  decisions  in  reference  to  them,  the  Roman  pretor  was 
bound  to  see  put  in  execution,  Cod.  L.  I.  Tit.  9.  I.  8.  dc  Judaeis. 
As  Christians,  when  they  first  made  their  appearance,  were  regard- 
ed, as  a  sect  of  the  Jews,  (Acts  23:  24.)  they  likewise  enjoyed  the 
same  privilege.  Paul,  accordingly,  blamed  them,  (1  Cor.  6:  1 — 7.) 
because  they  were  in  the  habit  of  bringing  their  causes  before  the 
pretor,  instead  of  leaving  them  out  to  referees. 

§  240.  Tetrarchs. 

After  the  subjugation  of  the  Jews  by  the  Romans,  certain 
provinces  of  Judea,  were  governed  by  that  class  of  Roman  ma- 
gistrates, denominated  Tetrarchs.  The  office  of  Tetrarch  had  its 
origin  from  the  Gauls.  Having,  at  a  certain  time,  made  an  incur- 
sion into  Asia  Minor,  they  succeeded  in  taking  from  the  king  of 
Bithynia  that  part  of  it,  which  is  denominated  from  their  own 
name,  Galatia.  The  Gauls,  who  made  this  invasion,  consisted  of 
three  tribes  ;  and  each  tribe  was  divided  into  four  parts  or  Te- 
trarchates,  each  of  which  obeyed  its  own  Tetrarch.  The  Tetrarch 
was  of  course  subordinate  to  the  king.  The  appellation  of  Te- 
trarch, which  was  thus  originally  applied  to  the  chief  magistrate  of 
the  fourth  part  of  a  tribe,  subject  to  the  authority  of  the  king, 
was  afterwards  extended  in  its  application,  and  applied  to  any  gov- 
ernours,  subject  to  some  king  or  emperor,  without  reference  to  the 
fact,  whether  they  ruled,  or  not,  precisely  the  fourth  part  of  a 
tribe  or  people.  Herod  Antipas,  accordingly,  and  Philip,  although 
they  did  not  rule  so  much  as  a  fourth  part  of  Judea,  were  denom- 
inated Tetrarchs,  Matt.  14:  1.  Luke  9:  7.  Acts  13:  1.  Although 
this  class  of  rulers  were  dependent  upon  Cesar,  i.  e.  the  Roman 
emperor,  they,  nevertheless,  governed  the  people,  who  were  com- 
mitted to  their  immediate  jurisdiction,  as  much  according  to  their 
own  choice  and  discretion,  as  if  they  had  not  been  thus  dependent. 


296 


$241.   ROMAN  PROCURATORS. 


They  were  inferiour,  however,  in  point  of  rank,  to  the  EthnarcJis, 
who,  although  they  did  not  publicly  assume  the  name  of  king, 
were  addressed  with  that  title  by  their  subjects  ;  as  was  the  case, 
for  instance,  in  respect  to  Archelaus,  Matt.  2:  22.  Josephus,  Antiq. 
XVII.  11.  4. 

§  241.  Roman  Procurators. 

Procurators,  (a  magistrate  well  known  among  the  Romans,)  are 
denominated  in  the  New  Testament  i^yfjuovig,  but  it  appears,  that 
they  are  called  by  Josephus  aihgoiiot.  Judea,  after  the  termina- 
tion of  the  Ethnarchate  of  Archelaus,  was  governed  by  rulers  of  this 
description,  and  likewise  during  the  period,  which  immediately  suc- 
ceeded the  reign  of  Herod  Agrippa. 

Procurators  were  sometimes  Roman  knights,  and  sometimes 
the  freedmen  of  the  emperor.  Felix  was  one  of  the  latter  class, 
Acts  23:  24—26.  24:  3,  22—27.  The  procurator,  if  we  may  cred- 
it some  remarks  of  Suetonius  in  his  life  of  Claudius,  which  in 
truth,  are  confirmed  by  Tacitus  in  his  History,  (V.  9.)  was  for 
some  particular  reason,  very  dear  to  the  emperor,  but  was  never- 
theless, a  very  miserable  governour.  Festus  also,  according  to 
Herodian,  (IV.  8.  11.)  was  nfreedman,  Acts  24:  27.  25:  12.  26:  24, 
25.  It  may  be  necessary  to  remark  here  by  way  of  explanation, 
that  procurators  were  sent  by  the  emperor,  independently  of  the 
vote  or  concurrence  of  the  senate  into  those  provinces,  which 
had  been  reserved  for  his  own  use,  and  might  be  considered  dur- 
ing his  reign,  as  his  personal  property.  They  were  commonly 
situated  in  the  extremities  of  the  empire.  The  business  of  the 
procurators,  who  were  sent  to  them,  was,  to  exact  tribute,  to  ad- 
minister justice,  and  to  repress  seditions.  Some  of  the  procurators 
were  dependent  on  the  nearest  proconsul  or  president ;  for  in- 
stance, those  of  Judea  were  dependent  on  the  proconsul,  gover- 
nour, or  president  of  Syria.  They  enjoyed,  however,  great  au- 
thority, and  possessed  the  power  of  life  and  death.  The  only 
privilege  in  respect  to  the  officers  of  government,  that  was  grant- 
ed by  the  procurators  of  Judea  to  that  nation,  was  the  appoint- 
ment from  among  them  of  persons,  to  manage  and  collect  the  tax- 
es.   In  all  other  things,  they  administered  the  government  them- 


$  242.   ON  THE  TRIBUTE  OF  THE  TEMPLE. 


297 


selves,  except  that  they  frequently  had  resort  to  the  counsel  of  other 
persons,  Acts423:  24—36.  24:  1—10.  25:  23. 

The  military  force,  that  was  granted  to  the  procurators  of  Ju- 
dea,  consisted  of  six  cohorts,  amlgat,  of  which  five  were  stationed 
at  Cesarea,  where  they  resided,  and  one  at  Jerusalem  in  the  tow- 
er of  Antonia,  which  was  so  situated  as  to  command  the  temple, 
Acts  10:  1.  21:  32.  It  was  the  duty  of  the  military  cohorts  to  ex- 
ecute the  procurator's  commands,  and  to  repress  seditions,  Matt. 
8:  5.  27:  27.  28:  12.  John  19:  2,  23.  Mark  15:  16. 

On  the  return  of  the  great  festivals,  when  there  were  vast 
crowds  of  people  at  Jerusalem,  the  procurators  themselves  went 
from  Cesarea  to  that  city  in  order  to  be  at  hand  to  suppress  any 
commotions,  which  might  arise,  Matt.  27:  2 — 65.  John  18:  29.  19: 
38. 

§  242.  Of  the  Tribute  and  Half-shekel  of  the  Temple. 

The  management  of  the  provincial  revenues  was  generally 
committed  to  the  Roman  knights,  who  were  thence  denominated 
dyyiTtlojvcu  and  jsXwpagxat,  publicans,  while  the  tax-gatherers  or 
exactors,  whom  they  employed,  were  termed  leXuvcu.  The  case, 
however,  was  somewhat  different  in  Judea,  where  the  manage- 
ment of  the  revenues,  as  already  observed,  was  committed  to  the 
Jews  themselves  ;  so  that  those  of  them,  to  whom  the  manage- 
ment of  these  affairs  was  entrusted,  eventually  obtained  an  equal 
rank  with  the  knights  of  Rome,  Luke  19:  2.  Josephus,  Jewish 
War.  II.  14.  9. 

The  subordinate  agents  in  collecting  the  revenues,  Tflwvcu, 
who  are  denominated  in  the  Vulgate,  though  somewhat  incorrect- 
ly, publicans,  took  their  position  at  the  gates  of  cities,  and  in  the 
public  ways,  and,  at  the  place  for  that  purpose,  called  the  "  re- 
ceipt of  custom,"  examined  the  goods  that  passed,  and  received  the 
monies  that  were  to  be  paid,  Matt.  9:  9.  Mark  2:  14.  Luke  5:  27, 
29.  These  tax-gatherers,  if  we  may  credit  Cicero,  were  more  in- 
clined to  exact  too  much,  than  to  belie  the  promise,  they  had 
made  to  their  masters  ;  and  were,  accordingly,  in  consequence  of 
their  extortions,  every  where,  especially  in  Judea,  objects  of  hatred, 
and  were  reckoned  in  the  same  class  with  notorious  sinners,  Luke 
3:  13.  Mark  2:  15,  16.  comp.  Talmud,  Baba  Kama  c.  10, 113.  Col. 

38 


293 


§  242.   ON  THE  TRIBUTE  OF  THE  TEMPLE. 


1.  Nedarim  c.  3.  The  Pharisees  would  have  no  communication 
with  them,  and  one  ground  of  their  reproaches  against  the  Saviour, 
was,  that  he  did  not  refuse  to  sit  at  meat  with  persons  of  such  a 
character,  Matt.  5:  46,  47.  9:  10,  11.  11:  19.  18:  17.  21:  31,  32. 

The  half-shekel  tax  was  a  tax  or  tribute  to  be  paid  every 
year  by  every  adult  Jew  at  the  temple.  It  was  introduced  after 
the  captivity,  in  consequence  of  a  wrong  understanding  of  certain 
expressions  in  the  Pentateuch,  and  was  a  different  thing  both  from 
the  revenue,  which  accrued  to  the  kings,  tetrarchs,  and  ethnarchs, 
and  from  the  general  tax,  that  was  assessed  for  the  Roman  Cesars. 
It  was  required,  that  this  tax  should  be  paid  in  Jewish  coin,  a  cir- 
cumstance, to  which  an  allusion  is  made  in  Matt.  22:  17 — 19.  and 
likewise  in  Mark  12:  14,  15.  It  was  in  consequence  of  this  state 
of  things,  (as  the  Talmudists  assert,  Shekalim,  I.  1.  3.)  that  money- 
changers xoUvfiioicci,  seated  themselves  in  the  temple,  on  the  fif- 
teenth of  the  month  Adar,  and  after,  for  the  purpose  of  exchanging 
for  those,  who  might  wish  it,  Roman  and  Greek  coins,  for  Jewish 
half-shekels.  The  prominent  object  of  the  temple  money-changers 
was  their  own  personal  emolument,  but  the  acquisition  of  property 
in  this  way  was  contrary  to  the  spirit  of  the  law  in  Deut.  23:  20,  21. 
It  was  for  this  reason,  that  Jesus  drove  them  from  the  temple,  Matt. 
21:  12.  Mark  11:  15.  John  2:  15. 

Messengers  were  sent  abroad  into  other  cities,  for  the  purpose 
of  collecting  this  tax,  (Matt.  17:  25.)  according  to  the  Talmudists, 
(Shekalim  I.  1.  3.)  during  the  month  Adar,  who  add  further,  that, 
in  case  payment  was  not  made  by  the  twenty-fifth  of  that  month,  a 
pledge  was  taken  from  the  person,  who  was  delinquent. 

The  Jews,  who  collected  this  tax  from  their  countrymen  dwell- 
ing in  foreign  nations,  transmitted  the  sums  collected  every  year  to 
Jerusalem.  It  is  not  surprising  then,  that  the  vast  amount  of  treas- 
ures, of  which  we  are  informed,  flowed  into  the  temple,  Josephus, 
Antiq.  XIV.  7.  2.  Cicero  pro  Flacco,  28. 


299 


CHAPTER  THIRD. 


OF  TRIALS  AND  PUNISHMENTS. 


§  243  Of  Judges. 

According  to  the  Mosaic  Law,  there  were  to  be  judges  in  all 
the  cities,  whose  duty  it  was  likewise  to  exercise  judicial  author- 
ity in  the  neighbouring  villages  ;  but  weighty  causes  and  appeals 
went  up  to  the  supreme  judge  or  ruler  of  the  commonwealth,  and  in 
case  of  a  failure  here,  to  the  high  priest,  Deut.  17:  8,  9. 

In  the  time  of  the  monarchy,  weighty  causes  and  appeals  went 
up  of  course  to  the  king,  who,  in  very  difficult  cases,  seems  to  have 
consulted  the  high  priest,  as  is  customary  at  the  present  day  among 
the  Persians  and  Ottomans. 

The  judicial  establishment  was  reorganized  after  the  captivity, 
and  two  classes  of  judges,  the  inferiour  and  superiour,  were  ap- 
pointed, Ezra  7:  25.  The  more  difficult  cases,  nevertheless,  and 
appeals,  were  either  brought  before  the  ruler  of  the  state  called  Jitis  f 
or  before  the  high  priest;  until,  in  the  age  of  the  Maccabees,  a  su- 
preme, judicial  tribunal  was  instituted,  which  is  first  mentioned  un- 
der Hyrcanus  II.,  Josephus,  Antiq.  XIV.  9.  3. 

This  tribunal  is  not  to  be  confounded  with  the  seventy  two 
counsellors,  who  were  appointed  to  assist  Moses  in  the  civil  admin- 
istration of  the  government,  but  who  never  fulfilled  the  office  of 
judges. 

§  244.  The  Sanhedrin. 

This  tribunal,  which  is  properly  called  ovvtdgiov,  Synedrium, 
but  is  denominated  by  the  Talmudists  Sanhedrin,  was  instituted 
in  the  time  of  the  Maccabees,  and  was  composed  of  seventy  two 
members.    The  high  priest  generally  sustained  the  office  of  presi- 


300 


§244.  THE  SANHEDRIN. 


dent  ttT&H  or  N^Sfj,  in  this  tribunal.  The  next  in  authority,  or 
the  vice-president,  was  called  in  Hebrew  hn3  ,  likewise  "p^ ; 
and  the  second  vice-president,  t33hn ;  the  former  of  whom  sat  on 
the  right,  and  the  latter  on  the  left  hand  of  the  president,  comp. 
Matt.  20:21. 

The  members,  who  were  admitted  to  a  seat  in  the  Sanhedrin, 
were  as  follows : 

I.  Chief  priests,  ccgyttQelg,  who  are  often  mentioned  in  the 
New  Testament  and  in  Josephus,  as  if  they  were  many  in  number. 
They  consisted  partly  of  priests,  who  had  previously  exercised  the 
high-priesthood,  and  partly  of  the  heads  of  the  twenty  four  classes 
of  priests,  who  were  called,  in  an  honorary  way,  high  or  chief 
priests. 

II.  Elders,  7TQia(5vTiQ0i.  That  is  to  say,  the  princes  of  the 
tribes,  and  the  heads  of  family  associations. 

III.  The  Scribes,  or  learned  men. 

When  we  say,  that  scribes  and  elders  were  members  of  the 
Sanhedrin,  we  are  not  to  be  understood,  as  saying,  that  all  the 
scribes  or  learned  men  of  the  nation,  or  that  all  the  elders  held  a 
seat  in  that  body  ;  but  those  only,  who  had  obtained  the  privilege 
by  election,  or  by  a  nomination  from  the  ruling  executive  author- 
ity. For  this  reason,  viz.  because  they  were  made  members  of 
the  Sanhedrin  in  the  same  way,  they  are  constantly  joined  togeth- 
er; TiQiGfivTiQOi  xul  ygaf.if.iaie7g,  scribes  and  elders,  Matt.  26:  57, 
59.  27:  3,  12,  20,  41.  Acts  4:  5.  6:  12. 

The  Talmudists  assert,  that  this  tribunal  had  secretaries  and 
apparitors,  and  the  very  nature  of  the  case  forbids  us  to  doubt  the 
truth  of  the  assertion.  The  place  of  their  sitting,  however,  is  a 
question,  on  which  there  is  more  difference  of  opinion.  The 
Talmudists  state,  that  it  was  in  the  temple,  but  Josephus,  in  his 
history  of  the  Jewish  war,  (V.  4.  2.  VI.  6.  3.)  mentions  §ovXr\v 
the  council,  fiovlsviriQiov  the  place  of  assembling,  and  also  the  Ar- 
chives, as  being  not  far  from  the  temple,  on  mount  Zion.  But  in 
the  trial  of  Jesus,  it  appears  they  were  assembled,  and  that  very  has- 
tily, in  the  palace  of  the  high  priest,  Matt.  26:  3,  57.  John  18:  24. 

The  Talmudists  state,  that  when  met,  they  took  their  seats  in 
such  a  way  as  to  form  a  semicircle,  and  that  the  president,  and 
two  vice-presidents  occupied  the  centre.  We  learn  from  other 
sources,  that  they  either  sat  upon  the  floor,  a  carpet  merely  be- 


§244.   THE  SANHEDRIN  OF  THE  WILDERNESS.  301 


ing  spread  under  them,  or  upon  cushions  slightly  elevated,  with 
their  knees  bent  and  crossed  ;  as  is  the  custom  at  the  present  day, 
in  the  East. 

Appeals  and  other  weighty  matters  were  brought  before  this 
tribunal.  Among  other  questions  of  importance,  subject  to  its  de- 
cision, the  Talmudists  (Sanhedrin  I.  5.  X.  89.)  include  the  inquiry, 
"  Whether  a  person  be  a  false  prophet  or  not?"  Comp.  Luke  13: 
33.  Its  power  had  been  limited,  in  the  time  of  Christ,  by  the  in- 
terference of  the  Romans.  It  was  still,  however,  in  the  habit  of 
sending  its  legates  or  messengers  to  the  synagogues  in  foreign 
countries,  Acts  9:  2.)  and  retained  the  right  of  passing  the  sen- 
tence of  condemnation,  or  what  is  the  same  thing  in  amount,  of 
decreeing  punishment  in  cases,  where  there  was  proof  of  criminal- 
ity ;  but  the  power  of  executing  the  sentence  when  passed  was  tak- 
en away  from  it,  and  lodged  with  the  Roman  procurator,  John  18: 
pi.  Sanhedrin  p.  24.  col.  2.  There  was  one  exception,  it  is  true, 
during  the  procuratorship  of  Pilate,  and  only  one ;  who  permitted 
the  Sanhedrin  themselves,  in  the  case  of  Christ,  to  see  the  sen- 
tence, of  which  they  had  been  the  authors,  put  in  execution,  John 
18:  31.  19:  6.  The  stoning  of  Stephen  was  not  done  by  the  au- 
thority of  the  Sanhedrin,  but  in  a  riot,  Acts  vn.  James,  the  broth- 
er of  John,  (Acts  12:  2.)  was  slain,  in  consequence  of  a  sentence 
to  that  effect  from  king  Herod  Agrippa.  The  high  priest  Ananus 
did  indeed  condemn  James,  the  brother  of  Jesus,  (i.  e.  relation  or 
cousin,)  to  be  stoned,  and  others  likewise,  but  it  was  done,  when 
the  procurator  was  absent,  and  was  disapproved  by  the  Jews  them- 
selves. Consult  the  large  German  edition  of  this  Work,  P.  II.  Vol. 
II.  §  132.  p.  121,  122. 

[Note.  On  the  Sanhedrin  of  Seventy,  instituted  by  Mo- 
ses in  the  Wilderness.  A  remark  was  made  at  the  close  of  the 
243d  section  as  follows  :  "  This  tribunal,  (viz.  the  Jewish  Sanhe- 
drin,) is  not  to  be  confounded  with  the  seventy  two  counsellors,  who 
were  appointed  to  assist  Moses,  etc."  The  following  extract  from 
Michaelis,  whose  opinions  on  such  a  subject  every  scholar  will  feel 
an  interest  in  knowing,  will  give  probably  a  correct  idea  of  the  insti- 
tution, to  which  an  allusion  is  made  in  that  section. 

"  Moses  established  in  the  wilderness  another  institution  which 
has  been  commonly  held  to  be  of  a  judicial  nature  ;  and  under  the 


302  §244.   THE  SANHEDRIN  OF  THE  WILDERNESS. 

name  of  Sanhedrin  or  Synedrium,  much  spoken  of  both  by  Jews 
and  Christians,  although  it  probably  was  not  of  long  continuance. 
We  have  the  account  of  its  establishment  in  Num.  xi.  ;  and  if  we 
read  the  passage  impartially,  and  without  prejudice,  we  shall  pro- 
bably entertain  an  opinion  of  the  Synedrium  different  from  that 
generally  received,  which  exalts  it  into  a  supreme  college  of  justice 
that  was  to  endure  for  ever. 

"  A  rebellion  that  arose  among  the  Israelites  distressed  Moses 
exceedingly.  In  order  to  alleviate  the  weight  of  the  burden  that 
oppressed  him,  he  chose  from  the  twelve  tribes  collectively,  a  coun- 
cil of  seventy  persons  to  assist  him.  These,  however,  could  hardly 
have  been  judges  ;  for  of  them,  the  people  already  had  between  six- 
ty and  seventy  thousand.*  Besides,  of  what  use  could  seventy  new 
judges,  or  a  supreme  court  of  appeal,  have  been  in  crushing  a  re- 
bellion. It  seems  much  more  likely,  that  this  selection  was  in- 
tended for  a  supreme  senate  to  take  a  share  with  Moses  in  the  gov- 
ernment ;  and  as  it  consisted  of  persons  of  respectability,  either  in 
point  of  family  or  merits,  it  would  serve  materially  to  support  his 
power  and  influence  among  the  people  in  general.  By  a  mixture 
of  aristocracy,  it  would  moderate  the  monarchical  appearance  which 
the  constitution  must  have  assumed  from  Moses  giving  his  laws  by 
command  of  God,  and  it  would  unite  a  number  of  powerful  families 
together,  from  their  being  all  associated  with  Moses  in  the  govern- 
ment. 

"  It  is  commonly  supposed  that  this  Synedrium  continued  per- 
manent ;  but  this  I  doubt.  For  in  the  whole  period  from  the 
death  of  Moses  to  the  Babylonish  captivity,  we  find  not  the  least 
mention  of  it  in  the  Bible  ;  and  this  silence,  methinks,  is  decisive ; 
for  in  the  time  of  the  judges,  but  particularly  on  those  occasions 
when,  according  to  the  expression  of  the  book  of  Judges,  there  was 
neither  king  nor  judge  in  Israel;  and  again,  during  those  great  po- 
litical revolutions,  when  David  by  degrees  became  king  over  all 
the  tribes,  and  when  the  ten  tribes  afterwards  revolted  from  his 

*  Without  including  the  tribe  of  Levi,  there  were, 
Judges  of  tens,  60,355 
of  hundreds,  6,035 
of  thousands,  603 


in  all,  66,993 


§  245.   OTHER  TRIBUNALS  IN  THE  TIME  OF  CHRIST.  303 

grandson,  Rehoboam  ;  and  lastly,  under  the  tyrannical  reigns  of 
some  of  the  subsequent  kings ;  such  a  supreme  council  of  seventy 
persons,  if  it  had  been  in  existence,  must  have  made  a  conspicu- 
ous figure  in  the  history  ;  and  yet  we  find  not  the  least  trace  of  it ; 
so  that  it  merely  appears  to  have  been  a  temporary  council  insti- 
tuted by  Moses  for  his  personal  service  and  security  ;  and  as  he 
did  not  fill  up  the  vacancies  occasioned  in  it  by  deaths,  it  must 
have  died  out  altogether  in  the  wilderness. 

"  No  doubt  the  Jews,  after  their  return  from  the  Babylonish 
captivity,  did  institute  a  Sanhedrim  at  Jerusalem,  of  which  fre- 
quent mention  is  made  not  only  in  the  New  Testament,  but  also 
in  Jewish  writings.  But  this  was  merely  an  imitation  of  the  an- 
cient Mosaic  Synedrium,  with  the  nature  of  whose  constitution  the 
later  Jews  were  no  longer  acquainted  ;  for  they  had  indeed  become 
.   ignorant  of  almost  all  the  customs  of  their  ancestors."} 

§  245.  Other  Tribunals  in  the  time  of  Christ. 

Josephus,  (Antiq.  IV.  8.  14.)  states,  that  in  every  city  there 
was  a  tribunal  of  seven  Judges,  with  two  Levites  as  apparitors, 
and  that  it  was  a  Mosaic  institution.  That  there  existed  such  an  in- 
stitution in  his  time,  there  is  no  reason  to  doubt,  but  he  probably  err- 
ed in  referring  its  origin  to  so  early  a  period,  as  the  days  of  Moses. 
This  tribunal,  which  decided  causes  of  less  moment,  is  denominat- 
ed, in  the  New  Testament,  xyloig  or  the  judgment,  Matt.  5:  22. 

The  Talmudists  mention  a  tribunal  of  twenty  three  judges, 
and  another  of  three  judges,  but  Josephus  is  silent  in  respect  to 
them.  The  courts  of  twenty  three  judges  were  the  same  with 
the  synagogue  tribunals,  mentioned  in  John  16:  2  ;  which  merely 
tried  questions  of  a  religious  nature,  and  sentenced  to  no  other 
punishment  than  "  forty  stripes  save  one,"  2  Cor.  11:  24. 

The  court  of  three  judges  was  merely  a  session  of  referees, 
which  was  allowed  to  the  Jews  by  the  Roman  laws  ;  for  the  Tal- 
mudists themselves,  in  describing  this  court,  go  on  to  observe,  that 
one  judge  was  chosen  by  the  accuser,  another  by  the  accused,  and 
a  third  by  the  two  parties  conjunctly ;  which  shows  at  once  the 
nature  of  the  tribunal. 


304 


§  247.   Or  THE  FORUM  OR  PLACE  OF  TRIALS. 


§246.  The  Time  of  Trials. 

The  time,  at  which  courts  were  held,  and  causes  were  brought 
before  them  for  trial,  was  in  the  morning,  *1D3,  Jer.  21:  12.  Ps. 
101:  S.  According  to  the  Talmudists,  (Sanhedrin  IV.)  it  was  not 
lawful  to  try  causes  of  a  capital  nature  in  the  night,  and  it  was 
equally  unlawful  to  examine  a  cause,  pass  sentence,  and  put  it  in 
execution  on  the  same  day.  The  last  particular  was  very  strenu- 
ously insisted  on.  It  is  worthy  of  remark,  that  all  of  these  prac- 
tices, which  were  observed  in  other  trials,  were  neglected  in  the 
tumultuous  trial  of  Jesus,  Matt.  26:  57.  John  18:  13 — 18.  For 
what  the  modern  Jews  assert,  viz.  that  forty  days  were  allowed  to 
Jesus,  to  make  his  defence  in,  is  not  mentioned  by  the  more  ancient 
writers. 

The  trial  of  causes  on  the  days  of  the  national  festivals  is  for- 
bidden in  many  passages  in  the  Talmud.  Whatever  might  have 
been  the  ground  of  this  prohibition,  it  at  any  rate  contravened 
the  spirit  of  the  remark  in  Deut.  17:  13.  viz.  "  And  all  the  people 
shall  hear,  and  fear,  and  do  no  more  presumptuously."  That  is, 
shall  hear  and  tremble  at  the  sentence  passed  upon  the  guilty ; 
for  which  they  could  not  in  general  find  so  good  an  opportunity, 
as  on  the  days  of  those  festivals.  Nor  was  there  any  reason  to 
fear,  that  the  religious  festivals  of  the  nation,  would  be  profaned 
in  this  way,  in  as  much  as  judicial  tribunals,  in  a  theocracy,  were 
of  divine  institution.  It  may  be  observed  further  on  this  point, 
that  the  reason  assigned,  why  the  Jews  in  Matt.  26:  5.  avoided  the 
festival  day,  was  the  fear  of  an  uproar  among  the  people.  But 
it  appears,  as  soon  as  a  person  was  found  treacherous  enough 
to  betray  the  Saviour,  that  even  the  fears  from  this  source  vanish- 
ed. 

§  247.  Of  the  Forum  or  place  of  Trials. 

The  places  for  judicial  trials  were  in  very  ancient  times  the 
gates  of  cities,  which  were  well  adapted  to  this  purpose.  They 
were  adapted  to  this  purpose,  in  as  much  as  they  were  public, 
and  were  used  not  only  for  entering  and  departing,  but  for  fairs, 
places  of  business,  and  to  accommodate  those,  who  were  assembled 


§  248.   FORM  OF  TRIAL. 


305 


merely  to  pass  away  the  time,  Gen.  23:  10,  et  seq.  Deut.  21:  19. 
25:  G,  7.  Ruth  4:  1,  et  seq.  Ps.  127:  5.  Prov.  22:  22.  24:  7.  The 
place  of  trial  was  the  same  after  the  captivity  as  before,  Zech.  8:  16. 
The  Greek  forum  dyoga,  was  also  a  place  for  fairs. 

The  Areopagus  itself,  ageiog  ndyog,  i.  e.  the  hill  of  Mars,  was 
so  called,  because  justice  was  said  to  have  been  pronounced  there 
formerly  against  Mars,  Acts  17:  19. 

The  Greeks  assembled  in  the  forum  likewise,  where  the  judi- 
cial tribunals  had  the  place  of  their  sitting,  in  order  to  examine  in- 
to the  conduct  and  qualifications  of  public  magistrates,  and  candi- 
dates for  office.  Inquiries  and  examinations  of  this  kind  were  ex- 
pressed by  the  Greek  word  doxiftdCtiv,  comp.  1  Cor.  11:  28.  The 
assembly  of  the  citizens,  convened  on  extraordinary  occasions,  was 
called  in  Greek  ixxfojola  or  avyxXtjiog.  The  convention  of  the 
citizens,  which  met  on  certain  stated  days,  rifiigav  %vQiai,  which 
were  designated  by  the  law,  and  which  recurred  four  times  with- 
in every  period  of  thirty-five  days  called  y.vgla. 

§  248.  Form  of  Trial. 

Originally  trials  were  every  where  very  summary,  excepting 
in  Egypt;  where  the  accuser  committed  the  charge  to  writing, 
the  accused  replied  in  writing,  the  accuser  repeated  the  charge, 
and  the  accused  answered  again,  etc.  Diodorus  Sic.  I.  p.  75.  comp. 
Job  14:  17. 

It  was  customary  in  Egypt  for  the  judge  to  have  the  code  of 
laws  placed  before  him,  a  practice,  which  still  prevails  in  the  East, 
comp.  Dan.  7:  10. 

Moses,  however,  when  called  upon  to  decide  upon  any  litigat- 
ed question,  pursued  that  summary  course,  which  was  common 
among  the  Nomadic  tribes ;  and  in  those  laws  of  a  permanent 
character,  which  he  established,  he  did  not  lay  the  ground  for  any 
more  formal,  or  complicated  method  of  procedure  in  such  cases. 
He  was,  nevertheless,  anxious  that  justice  should  be  administered 
in  a  right  manner,  and,  accordingly,  frequently  inculcated  the  idea, 
that  God  was  a  witness  to  judicial  transactions.  He  interdicted, 
in  the  most  express  and  decided  manner,  gifts  or  bribes,  Iftuj ,  which 
were  intended  to  corrupt  the  judges,  Exod.  22:  20,  21.  23:  1 — 9. 
Lev.  19:  15.  Deut.  24:  14,  15.    Moses  also,  by  legal  precautions, 

39 


306 


'A 

§  248.   FORM  Or  TRIAL. 


prevented  capital  punishments,  and  corporal  punishments,  which 
were  not  capital,  from  being  extended,  as  was  done  in  other  na- 
tions, both  to  parents  and  their  children,  and  thus  involving  the 
innocent  and  the  guilty  in  that  misery,  which  was  justly  due  only 
to  the  latter,  Exod.  23:  7.  Deut.  24:  16.  comp.  Dan.  6:  24.  This 
salutary  arrangement  seems  to  have  been  neglected  by  the  kings, 
2  K.  9:  26 ;  although  in  all  other  cases,  where  it  was  deemed 
expedient  to  inflict  punishment,  the  form  of  trial  was  gone  through, 
even  in  respect  to  those  innocent  persons,  who  had  become  the 
subjects  of  the  royal  displeasure,  and  were  tried  only  to  be  con- 
demned, 1  K.  21:  7 — 16.  The  disregard  of  justice,  which,  in 
such  instances,  was  manifested  by  the  kings,  exerted  a  bad  influence 
on  the  minds  of  the  judges,  and,  as  we  may  learn  from  the  repeated 
complaints  of  the  prophets,  they  were  too  often  guilty  of  partiality  in 
their  decisions. 

The  ceremonies,  which  were  observed,  in  conducting  a  judicial 
trial,  were  as  follows. 

I.  The  accuser  and  the  accused  both  made  their  appearance 
before  the  judge  or  judges,  Deut.  25:  1  ;  who  sat  with  legs  crossed 
upon  the  floor,  which  was  furnished  for  their  accommodation  with  a 
carpet  and  cushions.  A  secretary  was  present,  at  least  in  more 
modern  times,  who  wrote  down  the  sentence,  and  indeed  every 
thing  in  relation  to  the  trial,  for  instance,  the  articles  of  agreement, 
that  might  be  entered  into,  previous  to  the  commencement  of  the 
judicial  proceedings,  Is.  10:  1,  2.  Jer.  32:  1 — 14.  The  Jews  as- 
sert, that  there  were  two  secretaries,  the  one  being  seated  to  the 
right  of  the  judge,  who  wrote  the  sentence  of  not  guilty,  the  other 
to  the  left,  who  wrote  the  sentence  of  condemnation.  Compare 
Matt.  25:  33 — 46.  That  an  apparitor  or  beadle  was  present,  is  ap- 
parent from  other  sources. 

II.  The  accuser  was  denominated  in  Hebrew  JDip,  satan  or 
the  adversary,  Zech.  3:  1 — 3.  Ps.  109:  6.  The  judge  or  judges 
were  seated,  but  both  of  the  parties  implicated  stood  up,  the  ac- 
cuser standing  to  the  right  hand  of  the  accused.  The  latter,  at 
least  after  the  captivity,  when  the  cause  was  one  of  great  conse- 
quence, appeared  with  hair  dishevelled,  and  in  a  garment  of  mourn- 
ing. 

III.  The  witnesses  were  sworn,  and  in  capital  cases,  the  par- 
ties concerned,  1  Sam.  14:  37—40.  Matt.  26:  63.    In  order  to  es- 


§249.   PRISONS  AND  TORTURES. 


307 


tablish  the  charges  alleged,  two  witnesses  were  necessary,  and,  in- 
cluding the  accuser,  three.  The  witnesses  were  examined  sepa- 
rately, but  the  person  accused  had  the  liberty  to  be  present,  when 
their  testimony  was  given  in,  Num.  35:  30.  Deut.  17:  1 — 15,  Matt. 
26:  59. 

Proofs  might  be  brought  from  other  sources,  for  instance,  from 
written  contracts,  or  from  papers  in  evidence  of  any  thing  purchas- 
ed or  sold,  of  which  there  were  commonly  taken  two  copies,  the  one 
to  be  sealed,  the  other  to  be  left  open,  as  was  customary  in  the  time 
of  Jerome,  Jer.  32:  10—13. 

IV.  The  parties  sometimes,  as  may  be  inferred  from  Prov. 
18:  18.  made  use  of  the  lot  in  determining  the  points  of  difficulty 
between  them,  but  not  without  a  mutual  agreement.  The  sacred 
lot  of  Urim  and  Thummim  was  anciently  resorted  to,  in  order  to 
detect  the  guilty,  Josh.  7:  14 — 24.  1  Sam.  xiv.  but  the  determina- 
tion of  a  case  of  right  or  wrong  in  this  way  was  not  commanded  by 
Moses. 

V.  The  sentence,  very  soon  after  the  completion  of  the  ex- 
amination, was  pronounced,  and  the  criminal,  without  any  delay, 
even  if  the  offence  were  a  capital  one,  was  hastened  away  to  the 
place  of  punishment,  Josh.  7:  22,  et  seq.  1  Sam.  22:  18.  1  K.  2: 
23. 

§  249.  Prisons  and  Tortures. 

As  the  execution  followed  so  soon  after  the  sentence,  there 
was  no  special  need  of  prisons.  Indeed  they  are  not  to  be  found 
in  Persia  at  the  present  day,  and  it  is  customary  to  confine  the 
criminal  in  an  apartment  of  the  house  of  the  judge.  Compare  Gen. 
40:  3,  4. 

The  instrument  of  punishment,  mentioned  in  Job  13:  27.  33: 
11.  in  Hebrew  "id  the  stocks,  was  probably  of  Egyptian  origin. 
Among  the  Hebrews  anciently,  criminals  were  put  under  a  guard 
of  persons,  employed  for  that  purpose,  Lev.  24:  12.  Not  unfre- 
quently  they  were  confined  in  empty  cisterns. 

The  great  variety  in  the  names  of  prisons  would  lead  one  to 
suppose,  that  they  were  more  frequently  erected,  and  more  often 
used,  in  the  latter,  than  in  the  early  periods  of  the  Jewish  nation. 
They  are  as  follows. 


308 


$  249.   PRISONS  AND  TORTURES. 


(1.)  "lfifca,  which  usually  signifies  a  cistern,  Gen.  40:  15. 

(2.)  ^rrbn  ITS,  Gen.  39:  20.  (The  word  -inb  appears  to  be 
of  Coptic  origin. 

(3.)  f-non  rP3,  (for  trnHNWJ  n^a)  Eccles.  4:  14. 

(4.)  *isi08fi  rPz,  Jer.  37:  15. 

(5.)  M|V|r5  rPS^  1  K.  22:  27.  2  K.  25:  29. 

(6.)  ft£a»,  irtj»  ,  Jer.  37:  4.  52:  31. 

(7.)  nssrrarr  rP2  ,  2  Chron.  16:  10. 

(8.)  ^SO»  ~  Is.  42:  7.  24:  22.  Ps.  142:  7. 

If  the  great  variety  in  the  names  of  prisons  is  a  proof,  that  in 
the  progress  of  time  they  were  more  and  more  multiplied  :  it  is 
likewise  an  indirect  evidence,  that  they  were  employed  not  only  for 
the  detention  of  criminals,  but  as  a  means  of  punishment  and  cor- 
rection, Jer.  37:  15 — 20. 

Persons,  who  were  committed  to  prison,  were  subjected  to  the 
further  evil  of  being  confined  with  chains,  which  occur  under  the 
Hebrew  words  tPj>T ,  ^5.3  ,  and  irjn?;  likewise  under  the  word 
BTftfQa  made  of  brass,  Jer.  40:  4.  52:  11.  Ps.  105:  18.  107:  10. 

The  Jews,  after  the  captivity,  followed  the  example  of  other 
nations,  and  shut  up  in  prison  those,  who  failed  in  the  payment  of 
their  debts.  They  had  the  liberty  likewise  to  put  in  requisition  the 
aid  of  tortures,  paoaviaiu?,  and  to  punish  the  debtor  with  stripes, 
Matt.  5:  26.  18:  28—34. 

At  a  more  recent  period  still,  they  borrowed  from  the  Greeks 
the  custom  of  applying  the  torture,  fiuaavoi,  in  order  to  ex-tort  a 
confession  from  the  person  accused,  Wisd.  2:  19.  The  different 
kinds  of  torture  are  mentioned  in  the  Treatise  concerning  the  Mac- 
cabees, appended  to  the  Works  of  Josephus.  The  Romans  in  some 
instances  fastened  their  criminals,  sometimes  by  one,  sometimes  by 
both  hands  to  a  soldier.  Such  remained  in  their  own  house,  Acts 
28:  16.    Seneca  Epist.  5.  et  de  Tranquill.  c.  20. 

It  was  not  un frequently  the  case,  that  the  keepers  of  prisons, 
when  those,  who  were  committed  to  their  charge,  had  escaped,  were 
subjected  to  the  same  punishment,  which  had  been  intended  for  the 
prisoners,  Acts  12:  19.  16:27. 


§250.   REGULATIONS,  ETC.  IN  RESPECT  TO  DEBTORS.  309 


§  250.  Regulations,  etc.  in  respect  to  Debtors. 

Those,  who  had  property  due  to  them,  might,  if  they  chose,  se- 
cure it  by  means  of  a  mortgage,  or  by  a  pledge,  or  by  a  bonds- 
man. 

The  following  remarks,  in  relation  to  this  subject,  are  worthy  of 
attentiou. 

I.  The  creditor,  when  about  to  receive  a  pledge  for  a  debt, 
was  not  allowed  to  enter  the  house  of  the  debtor,  and  take  what 
he  pleased  ;  but  was  to  wait  before  the  door,  till  the  debtor  should 
deliver  up  that  pledge,  which  he  could  most  easily  do  without, 
Deut.  24:  10,  11.  comp.  Job  22:  6.  24:  3,  7—9. 

II.  When  a  mill  or  millstone,  or  an  upper-garment  was  given, 
as  a  pledge,  it  was  not  to  be  kept  over  night ;  and  these  appear 
to  stand,  as  examples  for  all  other  things,  which  the  debtor  could 
not,  without  great  inconvenience,  dispense  with,  Exod.  22:  25,  26. 
Deut.  24.  6,  12. 

III.  The  debt,  which  remained  till  the  seventh,  or  sabbatic 
year,  (during  which  the  soil  was  to  be  left  without  cultivation, 
and  a  person,  consequently,  was  not  supposed  to  be  in  a  condition 
to  make  payments,)  could  not  be  exacted  during  said  period. 
Hence  the  sabbatic  year  was  denominated  iitiTJ-l)  or  deferring, 
DeutM5:.l — 11.  But  at  other  times,  in  case  the  debt  was  not 
paid,  the  lands  or  the  house  of  the  debtor  might  be  sold.  The 
property  thus  sold  appears  to  have  continued  in  the  hands  of  the 
purchaser  only  till  the  year  of  Jubilee,  when  it  returned  again  to 
the  original  possessors,  or  their  heirs,  Prov.  31:  16. 

In  case  the  house,  or  land  was  not  sufficient  to  cancel  the  debt, 
or  if  it  so  happened,  that  the  debtor  had  none,  the  debtor  himself, 
together  with  his  wife  and  children,  was  sold  into  slavery,  Prov. 
22:  27.  Mic.  2.  9. 

If  a  person  had  become  bondsman  for  another,  he  was  liable 
to  be  called  upon  for  payment  in  the  same  way  with  the  original 
debtor.  We  see  in  this  the  ground  of  the  admonitions  in  the  Book 
of  Proverbs,  (6:  1—4.  11:  15.  17:  18.  22:26,)  that  a  person  should 
not  too  readily  give  his  hands  to,  or  "  strike  hands"  with  the  debtor, 
in  the  presence  of  the  creditor,  i.  e.  become  his  surety. 


310 


§  251 .   ON  USURY. 


Novae  Tabulae. 
This  was  a  phrase  applied  by  the  Romans  to  a  general  can- 
celling of  debts.  The  assertion  of  Josephus,  (Antiq.  III.  12.  I.) 
that  there  was  an  extinction  of  debts  on  every  returning  Jubi- 
lee among  the  Hebrews,  corresponding  to  the  state  of  things 
among  the  Romans  at  the  recurrence  of  the  Novae  Tabulae,  is  ne- 
cessarily applicable  only  to  the  age,  in  which  he  himself  lived. 
It  is  true,  however,  (but  it  was  an  extraordinary  case,)  that  Ne- 
hemiah,  (5:  1 — 12.)  in  order  to  relieve  the  wants  and  to  improve 
the  condition  of  the  poor,  permitted  Novae  Tabulae. 

§251.  On  Usury. 

Moses  enacted  a  law  to  the  effect,  (Exod.  22:  25.  Lev.  25:  35 
— 31.)  that  interest  should  not  be  taken  from  a  poor  person,  nei- 
ther for  borrowed  money ,  ^pDD  ,  nor  for  articles  of  consumption,  rPzlH], 
rPZn»,  for  instance  grain,  which  was  borrowed  with  the  expecta- 
tion of  being  returned.  A  difficulty  arose,  in  determining  who  was 
to  be  considered  a  poor  person,  in  a  case  of  this  kind  ;  and  the 
law  was  accordingly  altered  in  Deut.  23:  20,  21.  and  extended  in 
its  operation  to  all  the  Hebrews,  whether  they  had  more  or  les9 
property  ;  so  that  interest  could  be  lawfully  taken  only  of  foreigners. 

The  Hebrews  were,  therefore,  exhorted  to  lend  money,  etc. 
as  a  deed  of  mercy  and  brotherly  kindness,  Deut.  15:  7 — 11.  24: 
13.  And  hence  it  happens,  that  we  find  encomiums  every  where 
lavished  upon  those,  who  were  willing  to  lend,  without  insisting 
upon  interest  for  the  use  of  the  thing  lent,  Ps.  15:  15.  37:  21,  26. 
112:  5.  Prov.  19:  17.  Ezek.  18:  8. 

This  regulation  in  regard  to  taking  interest  was  very  well  suit- 
ed to  the  condition  of  a  state,  that  had  been  recently  founded,  and 
which  had  but  very  little  mercantile  dealings,  but  it  would  be  very 
unwisely  introduced  into  communities,  that  are  much  engaged  in 
commerce. 


§  252.  THE  SMALLEST  PUNISHMENT. 


311 


§  252.  The  smallest  Punishment. 

Excision  from  the  people,  of  which  we  shall  speak  more  parti- 
cularly by  and  by,  was  the  punishment,  that  was  consequent  on  a 
deliberate  transgression  of  the  ceremonial  law.  If  transgressions 
of  the  ceremonial  law,  (or  indeed,  of  certain  natural  laws,  sanc- 
tioned by  a  civil  penalty,)  were  committed,  without  deliberate  pre- 
meditation, through  error,  precipitancy,  or  ignorance,  the  offend- 
er could  avoid  the  punishment  of  excision,  if  he  chose,  by  volunta- 
rily offering  a  sacrifice,  Num.  15:  27 — 31.  In  this  way  transgres- 
sors were  invited  to  return,  to  render  satisfaction  to  the  person  in- 
jured, and  to  pursue  in  future  a  less  erroneous  course.  But  it 
ought  to  be  remarked,  that,  in  offering  a  sacrifice,  the  offender 
merely  avoided  the  penalty  of  the  civil  law;  the  merely  taking 
this  step  could  not  of  itself  reconcile  him  to  God,  and  do  away 
the  evil  he  had  committed  in  the  sight  of  Omniscience,  Heb.  9: 
13,  14. 

Expiatory  sacrifices  of  this  kind  could  be  offered  only  for  trans- 
gressions of  a  particular  character  :  viz.  those,  which  are  called  in 
Hebrew  niNtah,  nNttft,  ntftart  sins,  and  those,  which  are  denom- 
inated rri»'<23N,  fi'iSfi* ,  trespasses. 

It  is  worthy  to  be  observed,  that  a  sin-offering  is  expressed  in 
Hebrew  by  the  same  words,  viz.  DNiah,  which  mean  the  sin  it- 
self, and  it  is  the  same  in  the  other  case,  viz.  UW;  etc.  a  trespass, 
also  a  trespass-offering. 

Both  the  sin  and  trespass  offerings  are  expressly  defined,  (Lev. 
iv.  v.)  but  the  exact  distinction  between  the  transgressions,  to 
which  they  have  reference  is  very  obscure.  From  an  examina- 
tion, however,  of  the  statements  in  the  chapters  just  referred  to, 
it  would  seem,  that  sins,  according  to  the  technical  application  of 
the  term  in  the  ceremonial  law,  are  violations  of  prohibitory  stat- 
utes, i.  e.  doing  something,  which  the  law  commands  not  to  do. 
Trespasses,  on  the  other  hand,  are  violations  of  imperative  statutes, 
i.  e.  neglecting  to  do  those  things  which  are  commanded.  Consult 
the  large  German  edition  of  this  Work,  P.  III.  §  101. 

The  guilty  person  incurred  the  expense  of  the  victim.  He 
confessed  to  his  confusion  and  shame  the  sin  or  trsspass  over  the 
head  of  the  animal,  and,  if  he  had  unjustly  taken  another's  proper- 


/ 


312  $253.   FINES  AND  INDEMNIFICATIONS. 

ty,  and  had  not  previously  made  a  restoration  of  it,  he  not  only 
restored  it,  but  added  in  the  restoration  a  fifth  part,  Lev.  6:  1—5. 
Num.  5:  5,  10.  In  case  the  person,  to  whom  restitution  was  to  be 
made,  was  not  living,  it  was  made  to  his  heirs  ;  if  this  could  not 
be  done,  it  was  made  to  the  high  priest,  as  the  minister  of  Je- 
hovah. 

The  fact  that  restitution,  which,  under  the  old  dispensations, 
was  so  frequently  mentioned,  and  so  strenuously  insisted  on,  is  not 
inculcated  in  the  New  Testament,  is  owing  to  the  circumstance, 
that  it  was  considered  a  duty  so  generally  known,  and  so  freely 
admitted,  as  to  require  no  further  mention,  Eph.  4:  23. 

§253.  Fines  and  Indemnifications,  "»zj3b. 

In  some  instances,  the  amount  of  a  fine,  or  of  an  indemnifica- 
tion, that  was  to  be  made,  was  determined  by  the  person,  who  had 
been  injured.  In  other  instances,  it  was  fixed  by  the  estimation  of 
the  judge,  and,  in  others,  was  defined  by  the  law. 

For  instance, 

(1.)  The  indemnification,  which  is  termed  ^53,  and 
t:D3  ll^lfc,  the  ransom  of  one's  life,  i.  e.  the  payment  which  might 
be  made  by  a  person,  who  had  injured  another,  as  a  commutation 
for  those  corporal  punishments,  to  which,  in  consequence  of  the  law 
of  retaliation,  (jus  talionis,)  he  had  exposed  himself,  was  left  to  be 
determined  by  the  mere  pleasure  of  the  person,  who  had  been  in- 
jured, Exod.  21:  30. 

(2.)  The  amount  to  be  paid,  in  order  to  secure  a  commutation 
of  the  punishment,  that  was  enacted  bylaw,  against  the  owner  of 
a  bull,  which,  although  the  owner  had  been  previously  admonished 
of  the  bull's  character  for  pushing,  had  killed  a  free  person,  was  left 
to  be  determined  vby  the  avenger  of  blood.  This  is  the  only  in- 
stance, in  which  a  commutation  of  the  punishment  was  allowable, 
where  death  was  the  penalty  of  the  crime,  Exod.  21:  28 — 31. 

(3.)  If  two  men,  in  contending  with  each  other,  injured  a  wo- 
man with  child,  so  that  she  came  to  a  premature  birth,  a  fine  was 
to  be  paid,  according  to  the  estimation  of  the  husband  and  the 
judge. 

(4.)  If  a  servant  were  slain  by  a  cross  ox,  when  known  to  be 
such  by  the  owner,  the  owner  was  obliged  to  pay  thirty  shekels, 
Exod.  21:  32.  comp.  Deut.  22:  19. 


$  254.   PUNISHMENT  OF  THEFT. 


313 


None  of  these  fines  were  paid  to  the  state,  but  all  of  them  to 
the  person,  who  had  been  injured. 

§254.  Punishment  of  Theft. 

The  restitution,  that  was  required  to  be  made,  in  case  of  theft, 
was  double  of  the  amount  taken,  Exod.  22:  3,  6,  8.  If  a  sheep, 
however,  were  stolen  and  had  already  been  slain  or  sold,  so  that 
it  was  evident,  that  the  thief  had  no  design  to  make  restitution,  a 
fourfold;  and,  if  this  were  the  case  in  respect  to  an  ox,  a  fivefold 
restitution  was  to  be  made.  The  reason  of  this  distinction  was, 
that  sheep,  beeing  kept  in  the  desert,  were  more  exposed,  than 
other  animals,  to  be  stolen  ;  and  oxen,  being  so  indispensably  ne- 
cessary in  an  agricultural  community,  could  not  be  taken  from  their 
owners  in  this  way,  without  great  injury,  and  peculiar  aggravation, 
Exod.  22:  1. 

In  case  the  thief,  nsa  ,  was  unable  to  make  the  restitution  de- 
manded by  the  law,  he  was  sold  with  his  wife  and  children  into  ser- 
vitude, Exod.  22:  2.  2  K.  4:  1.  comp.  Gen.  43:  19.  44:  17. 

In  the  days  of  the  kings,  the  fine  for  theft  seems  to  have  been 
increased,  Prov.  6:  30,  31. 

Capital  punishment  was  decreed  only  against  a  thief,  who  had 
taken  any  thing  that  was  accursed,  any  thing  to  which  the  epithet 
SLHtl  was  applicable,  Josh.  7:  25  ;  for  what  David  asserts,  in  2  Sam. 
12:  5.  in  respect  to  the  person,  who  took  away  the  lamb,  viz.  that 
he  was  worthy  of  death,  means  merely,  that  he  was  guilty,  since  he 
immediately  adds,  "  He  shall  restore  fourfold."  It  appears  from 
this  parable,  however,  to  which  we  allude,  that  both  thieving  and 
taking  away  violently  by  force,  came  under  the  same  law,  and  were 
followed  by  the  same  punishment. 

Whoever  slew  a  thief,  that  was  attempting  to  break  open  a 
house  at  night,  let  it  be  what  hour  it  might  before  sunrise,  was 
left  unpunished  ;  since  he  did  not  know,  but  the  thief  might  have 
a  design  upon  his  life,  and  he  was  unable  also  to  notice  his  appear- 
ance, and  thereby  bring  him  to  justice  at  a  subsequent  period, 
Exod.  22:  1. 

40 


314 


§  255.   CORPORAL  PUNISHMENTS. 


§  255.  Corporal  Punishments. 

Corporal  punishments  may  be  limited  to  one  kind,  viz.  the 
infliction  of  blows  with  a  rod  or  scourging,  Lev.  19:  20.  Deut.  22: 
16.  25:  2,  3.  The  dignity  or  high  standing  of  the  person,  who 
had  rendered  himself  liable  to  this  punishment,  could  not  excuse 
him  from  its  being  inflicted.  Stripes,  the  rod,  etc.  occur  very  fre- 
quently for  punishment  of  any  kind,  Prov.  10:  13,  17:  26.  Jer.  37: 
15—20.  Ps.  89:  32. 

Scourging  is  very  frequently  practised  at  the  present  day  in 
the  East,  as  it  was  anciently ;  with  this  difference,  however,  that 
the  stripes  were  formerly  inflicted  on  the  back,  but  now  on  the  soles 
of  the  feet. 

The  instrument,  commonly  used  to  inflict  the  punishment,  was 
a  rod.  Scorpions,  traSjji? ,  i.  e.  thongs  set  with  sharp  iron  points 
or  nails,  called  by  the  Romans  houribilia,  were  applied,  as  a  means 
of  torturing,  only  by  those,  who  had  no  relentings  of  heart ;  especial- 
ly by  cruel  masters,  in  the  punishment  of  their  slaves,  1  K.  12:  11. 
The  application  of  such  an  instrument  in  punishing  was  not  sanc- 
tioned by  the  laws  of  Moses. 

The  person,  who  was  convicted  of  a  crime,  and  was  sentenced 
to  scourging,  was  extended  upon  the  ground,  and  the  blows,  not 
exceeding  forty,  were  applied  upon  his  back,  in  the  presence  of  the 
the  judge,  Deut.  25:  2,  3. 

The  more  recent  Jews,  from  their  great  fear,  lest,  from  any 
circumstance,  the  stripes  might  exceed  the  number  prescribed,  fix- 
ed it  at  thirty  nine  instead  of  forty,  which  were  inflicted  in  their 
synagogues,  Matt.  10:  17.  They  employed  for  the  purpose,  ac- 
cording to  the  Talmud ists,  (Maccoth,  3.  10,)  a  whip,  which  had 
three  lashes,  so  as  to  inflict  a  triple  wound  with  one  blow.  Thir- 
teen blows,  therefore,  made  out  of  the  thirty  nine  stripes,  2  Cor. 
11:24.  That  extreme  and  cruel  scourging,  known  among  the 
Romans,  in  which  there  was  no  limitation  of  the  number  of  the 
blows,  is  not  to  be  confounded  with  that  of  which  we  are  speak- 
ing. According  to  the  Porcian  Law,  such  a  scourging  could  not 
be  inflicted  on  a  person,  who  was  a  Roman  citizen.  Consult  Cicero 
pro  Rabirio,  ad  Famil.  X.  32.  in  Verrem,  V.  53.  and  Acts  16:  22, 
25—30,  37. 


§  256.   ON  RETALIATION. 


315 


Note.  Extinction  of  the  sight,  nfj^»  was  not  practised  among 
the  Hebrews,  as  a  pvnishmcnt.  Nor  was  it  in  truth  thus  practised 
among  other  nations,  except  in  cases,  where  the  persons,  whose 
eyes  were  put  out,  would  otherwise  have  been  in  a  condition  to 
have  engaged  in  plots  against  the  existing  government.  It  was 
from  the  fear  of  this,  that  the  eyes  of  rebellious  kings  were  put 
out,  Jer.  52:  11.  2  K.  25:  7.  In  Persia  so  late  as  the  seventeenth 
century,  a  silver  style  of  that  kind,  which  was  used  in  painting  the 
eyebrows,  was  heated  red-hot,  and  thrust  into  the  eye  of  the  son  of 
a  king,  for  the  purpose  of  destroying  the  sight,  or  at  least  destroy- 
ing it  so  far,  as  to  take  away  the  power  of  distinctly  discerning  ob- 
jects. 

§  256.  On  Retaliation. 

If  a  man,  in  a  personal  conflict  with  another,  smote  him  to  such 
a  degree,  as  to  cause  confinement  to  his  bed,  he  was  bound  to 
make  him  indemnification,  Exod.  21:  18,  19.  When,  in  such  a  con- 
test, injury  was  intentionally  done  to  a  particular  member  of  the 
body,  or  life  was  taken  away  ;  life  was  rendered  for  life,  eye  for 
eye,  tooth  for  tooth,  burning  for  burning,  wound  for  wound,  stripe 
for  stripe,  hand  for  hand,  foot  for  foot,  Exod.  21:  23 — 25.  Lev.  24: 
19 — 22.  A  false  witness,  likewise,  according  to  the  law  of  retalia- 
tion (jus  talionis,)  was  to  be  punished  with  the  same  punishment, 
which  was  decreed  against  the  crime,  in  reference  to  which  he  had 
falsely  testified,  Deut.  19:  16—21. 

In  the  time  of  Christ,  the  jus  talionis,  (Matt.  5:  38 — 40,)  was 
confounded  with  moral  principles,  i.  e.  [it  was  taught  that  the 
law  of  Moses,  which  was  merely  civil  or  penal,  rendered  it  per- 
fectly justifiable,  in  a  moral  point  of  view,  for  a  person  to  inflict 
on  another  the  same  injury,  whatever  it  might  be,  which  he  him- 
self had  received.]  The  persons,  who  expounded  the  law  to 
this  effect,  do  not  appear  to  have  recollected  [its  true  character,  as 
a  civil  or  penal  law,  which  originated  from  the  circumstances  of 
the  times,]  and  seem  not  to  have  remembered,  that  the  literal  re- 
taliation could  not  take  place,  until  after  the  decision  of  a  judge 
on  a  suit,  brought  by  the  person  injured,  and  then  was  never  to 
exceed  the  original  injury.  Furthermore,  it  was  by  no  means 
necessary,  that  this  retaliation  should  take  place  at  all,  since  the 


316 


§  257.   MOSAIC  PUNISHMENTS 


aggrieved  party  might,  either  before  or  after  the  decision  of  the 
judge,  make  an  arrangement  with  the  aggressor,  and  relieve  him 
from  the  infliction  of  the  punishment,  to  which  he  had  legally  ex- 
posed himself,  on  his  rendering  that  satisfaction,  which  in  the  He- 
brew is  technically  called  nsb ,  and  ■p"HD  a  ransom. 

The  law  of  retaliation  was  common  among  all  ancient  nations, 
and  was  in  truth  the  most  efficacious  means  of  protecting  a  person 
from  injuries.  But,  in  progress  of  time,  when  feelings  and  man- 
ners had  assumed  a  milder  tone,  causes,  which  originated  from 
one  person's  receiving  bodily  injuries  from  another,  were  brought 
into  the  common  civil  courts  on  the  footing  of  other  causes,  and 
the  punishment  to  be  inflicted  on  the  aggressor,  or  the  satisfaction 
in  any  other  way  to  be  rendered  to  the  injured  party,  was  left  en- 
tirely to  the  person,  who  sat  as  judge. 

The  arguments,  which  have  been  employed  against  the  expe- 
diency and  propriety  of  the  jus  talionis,  are  of  no  great  weight. 
For  instance,  it  has  been  said,  that  this  system  of  retaliation  in- 
creased the  number  of  injured  and  mutilated  persons  in  the  com- 
munity ;  when  on  the  contrary  it  probably  diminished  it,  as  a  per- 
son would  naturally  be  cautious,  how  he  inflicted  wounds  on  the 
body  of  another,  when  he  was  fully  aware  of  what  might  be  the 
consequences  to  himself.  Another  objection  is,  that  it  would  be 
very  difficult,  or  altogether  impossible,  to  requite  upon  the  orig- 
inal aggressor  just  as  much  and  no  more,  than  had  been  suffered 
by  the  injured  person.  But  the  answer  is,  if,  from  any  circum- 
stance, he  should  suffer  more,  all  he  has  to  do,  is  to  attribute  it  to 
himself  \  and  to  consider  it,  as  what  he  might  very  naturally  have  ex- 
pected. 

§  257.  Mosaic  Punishments. 

Criminals,  who  had  committed  homicide,  were  punished,  (as 
we  may  learn,  as  far  back  as  Gen.  9:  6.)  with  death.  But  the  mode, 
in  which  this  punishment  was  inflicted,  is  not  there  stated. 

Decapitation  and  the  Sword. 

Decapitation  or  beheading  was  a  method  of  taking  away  life, 
that  was  known  and  practised  among  the  Egyptians,  Gen.  40:  17 — 
19.    This  mode  of  punishment,  therefore,  must  have  been  known 


« 


§257.   MOSAIC  PUNISHMENTS.  317 

to  the  Hebrews.  And  it  may  further  be  remarked,  that  if,  in 
truth,  there  occur  no  indubitable  instances  of  it  in  the  time  of  the 
early  Hebrew  kings,  it  is  clear,  that  something,  which  bears  much 
relationship  to  it,  may  be  found  in  such  passages,  as  the  following, 
viz.  2  Sam.  4:  8.  20:21,22.  2  K.  10:  6— 8.  It  appears,  in  the 
later  periods  of  the  Jewish  history,  that  Herod  and  his  descen- 
dants, in  a  number  of  instances,  ordered  decapitation,  Matt.  14:  8 — 
12.  Acts  12:  2.  It  becomes  us  to  observe,  however,  lest  these 
remarks  should  carry  an  erroneous  impression,  that  beheading  was 
not  sanctioned  by  the  laws  of  Moses.  The  Mosaic  punishment 
the  most  correspondent  to  it,  was  that  of  the  sword ;  with  which 
the  criminal  was  slain  in  any  way,  which  appeared  most  conveni- 
ent or  agreeable  to  the  executioner.  That  this  statement  in  re- 
spect to  the  liberty,  exercised  by  the  executioner,  is  correct,  may 
indeed  be  inferred  from  the  phrase,  "  Rush  upon  aim"  and  "  He 
rushed  upon  him"  ia  23© ,  iT2£,|B?*j,  Judg.  8:  21.  1  Sam.  22:  18. 
2  Sam.  1:  15.  1  K.  2:  25,29,  31~  34.  The  probability  *  is,  howev- 
er, that  the  executioner,  generally,  thrust  the  sword  into  the  bowels 
of  the  criminal. 

Lapidation  or  Stoning. 

In  addition  to  the  use  of  the  sword,  stoning  was  another  mode 
of  effecting  the  punishment  of  death,  authorized  by  the  laws  of 
Moses.  Stoning  was  practised  likewise  among  many  other  ancient 
nations. 

Moses,  (following,  probably,  some  ancient  custom,)  enacted, 
that  the  witnesses  should  throw  the  first  stone  against  the  criminal, 
and,  after  the  witnesses,  the  people,  Deut.  13:  10.  17:  7.  Josh. 
7:  25.  John  8:  7. 

The  assertion  of  the  Talmudists,  (Sanhedrin,  6:  1 — 4,)  that 
the  criminal  was  first  thrown  off  frOm  an  elevated  scaffolding,  and 
then  stoned,  is  mere  fable.  The  punishment  of  stoning  is  to  be 
understood,  wherever  the  mode  of  putting  to  death  is  not  express- 
ly mentioned.  This  mode  of  punishment  is  meant,  consequently, 
in  Lev.  20:  10.  where  the  discourse  is  concerning  adulterers.  Ac- 
cordingly, this  is  the  construction  put  upon  that  passage  in  Ezek. 
16:  38,  40.  and  in  John  8:  5.  Compare  likewise  Exod.  31:  14.  and 
35:  2.  with  Numb.  15:  35,  36.  The  opinion,  therefore,  of  the  Tal- 
mudists, who  maintain,  that  strangidation  is  the  punishment,  meant 
in  the  passage  referred  to  in  Leviticus,  is  not  to  be  admitted. 


318 


§  258.  excision  ;  excommunications. 


§  258.  Excision  from  the  people  ;  Excommunications. 

When  God  is  introduced,  as  saying  in  respect  to  any  person, 
as  follows,  "  I  will  cut  him  off,  "'n'lDn,  from  the  people,"  the  ex- 
pression means  some  event  in  divine  Providence,  which  shall  even- 
tually terminate  the  life  of  that  person's  family.  Consult  1  K.  14: 
10.  21:  21.  2  K.  9:  8. 

If  the  following  expressions  are  used,  "  He  shall  be  cut  off  rns::, 
rns''  ,from  the  people,"  the  punishment  of  stoning  is  meant,  Lev. 
17:  4.  20:  10—18,  comp.  Exod.  31:  14.  35:  2.  Heb.  10:  28. 

The  more  recent  Jewish  interpreters  have  understood,  by  ex- 
cision from  the  people,  excommunication ;  and  have,  accordingly, 
made  three  species  of  it. 

I.  Excommunication,  in  the  slightest  degree,  yetfi ,  was  separa- 
tion from  the  synagogue,  and  the  suspension  of  intercourse  with  all 
Jews  whatever,  even  with  one's  wife  and  domestics.  A  person, 
who  had  exposed  himself  to  excommunication  of  this  sort,  was 
not  allowed  to  approach  another,  nearer  than  a  distance  of  four  cu- 
bits. This  separation  was  continued  for  thirty  days ;  and  in  case 
the  excommunicated  person  did  not  repent,  the  time  might  be 
doubled  or  tripled,  even  when  the  transgression,  by  means  of 
which  it  was  incurred,  was  of  small  consequence,  Buxtorfii  Lex. 
Chald.  Talm.  Rabb.  col.  1304,  et  seq. 

II.  The  second  degree  of  excommunication  is  denominated 
ffltt,  the  curse,  and  was  more  severe  in  its  effects,  than  that  just 
mentioned.  It  was  pronounced  with  imprecations,  in  the  pre- 
sence of  ten  men,  and  so  thoroughly  excluded  the  guilty  person 
from  all  communion  whatever  with  his  countrymen,  that  they  were 
not  allowed  to  sell  him  any  thing,  even  the  necessaries  of  life,  Bux- 
torfii Lex.  Chald.  Talm.  Rabbin,  col.  827.  comp.  John  16:  1,  2. 
1  Cor.  5:  2—9. 

III.  The  third  degree  of  excommunication,  which  was  more 
severe  in  its  consequences,  than  either  of  the  preceding,  was  de- 
nominated fcfctijgui  It  was  a  solemn  and  absolute  exclusion  from 
all  intercourse  and  communion  with  any  other  individuals  of  the 
nation  ;  and  the  criminal  was  left  in  the  hands,  and  to  the  justice 
of  God,  Buxtorfii  Lex.  Chald.  Talm.  Rabbin,  col.  2463—2470. 

Whether  the  word,  STwti ,  be  the  same  with  KDN  fittJ ,  the 


^  259.   POSTHUMOUS  INSULTS. 


319 


Name,  (i.  e.  God,)  comes,  and  with  fitnat  ]na  our  Lord  comes,  is  a 
question,  on  which  there  is  a  difference  of  opinion.  It  is  most 
probable,  that,  in  the  time  of  Christ,  the  second  degree  of  excom- 
munication was  not  distinguished  from  the  third,  and  that  both 
were  expressed  by  the  phraseology,  which  is  used  in  1  Cor.  5:  5. 
and  1  Tim.  1:  20.  viz.  to  deliver  to  Satan  for  the  destruction  of  the 
flesh. 

§  259.  Of  Punishments,  which  consist  of  Posthumous  insults. 

It  enters  into  the  design  of  the  Mosaic  Laws  to  inflict  punish- 
ments, but  not  punishments  of  such  a  nature,  as  shall  have  a  ten- 
dency to  communicate  a  perpetual  infamy  to  the  person,  who  suf- 
fers them.  This  remark  applies  to  the  living.  It  was  sometimes 
the  case,  that  a  lasting  infamy,  by  means  of  posthumous  insults,  was 
heaped  upon  the  dead. 

The  posthumous  insults,  to  which  we  refer,  were,  as  fol- 
lows. 

I.  The  body  of  the  criminal,  who  had  been  stoned,  was  burnt. 
Burning,  as  a  mark  of  infamy,  appears  to  have  been  an  ancient 
custom,  which  was,  consequently,  not  originated,  although  it  was 
retained  by  Moses,  Gen.  38:  24.  Lev.  20:  14.  21:  9.  Josh.  7:  15, 
25.  The  Jewish  Rabbins  suppose,  that  the  burning,  which  is 
mentioned  in  the  Scriptures,  is  the  operation  of  pouring  melted 
lead  down  the  throat  of  the  living  criminal.  Certainly  such  a  sup- 
position is  a  dream. 

II.  Another  mark  of  infamy  was  the  suspension  of  the  dead 
body  on  a  tree  or  gallows.  This  was  customary  in  Egypt,  Gen. 
40:  17—19.  Num.  25:  4,  5.  Deut.  21:  22,  23.  The  person  sus- 
pended was  considered,  as  a  curse,  an  abomination  in  the  sight  of 
God,  and  as  receiving  this  token  of  infamy  from  his  hand.  The 
body,  nevertheless,  was  to  be  taken  down,  and  buried  on  the  same 
day.  The  hanging,  mentioned  in  2  Sam.  21:  6.  was  the  work  of 
the  Gibeonites,  and  not  of  the  Israelites.  Posthumous  suspension 
of  this  kind  for  the  purpose  of  conferring  ignominy  is  a  very  differ- 
ent thing  from  the  crucifixion,  that  was  practised  by  the  Romans, 
notwithstanding  that  the  Jews  gave  such  an  extent  to  the  law  in 
Deut.  21:  22,  23.  as  to  include  the  last  named  punishment,  John 
19:  31.  et  seq.  Galat.  3:  13. 


320  §  260.  PUNISHMENTS  OF  FOREIGN  ORIGIN. 

III.  Heaps  of  stones  were  raised  either  directly  upon  the  dead 
body,  or  upon  the  place,  where  it  was  buried,  Josh.  7:  25,  26. 
2  Sam.  18:  17.  The  pile  of  stones,  that  was  gathered  in  this  way, 
was  increased  by  the  contributions  of  each  passing  traveller,  who 
added  one  to  the  heap  in  testimony  of  his  aversion  to  the  crime. 

Examine  in  connexion  with  this  the  two  hundred  and  ninth 
Section. 

■"  '  lib' 1    ,V  f 

<$>  260.  Punishments  introduced  from  other  Nations. 

There  are  other  punishments,  mentioned  in  the  Bible,  in  ad- 
dition to  those,  of  which  we  have  given  some  account;  but  which 
were  introduced  among  the  Hebrews  at  a  period  later,  than  the 
days  of  Moses. 

v  I.  Decapitation.  [Something  has  been  said  in  respect  to  this 
mode  of  punishment,  in  the  two  hundred  and  fifty  seventh  section.] 
It  was  properly  a  foreign  punishment,  and  was  frequently  practised 
among  the  Persians,  Greeks,  Romans,  and  other  nations. 

II.  Strangulation  ;  to  which  an  allusion  is  made  in  1  Kgs.  20: 
31.  The  more  recent  Jews  attributed  the  origin  of  this  punishment 
to  Moses,  but  without  cause.  They  suppose  strangulation  is  meant, 
when  the  phrase,  "  He  shall  die  the  death"  is  used.  As  that 
phrase,  in  their  estimation,  is  meant  to  express  the  easiest  death, 
by  which  a  person  can  die,  they  suppose,  the  mode  of  death  intend- 
ed is  no  other,  than  that  of  strangulation.  A  person  will  be  sur- 
prised at  their  notions  of  an  easy  death,  when  he  understands  the 
method,  in  which  it  was  effected,  to  have  been  as  follows.  The 
criminal,  (as  the  punishment,  according  to  their  account,  was  in- 
flicted,) was  thrust  up  to  his  middle  in  mud.  A  handkerchief  was 
then  tied  round  his  neck,  which  was  drawn  by  the  two  ends  in  op- 
posite directions  by  two  lictors ;  and  while  the  process  of  strangu- 
lation was  going  on  in  this  way,  melted  lead  was  poured  down  his 
throat,  Sanhedr.  10:  3. 

III.  Burning.  Persons  were  burnt  alive  in  a  furnace,  which, 
as  has  been  observed,  resembled  in  its  form  a  well,  Dan.  in.  comp. 
Chardin's  Voyage,  Vol.  IV.  p.  276.  This  mode  of  punishment  was 
practised  among  the  Chaldeans,  Jer.  29:  22. 

IV.  The  Lion's  Den.  This  mode  of  punishment  is  still  cus- 
tomary in  Fez  and  Morocco.  See  accounts  of  Fez  and  Morocco  by 
Hoest,  c.  2.  p.  77.  Dan.  vi. 


§  260.   PUNISHMENTS  OF  FOREIGN  ORIGIN.  o^i 

V.  Dichotomy  or  cutting  asunder.  This  method  of  putting 
criminals  to  death  prevailed  among  the  Chaldeans  and  Persians. 
When  this  punishment  was  inflicted,  the  left  hand  and  right  foot, 
or  the  right  hand  and  left  foot,  or  both  feet  and  hands  were  cut  off 
at  the  joints,  Dan.  2:  5.  Luke  12:  46.  Matt.  24:  51.  A  mutilation, 
in  this  way,  of  persons,  who  had  been  punished  with  death,  is  men- 
tioned in  2  Sam.  4:  12. 

VI.  Beating  to  death,  xv}mccviO[.iog.  This  was  a  punishment 
in  use  among  the  Greeks,  and  was  designed  for  slaves.  The  cri- 
minal was  suspended  to  a  stake,  and  beaten  with  rods,  till  he  died, 
2  Mace.  6:  10,  19,  28,  30.  Heb.  11:  35. 

VII.  Sawing  asunder.  The  criminal  was  sometimes  sawn 
asunder  lengthwise.  This  was  more  especially  the  practice  in  Per- 
sia. Isaiah,  according  to  the  Talmudists,  was  put  to  death  in  this 
manner,  by  king  Manasseh,  Sanhedrin,  p.  103.  c.  2.  comp.  Justin's 
Dialogue  with  Trypho.  David  inflicted  this  mode  of  punishment  up- 
on the  conquered  inhabitants  of  Rabbath  Ammon.  Comp.  1  Chron. 
20:  3. 

VIII.  The  Romans,  for  the  gratification  of  the  people,  com- 
pelled their  criminals,  and  also  their  enemies  taken  captive  in  war, 
to  fight  with  wild  beasts  in  the  amphitheatre.  They  likewise  com- 
pelled them  to  contend  with  one  another  in  the  manner  of  gladiators, 
till  their  life  was  terminated  in  this  way,  2  Tim.  4:  17.  comp.  1  Cor. 
15:  32. 

IX.  The  Persians,  in  some  instances,  enclosed  a  place  with 
high  walls,  and  filled  it  with  ashes.  A  piece  of  timber  was  made 
to  project  over  the  ashes,  and  criminals  of  high  rank  were  placed 
upon  it.  They  were  liberally  supplied  with  meat  and  drink,  till,  be- 
ing overcome  with  sleep,  they  fell  over  into  the  deceitful  heap, 
and  died  an  easy  death.  The  Macedonians  in  Syria  imitated  this 
punishment,  2  Mace.  13:  4. 

X.  It  was  the  practice  among  the  Greeks  and  Romans  to  pre- 
cipitate some  of  their  criminals,  especially  the  sacrilegious,  into 
the  sea  or  a  river.  The  persons,  who  were  thus  put  to  death,  were 
placed  in  a  sack,  and  were  thrown  in  with  a  stone  about  their 
neck.    Comp.  Matt.  18:  6.  Mark  9:  42. 

XI.  Crucifixion.  This  was  a  common  mode  of  punishment 
among  the  Persians,  Carthaginians,  and  Romans.  The  mode  of 
crucifixion,  adopted  by  the  Maccabean  princes,  was  that  of  the 

41 


322 


5  2G1.   CRUCIFIXION   AMONG  THE  ROMANS. 


Romans.  The  Romans,  although  it  was  done  at  the  urgent  and 
riotous  solicitations  of  the  Jews,  were  the  executioners  in  the  cru- 
cifixion of  Jesus  Christ.  We  shall,  therefore,  speak  more  par- 
ticularly of  this  mode  of  punishment,  as  it  existed  among  that 
people. 

§  261.  Crucifixion  as  practised  among  the  Romans. 

The  cross  was  the  punishment  that  was  inflicted  by  the  Romans, 
on  servants  who  had  perpetrated  crimes;  on  robbers,  assassins,  and 
rebels ;  among  which  last,  Jesus  was  reckoned,  on  the  ground  of 
his  making  himself  king  or  messiah,  Luke  23:  1 — 5,  13 — 15. 

The  words,  in  which  the  sentence  was  given,  were  as  follows  ; 
"  Thou  shalt  go  to  the  cross."  The  person,  who  was  subjected  to 
this  punishment,  was  deprived  of  all  his  clothes,  excepting  some- 
thing around  the  loins.  In  this  state  of  nudity,  he  was  beaten, 
sometimes  with  rods,  but  more  generally  with  whips.  Such  was 
the  severity  of  this  flagellation,  that  numbers  died  under  it.  Je- 
sus was  crowned  with  thorns  and  made  the  subjeoi,  of  mockery, 
but  nothing  of  this  kind  could  be  legally  done,  or  in  other  words, 
insults  of  this  kind  were  not  among  the  ordinary  attendants  of  cru- 
cifixion. They  were  owing,  in  this  case,  merely  to  the  petulant 
spirit  of  the  Roman  soldiers,  Matt.  27: 29.  Mark  15:  17.  John  19: 
2,  5. 

The  criminal,  having  been  beaten,  was  subjected  to  the  further 
suffering  of  being  obliged  to  carry  the  cross  himself  to  the  place  of 
punishment,  which  was  commonly  a  hill,  near  the  public  way,  and 
out  of  the  city.  The  place  of  crucifixion  at  Jerusalem  was  a  hill  to 
the  north  west  of  the  city. 

The  cross,  oxavQOQ,  a  post,  otherwise  called  the  unpropitious  or 
infamous  tree,  consisted  of  a  piece  of  wood  erected  perpendicular- 
ly, and  intersected  by  another  at  right  angles  near  the  top,  so  as  to 
resemble  the  letter  T.  The  crime,  for  which  the  person  suffered, 
was  inscribed  on  the  transverse  piece  near  the  top  of  the  perpendic- 
ular one. 

There  is  no  mention  made  in  ancient  writers  of  any  thing,  on 
which  the  feet  of  the  person  crucified  rested.  Near  the  middle, 
however,  of  the  perpendicular  beam,  there  projected  a  piece  of 
wood,  on  which  he  saty  and  which  answered  as  a  support  to  the 


§  261.   CRUCIFIXION  AMONG  THE  ROMANS.  323 

body,  since  the  weight  of  the  body  might,  otherwise,  have  torn 
away  the  hands  from  the  nails  driven  through  them.  Here  we 
see  the  ground  of  certain  phrases,  which  occur,  such  as  the  fol- 
lowing ;  "  To  ride  upon  the  cross,"  "  to  be  borne  upon  the  cross" 
"  to  rest  upon  the  sharp  cross"  etc.  Compare  Irenaeus  against  Her- 
esies II.  42.  Justin's  Dialogue  with  Trypho,  and  Tertullian  against 
the  Gentiles,  Bk.  II.  also  against  Marcion,  Bk.  III.  c.  18. 

The  cross,  which  was  erected  at  the  place  of  punishment,  be- 
ing there  firmly  fixed  in  the  ground,  rarely  exceeded  ten  feet  in 
height.  The  victim,  perfectly  naked,  was  elevated  to  the  small 
projection  in  the  middle,  the  hands  were  then  bound  by  a  rope 
round  the  transverse  beam,  and  nailed  through  the  palm.  We 
see  in  this  statement  the  ground  of  such  expressions,  as  the  fol- 
lowing; "  To  mount  upon  the  cross"  to  leap  upon  the  cross" 
"  to  bring  one  upon  the  cross  "  etc.  Comp.  Cicero  against  Verres, 
V.  66.  and  Josephus,  Jewish  War,  VII.  6.  4. 

The  position  which  is  taken  by  some,  viz.  that  the  persons,  who 
suffered  crucifixion,  were  not  in  some  instances  fastened  to  the  cross 
by  nails  through  the  hands  and  feet,  but  were  merely  bound  to  it 
by  ropes,  cannot  be  proved  by  the  testimony  of  any  ancient  writer 
whatever.  That  the  feet,  as  well  as  the  hands,  were  fastened  to 
the  cross  by  means  of  nails,  is  expressly  asserted  in  the  play  of 
Plautus,  entitled  Mostellaria,  Act.  II.  sc.  I.  12.  comp.  Tertullian 
against  the  Jews,  c.  1.  and  against  Marcion,  Bk.  III.  c.  19.  In  re- 
gard to  the  nailing  of  the  feet,  it  may  be  furthermore  observed,  that 
Gregory  Nazianzen  has  asserted,  that  one  nail  only  was  driven 
through  both  of  them,  but  Cyprian,  (de  passione,)  who  had  been 
a  personal  witness  to  crucifixions,  and  is,  consequently,  in  this  case, 
the  better  authority,  states  on  the  contrary,  that  two  nails  or  spikes 
were  driven,  one  through  each  foot. 

The  crucified  person  remained  suspended  in  this  way,  till  he 
died  and  the  corpse  had  become  putrid.  While  he  exhibited  any 
signs  of  life,  he  was  watched  by  a  guard,  but  they  left  him,  when 
it  appeared  that  he  was  dead.  The  corpse  was  not  buried,  ex- 
cept by  express  permission,  which  was  sometimes  granted  by  the 
emperor  on  his  birth-day,  but  only  to  a  very  few.  An  exception, 
however,  to  this  general  practice  was  made  by  the  Romans  in 
favour  of  the  Jews,  on  account  of  Deut.  21:  22,  23  ;  and  in  Judea, 
accordingly,  crucified  persons   were  buried  on  the   same  day. 


324 


§  262.     THE  CRUELTIES  OF  CRUCIFIXION. 


When,  therefore,  there  was  not  a  prospect,  that  they  would  die 
on  the  day  of  the  crucifixion,  the  executioners  hastened  the  ex- 
tinction of  life,  by  kindling  a  fire  under  the  cross,  so  as  to  suffo- 
cate them  with  the  smoke,  or  by  letting  loose  wild  beasts  upon 
them,  or  by  breaking  their  bones  upon  the  cross  with  a  mallet,  as 
upon  an  anvil,  or  by  piercing  them  with  a  spear,  in  order  that  they 
might  bury  them  on  the  same  day. 

Note.  The  Jews,  in  the  times  of  which  we  are  speaking,  viz. 
while  they  were  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Romans,  were  in  the 
habit  of  giving  the  criminal,  before  the  commencement  of  his  suffer- 
ings, a  medicated  drink  of  wine  and  myrrh,  Prov.  31:  16.  The  object 
of  this  was  to  produce  intoxication,  and  thereby  render  the  pains 
of  the  crucifixion  less  sensible  to  the  sufFerer,  Sanhedrin  I.  p.  250. 
This  beverage  was  refused  by  the  Saviour  for  the  obvious  reason, 
that  he  chose  to  die,  with  the  faculties  of  his  mind  undisturbed  and 
unclouded,  Matt.  27:  34.  Mark  15:  23.  It  should  be  remarked, 
that  this  sort  of  drink,  which  was  probably  offered  out  of  kindness, 
was  different  from  the  vinegar,  which  was  subsequently  offered  to 
the  Saviour,  by  the  Roman  soldiers.  [The  latter  was  a  mixture  of 
vinegar  and  water,  denominated  posca,  and  was  a  common  drink  for 
the  soldiers  in  the  Roman  army,]  Luke  23:  36.  John  19:  29. 

§  262.  The  cruelties  of  Crucifixion. 

Crucifixion  was  not  only  the  most  ignominious,  it  was  like- 
wise the  most  cruel  mode  of  punishment.  So  very  much  so,  that 
Cicero,  (in  Verrem,  V.  64,  et  66.)  is  justified  in  saying  in  respect 
to  crucifixion,  "  Ab  oculis,  aiiribusque,  et  omni  cogitationc  hominum 
removendum  esse."  The  sufferings  endured  by  a  person,  on  whom 
this  punishment  is  inflicted,  are  narrated  by  George  Gottlieb 
Richter,  a  German  physician,  in  a  Dissertation  on  the  Saviour's 
Crucifixion,  at  page  36,  et  seq. 

I.  The  position  of  the  body  is  unnatural,  the  arms  being  extend- 
ed back  and  almost  immoveable.  In  case  of  the  least  motion  an  ex- 
tremely painful  sensation,  is  experienced  in  the  hands  and  feet, 
which  are  pierced  with  nails,  and  in  the  back,  which  is  lacerated 
with  stripes. 

II.  The  nails,  being  driven  through  the  parts  of  the  hands  and 
feet,  which  abound  in  nerves  and  tendons,  create  the  most  exquisite 
anguish 


§262.  THE  CRUELTIES  OF  CRUCIFIXION.  325 

III.  The  exposure  of  so  many  wounds  to  the  open  air  brings 
on  an  inflammation,  which  every  moment  increases  the  poignancy 
of  the  suffering. 

IV.  In  those  parts  of  the  body,  which  are  distended  or  press- 
ed, more  blood  flows  through  the  arteries,  than  can  be  carried 
back  in  the  veins.  The  consequence  is,  that  a  greater  quantity  of 
blood  finds  its  way  from  the  aorta  into  the  head  and  stomach,  than 
would  be  carried  there  by  a  natural  and  undisturbed  circulation. 
The  blood  vessels  of  the  head  become  pressed  and  swollen,  which 
of  course  causes  pain,  and  a  redness  of  the  face.  The  circum- 
stance of  the  blood  being  impelled  in  more  than  ordinary  quanti- 
ties into  the  stomach  is  an  unfavourable  one  also,  because  it  is  that 
part  of  the  system,  which  not  only  admits  of  the  blood  being  sta- 
tionary, but  is  peculiarly  exposed  to  mortification.  The  aorta, 
not  being  at  liberty  to  empty,  in  the  free  and  undisturbed  way  as 
formerly,  the  blood  which  it  receives  from  the  left  ventricle  of  the 
heart  is  unable  to  receive  its  usual  quantity.  The  blood  of  the 
lungs,  therefore,  is  unable  to  find  a  free  circulation.  This  general 
obstruction  extends  its  effects  likewise  to  the  right  ventricle,  and 
the  consequence  is  an  internal  excitement,  and  exertion,  and  anx- 
iety, which  are  more  intolerable,  than  the  anguish  of  death  itself. 
All  the  large  vessels  about  the  heart,  and  all  the  veins  and  arte- 
ries in  that  part  of  the  system,  on  account  of  the  accumulation  and 
pressure  of  blood,  are  the  source  of  inexpressible  misery. 

V.  The  degree  of  anguish  is  gradual  in  its  increase,  and  the 
person  crucified  is  able  to  live  under  it,  commonly  till  the  third, 
and  sometimes  till  the  seventh  day.  Pilate,  therefore,  being  sur- 
prised at  the  speedy  termination  of  the  Saviour's  life,  inquired  in 
respect  to  the  truth  of  it  of  the  centurion  himself,  who  command- 
ed the  soldiers,  Mark  15:  44.  In  order  to  bring  their  life  to  a  more 
speedy  termination,  so  that  they  might  be  buried  on  the  same  day, 
the  bones  of  the  two  thieves  were  broken  with  mallets,  John  19: 
31 — 37;  and  in  order  to  ascertain  this  point  in  respect  to  Jesus, 
viz,  whether  he  was  really  dead,  or  whether  he  had  merely  fallen 
into  a  swoon,  a  soldier  thrust  his  lance  into  his  side,  (undoubtedly 
his  left  side,)  but  no  signs  of  life  appeared,  John  19:  13 — 37.  If 
he  had  not  been  previously  dead,  a  wound  of  this  kind  in  his  side 
would  have  put  a  period  to  his  life,  as  has  been  shown  both  by 
the  physician  Eschenbach  and  by  Gruner,  the  former  in  his  Opus- 


# 


326     §  264.   OF  THE  BLOOD-AVENGER,  AND  CITIES  OF  REFUGE. 

cul.  Medic,  de  Servatorc  non  apparenter,  sed  vere  rnortuo,  and  the 
latter  in  his  Dissert.  Inaug.  Medic,  de  Jesu  Christi  morte  vera,  non 
synopticd,  1800.  The  part  pierced  was  the  pericardium  ;  hence 
lymph  and  blood  flowed  out. 

§  263.  The  Public  Executioners. 

When  the  sentence  of  death  was  pronounced  by  the  king,  it 
was  executed  by  his  body-guard.  Compare  §  236.  Sometimes  it 
was  done  by  some  other  person,  who  considered  the  employment  an 
honour,  2  Sam.  1:  15.  4:  12. 

The  kings  of  Persia  formerly,  as  is  the  case  to  this  day,  were 
unable  to  recall  the  sentence  of  death,  when  once  passed.  Dan.  6: 
15—25. 

Criminals  were  every  where  bound  with  their  own  girdle,  and 
hurried  away  to  punishment.  Comp.  Acts  21:  10 — 14.  John  21:  18. 

Homicides  were  put  to  death  by  the  blood-avenger,  bfiOa,  i-  e. 
by  the  nearest  male  relation  of  the  person  slain,  of  whom  we  shall 
speak  more  particularly  in  the  next  section.  Where  stoning  was 
the  punishment,  the  process  was  commenced  by  the  witnesses 
themselves,  whose  example  was  followed,  and  the  punishment  ren- 
dered complete  by  the  people,  Deut.  17:  7.  The  Roman  magistrates 
had  their  lictors,  but  the  soldiers,  in  the  time  of  the  Cesars,  execut- 
ed the  sentence  of  the  cross.  The  dress  of  the  crucified  person 
was  given  to  the  soldiers,  Matt.  27:  35.  Mark  15:  24.  Luke  23:  34. 
John  19:  23,  24. 

§  264.  Of  the  Blood-avenger,  and  cities  of  Refuge. 

The  execution  of  the  punishment,  which  in  Gen.  9:  6.  was  de- 
creed against  homicide,  devolved  on  the  brother  or  other  nearest 
relation  of  the  person,  whose  life  had  been  taken  away.  In  case 
he  did  not  slay  the  guilty  person,  he  was  considered  infamous. 
Hence  the  application  of  the  Hebrew  word  bNni3,  goel,  i.  e.  spotted 
or  contaminated,  which  he  bore  till  the  murder  was  revenged. 

A  law  of  this  kind,  viz.  which  authorizes  the  blood-avenger, 
may  indeed  be  necessary,  where  there  is  no  legally  constituted 
tribunal  of  justice  ;  but  as  soon  as  there  is  such  an  one,  it  ought  to 
cease.    To  change  a  law,  however,  or  practice  of  long  standing, 


§265.   OF  THE  UNKNOWN  MURDERER. 


327 


is  a  matter  of  no  little  difficulty.  Moses,  therefore,  left  it,  as  he 
found  it,  but  he  endeavoured,  nevertheless,  to  prevent  its  abuses. 

To  this  end,  he  appointed  cities  of  refuge,  tebpnlri  "'n  2 ,  three 
beyond,  and  three  on  this  side  of  the  Jordan.  He  took  care  also, 
that  roads  leading  to  them  in  straight  lines  should  be  laid  out,  in 
every  direction,  which  were  to  be  distinguished  in  some  way  from 
other  streets.  Any  one,  who  had  slain  a  person  unexpectedly  and 
without  intention  so  to  do,  any  person  who  had  slain  another  in 
consequence  of  his  unjustly  attempting  his  life,  or  had  slain  a  thief 
before  the  rising  of  the  sun,  fled  by  one  of  these  roads  to  the  cities, 
which  have  been  mentioned.  He  was  not  to  depart  from  the  city 
into  which  he  had  fled,  till  the  death  of  the  High  Priest ;  after 
which  the  right  of  revenge  could  not  be  legally  exercised. 

All  persons,  who  had  been  the  cause  of  death  to  another,  might 
flee  into  one  of  those  cities,  which  were  the  property  of  the  priests 
and  Levites,  and  which  are  named  in  Deut.  19:  1 — 13.  4:  41 — 43. 
Num.  35:  9—29.  Josh.  20:  1—9.  21:  11—13,  21.  27:  32,  38  ;  but 
they  were  all  examined,  and  if  found,  according  to  the  laws,  guilty 
of  homicide,  were  delivered  up  to  the  avenger  of  blood.  For  the 
law  of  retaliation,  (jus  talionis,)  was  most  strictly  inflicted  on 
those,  who  were  known  to  have  been  guilty  of  intentional  murder  ; 
even  the  altar  itself  in  such  a  case  afforded  no  refuge,  and  no  com- 
mutation whatever  was  admissible,  Exod.  21:  12.  Num.  35:  9 — 35. 
Deut.  19:  1—13.  1  K.  2:  28—34. 

The  opinion,  that  the  place,  where  human  blood  has  been  shed, 
is  watered  neither  with  dew  nor  with  rain,  till  the  murderer  has 
suffered  punishment,  appears  to  have  prevailed  at  a  very  ancient 
period,  2  Sam.  1:  21.  Ezek.  24:  7,  8. 

§  265.  Of  the  unknown  Murderer. 

[The  original  of  this  section  is  but  little  more  than  a  literal 
statement  in  the  author's  words  of  the  law,  that  is  found  in  Deut. 
21:  1 — 9.  As  far  as  the  law,  therefore,  is  concerned,  it  will  be  as 
satisfactory,  perhaps  more  so,  to  have  it  stated  in  the  language  of 
the  common  English  version,  which  is  as  follows.] 

1.  "If  one  be  found  slain  in  the  land  which  the  Lord  thy  God 
giveth  thee  to  possess  it,  lying  in  the  field,  and  it  be  not  known  who 
hath  slain  him ; 


328 


§  265.   OF  THE  UNKNOWN  MURDERER. 


2.  Then  thy  elders  and  thy  judges  shall  come  forth,  and  they 
shall  measure  unto  the  cities  which  are  round  about  him  that  is  slain. 

3.  And  it  shall  be,  that  the  city  which  is  next  unto  the  slain 
man,  even  the  elders  of  that  city  shall  take  an  heifer  which  hath 
not  been  wrought  with,  and  which  hath  not  been  drawn  in  the 
yoke  j 

4.  And  the  elders  of  that  city  shall  bring  down  the  heifer  un- 
to a  rough  valley,  which  is  neither  eared  nor  sown,  and  shall  strike 
off  the  heifer's  neck  there  in  the  valley. 

5.  And  the  priests,  the  sons  of  Levi,  shall  come  near;  (for 
them  the  Lord  thy  God  hath  chosen  to  minister  unto  him,  and  to 
bless  in  the  name  of  the  Lord ;)  and  by  their  word  shall  every  con- 
troversy and  every  stroke  be  tried ; 

6.  And  all  the  elders  of  that  city,  that  are  next  unto  the  slain 
man,  shall  wash  their  hands  over  the  heifer  that  is  beheaded  in  the 
valley. 

7.  And  they  shall  answer  and  say,  Our  hands  have  not  shed 
this  blood,  neither  have  our  eyes  seen  it. 

8.  Be  merciful,  O  Lord,  unto  thy  people  Israel,  whom  thou 
hast  redeemed,  and  lay  not  innocent  blood  unto  thy  people  of  Is- 
rael's charge.    And  the  blood  shall  be  forgiven  them. 

9.  So  shalt  thou  put  away  the  guilt  of  innocent  blood  from 
among  you,  when  thou  shalt  do  that  which  is  right  in  the  sight  of 
the  Lord."— Deut.  21:  1—9. 

The  ceremonies,  which  have  now  been  related,  were  not  only 
a  declaration  of  the  innocence  of  the  judges  and  elders,  and  of  the 
horrid  nature  of  the  murder,  but  an  implicit  declaration  likewise 
of  the  punishment,  which  justly  pertained  to  the  person  who  had 
committed  it. 


• 


329 


CHAPTER  IV. 


ON  MILITARY  AFFAIRS. 


§  266.  General  view  of  Military  Science. 

The  dissensions  of  individuals  gave  occasion,  in  the  progress 
of  time,  for  the  strife  of  families,  for  contests  between  tribes,  and 
eventually  for  the  wars  of  nations.  Those,  who  came  off  con- 
querors in  the  wars,  which  had  thus  been  commenced,  enriched 
themselves  with  plunder.  This  presented  an  incitement  to  those 
tribes  and  nations,  which  were  conscious  of  their  superiority  in 
point  of  power,  to  engage  in  war ;  and  prepared  the  way  for  that 
ferocity  and  violence,  to  resist  which  the  patriarchs  after  the  flood 
found  it  necessary  to  arm  their  servants,  and  to  be  always  in  rea- 
diness to  repel  all  attacks  by  force.  The  patriarchs,  nevertheless, 
made  it  a  point  to  act  on  principles  of  equity  ;  they  made  treaties 
where  they  could,  and  where  they  could  not,  their  resort  was, 
(clearly  a  very  natural^  one,)  to  extort  respect,  by  striking  a 
dread. 

Families  had  no  sooner  increased,  in  respect  to  numbers,  into 
tribes,  than  it  was  no  longer  deemed  necessary  to  put  in  requisi- 
tion the  aid  of  servants,  and  to  arm  them  for  war ;  since  it  had 
become  customary  for  every  freeborn  member  of  the  community 
to  accustom  himself  to  arms,  and  to  take  the  field  against  the  en- 
emy. 

Various  implements  of  war  are  mentioned  in  the  Pentateuch. 
At  a  subsequent  period,  the  Hebrews,  in  their  contests  with  the 
neighbouring  nations,  were  sometimes  beaten,  and  sometimes  vic- 
torious ;  till  at  length,  in  the  reign  of  David,  they  acquired  such 
skill  in  the  military  art,  together  with  such  strength,  as  to  give 
them  a  decided  superiority  over  their  competitors  on  the  field  of 
battle.  David  increased  the  standing  army,  which  Saul  had  intro- 
duced.   Solomon  introduced  cavalry  into  the  military  force  of  the 

42 


330  §267.   GENERAL  MILITARY  ENROLMENT. 

nation,  also  chariots.  Both  cavalry  and  chariots  were  retained 
in  the  subsequent  age ;  an  age,  in  which  military  arms  were  im- 
proved in  their  construction,  the  science  of  fortification  made  ad- 
vances, and  large  armies  were  mustered.  From  this  period,  till 
the  time,  when  the  Hebrews  became  subject  to  the  Assyrians 
and  Chaldeans,  but  little  improvement  was  made  in  the  arts  of 
war. 

The  Maccabees,  after  the  return  of  the  Hebrews  from  the  cap- 
tivity, gave  new  life  to  the  military  art  among  them.  But  their  de- 
scendants were  under  the  necessity  of  submitting  to  the  superior 
power  of  the  Romans. 

§  267.  General  military  Enrolment. 

In  the  second  year  after  the  Exodus  from  Egypt,  there  was  a 
general  enrolment  of  all,  ivuo  were  able  to  bear  arms,  fiOSl  "iO;'"1  ; 
viz.  of  all,  who  were  between  the  ages  of  twenty  and  fifty.  There 
was  an  enrolment  of  the  Levites,  (whose  duty  it  was  to  guard  the 
tabernacle,  which  was  understood  to  be  the  palace  of  God,  as  the 
political  head  of  the  community,)  separately  from  the  rest  of  the 
people,  Number  1 :  1 — 54. 

There  was  a  second  enrolment,  made  in  the  fortieth  year  after 
the  Exodus  from  Egypt,  Num.26:  2.  The  enrolment  was  made,  as 
there  can  be  no  doubt,  by  the  genealogists,  under  the  direction  of  the 
princes.  In  case  of  war,  those,  who  were  to  be  called  into  actual 
service,  were  taken  from  those,  who  were  thus  enrolled,  in  as  much 
as  the  whole  body  were  not  expected  to  take  the  field,  except  on  ex- 
traordinary occasions,  Jud.  xx.  1  Sam.  11:  7.  comp.  Exod.  xvn. 
Num.  xxxi.  Josh.  7:  7,  11,  12. 

In  respect  to  the  enrolment,  which  was  made  in  the  reign  of 
David,  and  which  was  displeasing  to  Joab  himself,  the  design  of 
it  seems  to  have  been  to  reduce  the  whole  people  to  perpetual  mili- 
tary servitude.  It  was  accordingly  done,  not  by  the  genealogists, 
tT^ttTZ),  but  by  military  prefects,  and  it  is  further 

worthy  of  remark,  that  instead  of  the  usual  word  J-j3£,the  word 
was  employed  in  this  instance,  2  Sam.  xxiv. 

An  universal  enrolment  of  the  people  in  this  way  was  indeed 
at  this  time  prevented,  but  it  seems  to  have  taken  place  under  the 
subsequent  kings ;   otherwise,  we  are  unable  to  account  for  the 


§  269,  ON  MILITARY  DIVISIONS. 


331 


large  armies,  which  are  mentioned  in  the  Books  of  Kings,  even 
when  we  lay  out  of  the  account,  the  passages,  which  labour  under 
the  suspicion  of  having  been  altered  by  copyists. 

§  268.    Of  the  Levy  for  actual  Service. 

Whenever  there  was  an  immediate  prospect  of  war,  a  levy  of 
this  kind  was  made  by  the  genealogists,  Deut.  20:  5—9.  In  the 
time  of  the  kings,  there  was  a  head  or  ruler  of  the  persons,  that 
made  the  levy,  denominated  ^tir^n ,  who  kept  an  account  of  the 
number  of  the  soldiers,  but  who  is  nevertheless,  to  be  distinguish- 
ed from  the  generalissimo,  nEHDti,  2  Chron.  26:  11.  comp.  2  Sam. 
8:  17.  20:  25.  1  Chron.  18:  16.  " 

After  the  levy  was  fully  made  out,  the  genealogists  gave  public 
notice,  that  the  following  persons  might  be  excused,  from  military 
service,  Deut.  20:  5 — 8. 

(1.)  Those,  who  had  built  a  house,  and  had  not  yet  inhabit- 
ed it. 

(2.)  Those  who  had  planted  a  fi*$D',  i.  e.  an  olive  or  vine  gar- 
den, and  had  not  as  yet  tasted  the  fruit  of  it  ;  (an  exemption,  con- 
sequently, which  extended  through  the  first  five  years  after  such 
planting.) 

(3.)  Those,  who  had  bargained  for  a  spouse,  but  had  not  cele- 
brated the  nuptials  ;  also  those,  who  had  not  as  yet  lived  with  their 
wife  for  a  year. 

(4.)  The  faint-hearted,  who  would  be  likely  to  discourage  oth- 
ers, and  who,  if  they  had  gone  into  battle,  where,  in  those  early 
times,  every  thing  depended  on  personal  prowess,  would  only  have 
fallen  victims. 

§  269.  Respecting  the  divisions,  etc.  that  were  introduced 
into  Armies. 

The  division  of  the  army  into  three  bands,  as  mentioned  in  Gen. 
14:  14,  15.  Job  1:  17.  Judg.  7:  16,  20.  1  Sam.  11:  11.  2  Sam.  18: 
2.  was  probably  no  other  than  the  division  into  the  centre,  and  left, 
and  right  wing.  The  commanders  of  these  divisions  appear  to 
have  been  called  tftfH) ,  Exod.  14:  7.  15:  4.  2  K.  7:  2,  17,  19.  9: 
25.  15:  25.  Ezek.  23:  13,  23. 


332 


§  269.   ON  MILITARY  DIVISIONS. 


The  Hebrews,  when  they  departed  from  Egypt,  marched  in 
military  order,  DnitSX  b&  by  their  armies  or  hosts,  Exod.  12:  51  ; 
expressions,  which,  in  Exod.  13:  18.  are  interchanged  with  the 
word  tJn*«yjph ,  probably  better  pointed  lf»^50rj.  We  infer  from 
these  expressions,  that  they  followed  each  other  in  ranks  of  fifty 
deep,  and  that,  at  the  head  of  each  rank  or  file  of  fifty,  was  the 
captain  of  fifty,  1  Sam.  8:  12.  2  K.  1:  9—14.  comp.  Josh.  1:  14. 
Judges  7:  11.  The  other  divisions  consisted  of  an  hundred,  a 
thousand,  and  ten  thousand  men,  each  one  of  which  was  headed 
by  its  appropriate  commander,  Num.  31:48.  Deut.  1:  15.  Judg.  20: 
10.  1  Sam.  8:  12.  18:  13.  29:  2.  1  Mace.  3:  55.  These  divisions 
ranked  in  respect  to  each  other,  according  to  their  families, 
and  were  subject  to  the  authority  of  the  heads  of  those  families,  2 
Chron.  25:  5.  26:  12,  13.  The  centurions,  and  chiliarchs  or  cap- 
tains of  thousands,  were  admitted  into  the  councils  of  war,  1  Chron. 
13:  1 — 3.  1  Sam.  18:  13  ;  and  make  their  appearance,  as  it  would 
seem,  in  Joshua  10:  24.  and  Judges  11:  6,  11.  under  the  name  of 

The  leader  of  the  whole  army  was  denominated  fita£?i  liS, 
the  captain  of  the  host.  Another  officer  among  those  of  principal 
standing  was  the  one  called  IBifegi  [who  is  said  in  the  original 
German  Edition  to  have  had  the  care  of  the  muster-roll,  mu£tettoI2 
len^mei^ter  ]  An  officer  different  from  both  of  these  was  the  one 
called  trbT-Vitj-ni*  "fBfo,  the  nurnberer  of  the  toicers,  who  appears 
to  have  been  a  sort  of  engineer,  Is.  33:  18.  1  Chron.  18:  15,  16. 
27:  33.  1  K.  4:  4.  2  Chron.  17:  14.  26:  11. 

The  army  of  David  consisted  of  two  hundred  and  eighty  thou- 
sand men.  Every  twenty  four  thousand  of  them  had  a  separate 
commander.  The  divisions  of  twenty  four  thousand  performed 
military  duty  alternately,  viz.  a  month  at  a  time  in  succession,  1 
Chron.  27:  1—15. 

The  army  in  the  reign  of  Jehoshaphat,  was  divided  into  five 
unequal  divisions,  each  of  which  had  its  separate  commander,  2 
Chron.  17:  14—17. 

The  genealogists,  [in  the  English  version  officers^  according 
to  a  law  in  Deut.  20:  9.  had  the  right  of  appointing  the  persons, 
who  were  to  act  as  officers  in  the  army,  and  they  undoubtedly, 
made  it  a  point,  in  their  selections,  to  choose  those,  who  are  call- 
ed heads  of  families.    The  practice  of  thus  selecting  military  of- 


§269.   ON  MILITARY  DIVISIONS. 


333 


ficers  ceased  under  the  kings.  Some  of  them  were  chosen  by  the 
king,  and  in  other  instances  the  office  became  permanent  and  here- 
ditary in  the  heads  of  families. 

Both  kings  and  generals  had  armour  bearers,  tPb^  Gljfe.  They 
were  chosen  from  the  bravest  of  the  soldiery,  and  not  only  bore 
the  arms  of  their  masters,  but  were  employed  to  give  his  com- 
mands to  the  subordinate  captains,  and  were  present  at  his  side  in 
the  hour  of  peril,  1  Sam.  14:  6.  17:  7.  comp.  Polybius  X.  1. 

The  infantry,  the  cavalry,  and  the  chariots  of  war  were  so 
arranged,  as  to  make  separate  divisions  of  an  army,  Exod.  14:  6,  7. 
The  infantry  were  divided  likewise  into  light-armed  troops,  fc^lJj , 
and  into  spearmen,  Gen.  49:  19.  1  Sam.  30:  8, 15,  23.  2  Sam.  3:  22. 
4:  2.  22:  30.  Ps.  18:  30.  2  K.  5:  2.  Hos.  7:  1.  The  light-armed 
infantry  were  furnished  with  a  sling  and  javelin,  with  a  bow,  ar- 
rows, and  quiver,  and  also,  at  least  in  latter  times,  with  a  buck- 
ler. They  fought  the  enemy  at  a  distance.  The  spearmen,  on 
the'  contrary,  who  were  armed  with  spears,  swords,  and  shields, 
fought  hand  to  hand,  1  Chron.  12:  24,  34.  2Chron.  14:8.  17:17. 
The  light-armed  troops  were  commonly  taken  from  the  tribes  of 
Ephraim  and  Benjamin,  2  Chron.  14:  8.  17:  17.  comp.  Gen.  49:  27. 
Ps.  78:  9. 

The  Roman  soldiers  were  divided  into  legions ;  each  legion 
was  divided  into  ten  cohorts,  onelgai,  each  cohort  into  three  bands, 
and  each  band  into  two  centuries  or  hundreds.  So  that  a  legion 
consisted  of  thirty  bands  of  six  thousand  men,  and  a  cohort  of  six 
hundred,  though  the  number  was  not  always  the  same. 

In  Palestine,  in  the  days  of  Josephus,  (Jewish  War,  III.  4.  2.) 
there  were  a  number  of  cohorts,  some  of  which  consisted  of  a 
thousand  foot,  and  others  of  only  six  hundred  foot,  and  an  hundred 
and  twenty  horse.  Comp.  Matt.  27:  27,  28.  Mark  15:  16.  and 
Acts  10:  1.  21:  31.  27:  1.  In  addition  to  the  cavalry,  there  were 
certain  light  troops  in  the  Palestine  cohorts  called  dt£iokd(3oi>, 
armed  with  a  javelin  and  spear,  Acts  23:  23.  It  is  necessary  to 
distinguish  the  Roman  soldiers,  mentioned  in  the  New  Testament, 
not  only  from  the  soldiers  of  Herod  Agrippa,  (Acts  12:  4.)  who 
kept  guard  after  the  Roman  manner  by  quaternions,  i.  e.  four  at  a 
time  ;  but  also  from  the  bands  of  Levites,  that  watched  the  tem- 
ple, who  had  a  priest  of  high  standing  for  their  captain,  Luke  22: 
4,  52.  Acts  4:  1.  5:  24.    It  is  no  objection  at  all,  as  I  conceive,  to 


334 


§  271  .    OF  SHIELDS. 


this  statement,  that  the  word  ont7ga,  (the  Greek  for  a  cohort,)  is 
applied  to  the  Levites  here  mentioned  in  John,  18:  3,  12. 

§  270.  Military  Reviews  and  Inspections. 

That  the  ceremonies  of  a  military  review  or  muster,  consist- 
ed chiefly  in  the  division  of  a  body  of  soldiers  into  different  corps 
according  to  the  kinds  of  arms,  with  which  they  were  furnished, 
and  in  a  minute  inspection  of  those  corps,  may  be  inferred  from 
the  verb  T£2  ,  which  is  applied  to  such  review  or  muster,  but 
which,  nevertheless,  properly  means  to  inspect  or  to  examine  nar- 
roicly. 

The  arms,  in  which  the  soldiers  presented  themselves  for  in- 
spection, were  either  defensive,  fc^a,  1  Sam.  17:  38.  as  the  buck- 
ler, helmet,  breastplate,  and  greaves  ;  or  offensive,  as  the  sword 
and  spear,  with  which  they  fought  the  enemy  hand  to  hand,  and 
the  sling,  arrows,  javelins,  catapults,  and  ballistae,  with  which  they 
fought  them  at  a  distance. 

Of  these,  we  shall  treat  separately,  and  say  something  also  of 
fortifications,  trenches,  circumvallation,  machines  used  in  war, 
cavalry,  and  chariots. 

§271.  Of  Shields. 

A  shield,  ,  is  first  mentioned  in  Gen.  15:  1.  The  word 
frequently  occurs  afterwards,  by  a  figure  of  speech,  for  defence  or 
protection,  2  Sam.  22:  31,  36.  Prov.  30:  5.  Ps.  47:  9.  144:  2.  There 
is  another  sort  of  shield,  called  JiSiS;  and  a  third  called  iTnfrb. 
This  last  occurs  for  the  first  time  in  Ps.  91:  4.  in  connexion  with 

The  difference  of  the  shields  J-JSS2  and  fjitt  consisted  in  this ; 
the  latter  was  smaller  in  size  than  the  former,  which  was  so 
large  as  to  cover  the  whole  body,  1  K.  10:  16,  17.  comp.  2  Chron. 
9:  16 ;  hence  is  always  joined  with  a  spear,  but  *ftT2  with 
sword  and  arrow's,  1  Chron.  12:  8,  24,  34.  5:  18.  2Chron.T14:  7. 
26:  14.  The  word  nihb,  if  we  may  form  an  opinion  from  its 
etymology,  signifies  a  round  shield,  or  buckler.  [Gesenius  has 
collated  the  corresponding  Syriac  word,  and  is  of  opinion,  that 
the  form  of  this  shield  cannot  satisfactorily  be  inferred  from  the  et- 


§  271  .   OF  SHIELDS. 


335 


ymology  of  its  name.]  The  form  of  a  fourth  sort  of  shields,  call- 
ed tPtaittS  and  ntpbd ,  is  not  well  known  ;  but  that  these  words 
are  rightly  rendered  shields  will  be  sufficiently  clear  by  com- 
paring 2  K.  11  :  10.  with  2  Chron.  23:  9.  2  Sam.  8  :  7.  1  Chron. 
18.  7,  8.  Shields  were  manufactured,  sometimes  of  a  light  sort 
of  wood,  sometimes  of  osiers  woven  together  and  covered  with 
bull's  hide,  and  sometimes  of  a  bull's  hide  merely,  twice  or  three 
times  folded  over.  The  hide  was  anointed  to  render  it  smooth 
and  slippery,  and  to  prevent  its  being  injured  by  the  wet,  2  Sam. 
1:  21,  22.  Is.  21:  5.  Shields  made  wholly  of  brass  were  very  un- 
common ;  it  was  sometimes  the  case,  nevertheless,  that  they  were 
covered  with  thin  plates  of  brass,  and  even  of  silver  and  gold,  1  K. 
10:  16,  17.  14:  25—28.  2  Chron.  13:  13—16.  There  was  a  boss 
in  the  centre  of  the  shield  ;  and  the  margin,  in  order  to  prevent  its 
being  injured  by  the  moisture  when  placed  upon  the  earth,  was  sur- 
rounded by  a  thin  plate  of  iron.  The  handle,  with  which  the  shield 
was  furnished,  was  made  in  various  ways.  In  time  of  peace,  shields 
were  hung  up  in  armouries,  2  Chron.  26:  14,  and  were  sometimes 
suspended  on  the  walls  of  towers,  as  an  ornament,  1  K.  10:  16,  17. 
Cant.  4:  4.  Ezek.  27 :  10,  11.  Shields  were  borne  by  soldiers, 
when  they  went  to  war,  and  were  confined  to  them  by  a  thong, 
which  went  round  the  left  arm,  and  the  neck,  1  Chron.  5:  18.  12: 
8,  24.  2  Chron.  9:  15.  14:  8. 

When  about  to  attack  an  enemy,  they  held  the  shield  by  the 
handle  in  the  left  hand,  and  where  there  was  a  body  of  them  to- 
gether, they  were  able,  by  merely  joining  shield  to  shield,  to  op- 
pose, as  it  were,  a  wall  against  the  assaults  of  their  foes.  When 
about  to  scale  the  walls  of  a  city,  they  placed  them  one  against 
another  over  their  heads,  and  in  this  way  formed  for  themselves 
an  impenetrable  defence  against  missile  weapons,  2  Chron.  25:  5. 
Job  41:  7.  The  phrases,  "  to  seize  the  shield,  etc."  are  used  met- 
aphorically to  denote  preparation  for  war,  2  Chron.  25:  5.  Ezek. 
•38:4,  5.  Jer.  46:  9.  51:  11.  To  lose  a  shield  in  battle  was  igno- 
minious ;  to  take  one  from  the  enemy,  on  the  contrary,  was  attend- 
ed with  honour,  IK.  14:  26.  2  Sam.  1:  21.  comp.  Caryophilus  de 
vetcrum  clypeis. 


336 


§  273.    COAT  OF  MAIL. 


§  272.  The  Helmet,  ^nis,  #§ip  ,  mgixeqccluiov. 

The  Helmet  was  a  piece  of  armour,  which  covered  the  fore- 
head, and  the  top,  and  the  hind  part  of  the  head,  and  was  sur- 
mounted for  ornament  with  a  horsetail  and  a  plume.  Anciently, 
the  spearmen  alone  appear  to  have  worn  the  helmet.  To  this 
remark,  however,  the  Chaldeans  should  be  made  an  exception,  in 
as  much  as  all  the  soldiers  of  that  people  seem  to  have  been  fur- 
nished with  this  piece  of  armour,  Ezek.  23:  24  Jer.  46:  4.  com- 
pare the  large  German  Edition  of  this  Work,  P.  II.  Vol.  II.  Tab. 
XI.  no.  5  and  7. 

It  appears  from  2  Chron.  26:  14.  that  king  Uzziah  had  furnish- 
ed an  armoury  with  helmets  for  the  use  of  his  soldiers. 

The  materials,  from  which  the  helmet  was  made,  was  an  ox- 
hide ;  but  it  was  usually,  especially  in  the  more  recent  ages,  cov- 
ered with  brass.  This  piece  of  armour,  in  allusion  to  the  purposes 
which  it  answered  in  war,  is  used  tropically  for  defence  and  protec- 
tion, Eph.  6:  16. 

§  273.  The  Cuirass,  Breastplate,  or  Coat  of  Mail. 

The  breast-plate,  hJ^i^J^JtJ,  Ji^l/i),  "p*HO,  [sometimes 
rendered  in  the  English  version  a  coat  of  mail,  and  sometimes  ha- 
bergeon,'] and  which  was  known  to  the  Grecians  under  the  word 
t^co^aS,  consisted  of  two  parts,  the  one  of  which  covered  the  fore 
part  of  the  body,  the  other  the  back  ;  both  pieces  being  united  at 
the  sides  by  clasps  or  buttons.  The  breast  plate  or  coat  of  mail, 
that  was  worn  by  Goliath,  (1  Sam.  17:  5,  38.)  was  made  of  brass. 
And  indeed  it  was  not  unfrequently  the  case,  that  other  warriors 
likewise  wore  a  breast-plate,  made  of  that  metal. 

This  piece  of  armour  was  very  common  among  the  Hebrews 
after  the  reign  of  David,  and  we  find,  that  it  had  a  place  among 
other  implements  of  war  and  pieces  of  armour  in  the  armoury  of 
king  Uzziah,  2  Chron.  26:  14.  As  it  was  an  efficient  means  of 
protection  to  the  body,  it  occurs  tropically  for  defence,  Is.  59:  17. 
Eph.  6:  14.  1  Thess.  5:  8.  Rev.  9:  17. 


§275.   ON  FORTIFICATIONS. 


337 


§  274.  Greaves  and  Military  Frock. 

Although  there  is  no  mention  in  the  Bible  of  the  piece  of  ar- 
mour, which  was  used  for  the  defence  of  the  right  arm,  (armilla 
militarist  it  will  be  remembered  that  the  right  foot  of  Goliath  was 
defended  with  greaves  of  brass,  ,  1  Sam.  17:  6.    In  other  in- 

stances, a  sort  of  half  greaves  or  boots,  denominated  fNO ,  Is.  9:  4, 
was  worn.  The  practice  of  defending  the  feet  and  legs  in  this 
way,  however,  does  not  seem  to  have  been  very  common  among  the 
Hebrews. 

As  the  long  robe,  which  was  usually  worn,  was  a  hindrance  to 
that  celerity  of  movement,  expected  from  men  engaged  in  military 
life,  the  soldiers,  accordingly,  laid  it  aside,  and  wore  in  its  stead  a 

SHORT  FROCK. 

The  girdle,  *nW$,  from  which  the  sword  was  suspended,  is 
frequently  mentioned  among  the  articles  of  military  dress,  Is.  5:  27. 
Eph.  6:  14. 

§  275.  On  Fortifications. 

Military  fortifications  were  at  first  nothing  more  than  a 
trench  or  ditch,  dug  round  a  few  cottages  on  a  hill  or  mountain, 
together  with  the  mound,  which  was  formed  by  the  sand  dug  out  of 
it ;  except  perhaps  that  there  might  have  sometimes  been  elevated 
scaffolding  for  the  purpose  of  throwing  stones  with  the  greater  effect 
against  the  enemy.  A  city  of  this  kind  was  built  and  fortified  by 
Cain  ;  for  to  build  a  city  and  to  fortify  it,  in  the  Oriental  idiom, 
are  the  same  thing. 

In  the  age  of  Moses  and  Joshua,  the  walls,  which  surrounded 
cities,  were  elevated  to  no  inconsiderable  height,  and  were  fur- 
nished with  towers ;  and  yet,  since  the  Hebrews,  who  were  unac- 
quainted with  the  art  of  besieging  cities,  took  so  many  of  them  on 
both  sides  of  the  Jordan  in  so  few  years,  the  inference  is,  that  the 
fortifications,  which  were  at  the  first  so  terrible  to  them,  (Num.  13: 
28.)  were  of  no  great  strength. 

The  art  of  fortification  was  encouraged  and  patronised  by  the 
Hebrew  kings,  and  Jerusalem  was  always  well  defended,  espe- 
43 


338 


§  275.   ON  FORTIFICATIONS. 


cially  mount  Zion.  In  later  times  the  temple  itself  was  used  as  a 
castle. 

The   appropriate  names  for  fortifications  in  Hebrew  are  as 

follows,  viz.  nrniste ,  niny ,  "tfte ,  ?n«3 ,  and         -n* .  The 

words,  nevertheless,  which  usually  mean  cities,  viz.  "-py',  *T3J ,  tPny, 
in  some  instances  mean  fortifications.  In  the  time  of  the  Hebrew 
monarchy,  armouries,  Wh^Xl  tf% ,  and  guards  of  soldiers,  made  a 
part  of  the  military  establishment,  2  Chron.  17:  2,  19.  26:  14,  15. 
32:  5.  33:  14. 

The  principal  parts  of  a  fortification  were,  as  follows. 

I.  The  Wall,  nttin.  In  some  instances  the  wall,  erected 
round  cities,  was  triple  and  double,  2  Chron.  32:  5.  Walls  were 
commonly  made  lofty  and  broad,  so  as  to  be  neither  readily  passed 
over,  nor  broken  through,  Jer.  51:  58.  The  main  wall  terminated 
at  the  top  in  a  parapet  for  the  accommodation  of  the  soldiers,  which 
opened  at  intervals  in  a  sort  of  embrasures,  so  as  to  give  them  an 
opportunity  of  fighting  with  missile  weapons. 

II.  Towers,  Cb^M  ,  tvfetXn  ,  b^72 ,  Towers,  which  were 
erected  at  certain  distances  from  each  other  on  the  top  of  walls, 
and  ascended  to  a  great  height,  terminated  at  the  top  in  a  flat  roof, 
and  were  surrounded  with  a  parapet,  which  exhibited  openings 
similar  to  those,  which  have  been  just  mentioned  as  making  their 
appearance  in  the  parapet  of  the  walls.  Towers  of  this  kind 
were  erected  likewise  over  the  gates  of  cities.  In  these  towers 
guards  were  kept  constantly  stationed.  At  least  this  was  the 
case  in  the  time  of  the  kings.  It  was  their  business  to  make 
known  any  thing,  that  they  discovered  at  a  distance,  and  when- 
ever they  noticed  an  irruption  from  an  enemy,  they  blew  the 
trumpet,  2  Sam.  13:  34.  18:  26,  27.  2  K.  9:  17—19.  Nahum  2: 
1.  2  Chron.  17:  2.  Towers  likewise,  which  were  somewhat  larg- 
er in  size,  were  erected  in  different  parts  of  the  country, 
particularly  on  places,  which  were  elevated  ;  and  were  guarded 
by  a  military  force,  Judg.  8:  9,  17.  9:  46,  49,  51.  Is.  21:  6.  Habak. 
2:  1.  Hos.  5:  8.  Jer.  31:  6.  The  Hebrew  word  for  structures  of 
this  kind,  is  Irt^Sfc ;  and  we  find  even  to  this  day,  that  the  circu- 
lar edifices  of  this  sort,  which  are  still  erected  in  the  solitudes  of 
Arabia  Felix,  bear  their  ancient  name  of  castles  or  towers.  The 
watch  towers  of  the  shepherds,  nrVti ,  ft^tt  ,  ns^E  %  are  to  be 
distinguished  from  those,  which  have  now  been  mentioned,  al- 


§275.   ON  FORTIFICATIONS. 


339 


though  it  was  not  un frequently  the  case,  that  they  were  converted 
into  military  towers,  and  eventually  into  fortified  cities,  2  Chron. 
26:  10.  27:  4.  This  accounts  for  the  fact,  that  cities  in  many  in- 
stances occur  under  the  words,  b*7S£  and  HE^ft ;  and  also  for  the 
following  proverbial  expressions,  which  are  sometimes  found,  viz. 
"  From  a  watch-tower  even  to  a  fortified  city."  Prophets  are  fre- 
quently compared  to  the  guards,  that  were  stationed  in  towers, 
Ezek.  3:  17.  27:  11.  33:  1—9.  Hos.  12:  13. 

III.  Bastions.  [We  render  the  Hebrew  word  rnss  by  the 
modern  military  term,  bastions,  not  because  it  conveys  precisely 
its  meaning,  but  because  it  appears  to  approach  more  nearly  to  it, 
than  any  other  technical  term.  The  statement  following  will 
give  an  idea  of  what  is  meant.]  The  walls  were  erected  in  such 
a  way  as  to  curve  inward  ;  the  extremities  of  them,  consequently, 
projected  out.  The  object  of  forming  the  walls,  so  as  to  present 
such  projections,  was  to  enable  the  inhabitants  of  the  besieged  city, 
to  attack  the  assailants  in  flank.  We  learn  from  the  history  of  Tac- 
itus, V.  11.  that  the  walls  of  Jerusalem,  at  the  time  of  its  being  at- 
tacked by  the  Romans,  were  built  in  this  way.  The  projections 
above  mentioned  are  meant  to  be  designated  by  the  Hebrew  word 
ni3S .  They  were  introduced  by  king  Uzziah,  810  years  before 
Christ,  and  are  subsequently  mentioned  in  the  prophet  Zephaniah 
1:  16. 

IV.  The  Fosse,  b*1^ ,  bin  .  The  digging  of  &  fosse  put  it  in  the 
power  of  the  inhabitants  of  a  city  to  increase  the  elevation  of  the 
walls,  and  of  itself  threw  a  serious  difficulty  in  the  way  of  an  ene- 
my's approach,  2  Sam.  20:  15.  Is.  26:  1.  Neh.  3:  8.  Ps.  48:  13. 
The  fosse,  if  the  situation  of  the  place  admitted  it,  was  filled  with 
water.    This  was  the  case  at  Babylon. 

V.  The  gates,  tJ^SNI) ,  •  They  were  at  first  made  of  wood 
and  were  small  in  size.  They  were  constructed  in  the  manner  of 
valve  doors,  tTftb1?  >  and  were  secured  by  means  of  wooden  bars. 
Subsequently  they  were  made  larger  and  stronger  ;  and  in  order  to 
prevent  their  being  burnt,  were  covered  with  plates  of  brass  or  iron, 
rttifrD  "'pW  .  The  bars  were  covered  in  the  same  manner,  in  order 
to  prevent  their  being  cut  asunder ;  but  it  was  sometimes  the  case, 
that  they  were  made  wholly  of  iron,  bp5  "tP")^-  The  bars  were 
secured  by  a  sort  of  lock,  Ps.  107:  16.  Is.  45:  2. 


t 


340         §  276.  arms  for  fighting  hand  to  hand. 

§  276.  Arms,  with  which  the  Soldiers  fought  hand  to  hand. 

The  arms,  used  in  fighting  hand  to  hand,  were  originally  a  club 
and  a  battle  hammer,  but  these  weapons  were  but  very  rarely  made 
use  of  by  the  Hebrews.  Whether  the  expressions,  ^T^3  tii'lj , 
mean  an  iron  club,  Ps.  2:  9.  110:  2.  arid  "pCtt,  Prov.  25:  18.  means 
the  battle-mallet  or  hammer,  that  was  used  in  fighting,  is  a  question, 
which  has  not  yet  been  determined. 

Other  sorts  of weapons ,  used  in  close  combat,  were  as  follows. 

I.  The  Sword,  Among  the  Hebrews  it  was  fastened 
around  the  body  by  a  girdle,  2  Sam.  20:  8.  1  Sam.  17:  39.  Hence 
the  phrase,  "  to  gird  one's  self"  with  a  sword,  means  to  commence 
war,  and  "to  loose  the  sword,"  to  finish  it,  1  K.  20:  11.  The 
swords  in  use  among  the  Hebrews  appear  to  have  been  short ;  some 
of  them,  however,  were  longer  than  others,  Judg.  3:  16.  and  some 
were  made  with  two  edges,  ni^S,  ffiiBlS.  Ps.  149:  6.  Is.  41:  15. 
Judg.  3:  16.  The  sword  was  kept  in  a  sheath  ;  which  accounts  for 
such  expressions  as  to  draio  the  sword,  Ps.  35:  3.  It 
was  polished  to  such  a  degree,  as  to  render  it  exceedingly  splendid, 
and  in  reference  to  this  circumstance  is  used  tropically  for  light- 
ning, Gen.  3:  24.  Ps.  7:  12.  By  a  figure  of  speech,  also  a  sword  is 
attributed  to  God,  which  the  strong  imagination  of  the  Hebrew  poets 
represents,  as  if  drunk  with  blood.  This  representation  is  carried 
still  further,  and  every  misfortune  and  calamity,  and  indeed  wicked 
persons  are  represented  as  the  sword  of  God,  which  he  wields  for 
the  punishment  of  others,  Ps.  17:  13.  Jer.  12:  12.  47:  6.  Further- 
more, the  word,  l^h  signifies,  in  some  instances,  war  itself  instead 
of  the  weapon,  to  which  it  is  calculated  to  give  employment ;  the 
same  as  it  does  among  the  Arabians,  Lev.  26:  6.  Jer.  14:  12 — 16. 
Compare  (.ta%aiQa,  Matt.  10:  34. 

II.  The  spear,  nfaH,  Num.  25:  7.  It  was  a  wooden  staff,  sur- 
mounted with  an  iron  point.  Its  length  differed  at  different  times 
and  among  different  people.  It  was  never  shorter  than  eleven  cu- 
bits, nor  longer  than  twenty  four. 


§278.   THE  BOW,  ARROW,  AND  QUIVER. 


341 


§  277.  Of  Javelins. 

Javelins  appear  to  have  been  of  two  kinds.  In  explanation  of 
this  remark,  it  may  be  observed, 

I.  That  the  javelin,  which  bears  in  Hebrew  the  name  of  rpsrj  , 
is  almost  always  mentioned  in  connexion  with  the  weapons  of  light- 
armed  troops,  Ps.  57:  4.  1  Sam.  13:  22.  18:  10.  21:  8.  22:  6.  2 
Sam.  23:  18.  In  1  Chron.  12:  34.  it  is  indeed  joined  with  msi£ 
the  larger  sort  of  buckler,  but  it  is  evident  from  1  Sam.  18:  11.  19: 
10.  20:  33.  that  this  weapon,  whatever  might  have  been  its  shape, 
and  although  it  may  have  sometimes  been  used  as  a  spear,  was, 
nevertheless,  thrown,  and  is,  accordingly,  to  be  ranked  in  the  class 
of  missile  weapons.  That  rP2ft  was  a  weapon  of  this  kind  ac- 
counts for  the  fact,  that  the  epithet  yOfr  is  joined  to  it  as  follows, 

II.  That  the  word  'pTS  likewise  means  a  javelin  may  be 
learnt  from  Job  39:  23.  where  it  is  joined  with  rPSft .  Compare 
Job  41:  29.  Josh.  8:  18,  26.  1  Sam.  17:  6.  The  difference  between 
these  two  sorts  of  javelins  cannot  now  be  known  any  further  than 
this,  viz.  that  "p^PS,  as  may  be  inferred  with  some  probability  from 
Joshua  8:  18,  26.  and  1  Sam.  17:  6.  was  the  largest  in  size  of  the 
two. 

§  278.  Of  the  Bow,  Arrow,  and  Quiver. 

The  bow,  rnn£?p,  n*.pp. ,  and  arrows,  t^£~,  yh,  are  weapons 
of  a  very  ancient  origin,  Gen.  48:  22.  49:  24.  comp.  Gen.  9:  14, 
15.  Archers,  rttip.  ^ah,  ri'uip.  ^^3,  were  very  numerous  among 
the  Hebrews,  especially  in  the  tribes  of  Benjamin  and  Ephraim,  Ps. 
78:  9.  1  Chron.  8:  40.  2  Chron.  14:  8.  17:  17.  Weapons  of  this 
description  belonged  properly  to  the  light-armed  troops,  who  are 
represented,  as  having  been  furnished  with  the  sword,  the  buck- 
ler, and  the  bow,  2  Chron.  17:  17.  The  Persian  archers,  who,  in 
other  passages,  are  mentioned  with  applause,  are  spoken  of  likewise 
with  commendation  in  profane  history,  Is.  13:  18.  Jer.  49:  35.  50: 
9,  14,  29,  42. 

The  bows  were  generally  made  of  wood ;  in  a  very  few  in- 
stances, they  were  made  of  brass,  Ps.  18:  34.  Job  20:  24.  Those 


342 


§  279.  THE  SLING. 


of  wood,  however,  were  so  strong,  that  the  soldiers  sometimes 
challenged  one  another  to  bend  their  bow.  In  bending  the  bow, 
one  end  of  it  was  pressed  upon  the  ground  by  the  foot,  the  other 
end  was  pressed  down  by  the  left  hand  and  the  weight  of  the 
body,  and  the  string  was  adjusted  by  the  right.  This  accounts  for 
the  use  of  the  word  (which  literally  means  to  tread  upon,) 

in  reference  to  the  bending  of  the  bow,  1  Chron.  5:  18.  8:  40.  2 
Chron.  14:  8.  Is.  5:  28.  21:  15.  Jer.  46:  9.  A  bow,  which  was 
too  slack,  and  which,  in  consequence  of  it,  injured  the  person,  who 
aimed  it,  was  denominated  a  deceitful  bow,  J-pft"l  tVtffi  ,  Ps.  78:  57. 
Hos.  7:  16. 

The  bow,  in  order  to  prevent  its  being  injured,  was  carried 
in  a  case,  made  for  that  purpose.  The  strings  for  bows  were 
made  of  thongs  of  leather,  of  horse  hair,  and  of  the  sinews  of  ox- 
en, Iliad  IV.  116,  124.  The  soldiers  carried  the  bow  on  the  left 
arm  or  shoulder. 

Arrows,  fi^Ti ,  were  at  first  made  of  a  reed ;  subsequently 
they  were  made  from  a  light  sort  of  wood,  and  were  surmounted 
with  an  iron  point.  Whether  they  were  sometimes  dipt  in  poison  or 
not,  cannot,  at  any  rate,  be  determined  with  much  certainty  from 
Job  6:  4.  and  Deut.  32:  24.  They  were  more  commonly,  by  means 
of  the  shrub  called  the  broom,  fcrp,  discharged  from  the  bow,  while 
on  fire,  Ps.  120:  4.  Job  30:  4.  It  is  in  reference  to  this  fact,  that 
arrows  are  sometimes  used  tropically  for  lightnings,  Deut.  32:  23, 
42.  Ps.  7:  13.  Zech.  9:  14. 

Quivers,  ^fi,  were  pyramidal  in  point  of  form.  They  were 
suspended  upon  the  back ;  so  that  the  soldier,  by  extending  his 
right  hand  over  his  shoulders,  could  draw  out  the  arrows,  the  small 
part  of  the  quiver  being  downward. 

§  279.  Of  the  Sling,  . 

The  Sling,  as  there  is  ample  reason  for  believing,  may  be  just- 
ly reckoned  among  the  most  ancient  instruments  of  warfare,  Job 
41:  28.  The  persons,  who  used  slings,  tP3>Vj5,  ,  were  en- 
rolled among  the  light-armed  troops.  Those  slingers  were  ac- 
counted worthy  of  especial  credit,  who,  like  the  Benja mites, 
were  capable  in  slinging  of  using  equally  the  right  hand  or  the 
left,  Judg.  20:  6.  1  Chron.  12:  2.    There  was  need  of  almost  con- 


§281.  BATTERING  RAMS.  343 

stant  practice,  in  order  to  secure  to  one,  any  tolerable  degree  of 
success,  in  hitting  the  mark,  1  Sam.  17:  49.  Slingers  were  of  great 
advantage  in  an  army,  Diodorus  Sic.  Lib.  XV.  85. 

§  280.  Of  Engines  used  in  War. 

Engines  of  war,  tttffttQ,  niszttjh.  Engines  for  warlike 
operations,  which  were  the  "  inventions  of  cunning  men,"  were 
erected  by  king  Uzziah  upon  the  towers  and  the  angles  of  the 
walls.  They  were,  consequently,  quite  ancient  in  their  origin. 
Of  these  engines,  there  were  two  kinds,  viz.  catapults  and  bal- 
listae. 

The  catapults  were  immense  bows,  which  were  bent  by  means 
of  a  machine,  and  which  threw  with  great  force  large  arrows,  jav- 
elins, and  even  beams  of  wood.  The  ballistae,  on  the  other  hand, 
may  be  denominated  large  slings,  which  were  discharged  likewise 
by  machines,  and  threw  stones  and  balls  of  lead. 

§281.  Battering  Rams,  t}^3,  fe^jD  ^HM. 

Battering  rams  are  first  mentioned  by  Ezekiel,  as  being  an 
instrument  of  war,  in  use  among  the  Chaldeans,  Ezek.  4:  1,  2.  21: 
22.  26:  9.  But  as  they  were  certainly  not  invented  by  them,  they 
were  of  a  still  earlier  date.  They  were  long  and  stout  beams,  com- 
monly of  oak,  the  ends  of  which  were  brass,  shaped  like  the  head 
of  a  ram.  They  were  at  first  carried  on  the  arms  of  the  soldiers, 
and  impelled  against  the  wall.  But  subsequently,  they  were  sus- 
pended by  means  of  chains  in  equilibrium,  and  in  that  way,  by  the 
aid  of  the  soldiers,  were  driven  against  it.  While  this  operation 
was  going  on,  for  the  purpose  of  breaking  through  the  wall,  the 
soldiers,  who  were  immediately  interested  in  it,  were  protected  from 
the  missiles  of  the  enemy  by  a  roof  erected  over  them,  which  was 
covered  with  raw  skins. 


344 


§  283.   CHARIOTS  OF  WAR. 


§  282.  Respecting  the  cavalry. 

We  have  spoken  of  the  cavalry  elsewhere,  but  we  have  a  few 
remarks  more  to  make  here.  The  Maccabean  princes  saw,  that 
cavalry  were  not  profitable  in  mountainous  places,  and  bestowed 
their  chief  attention  upon  the  infantry,  by  means  of  which  they 
achieved  their  victories.  The  Caramanians  used  asses  in  war, 
which  gained  some  notoriety  by  terrifying  the  horses  in  the  army  of 
Cyrus,  and  putting  them  to  flight,  Is.  21:  7.  comp.  Xenophon's  Cy- 
ropaedia,  VII.  1.  22. 

Elephants  are  first  mentioned,  as  being  used  in  war,  in  the 
history  of  Alexander's  expeditions,  but  afterwards  they  were  so  fre- 
quently and  efficiently  employed,  as  to  give  them  much  celebrity. 
Machines,  constructed  like  a  tower,  were  placed  upon  the  backs  of 
these  animals,  from  which  sometimes  no  less  than  thirty  two  sol- 
diers fought.  The  foot-soldiers  were  stationed  round,  and  defended 
the  elephant.  The  one,  who  guided  him,  was  called  the  Indian, 
as  at  this  day,  1  Mace.  6:  37.  The  elephants  themselves  also  fought, 
at  the  same  time,  against  the  enemy.  To  excite  them  to  use  their 
proboscis  the  more  efficiently,  the  soldiers  gave  them  an  intoxicat- 
ing drink  of  wine  and  Myrrh,  1  Mace.  6:  34. 

§283.  Of  Chariots  of  War,  Stffi,  tt!J3*l^. 

The  annoyance,  which  the  Hebrews  most  dreaded,  when  they 
met  an  enemy  in  war,  was  that  of  chariots.  Mention  is  made  of 
chariots,  as  far  back  as  any  thing  is  said  of  cavalry,  Exod.  14:  6. 
14:  23 — 28;  but  they  could  not  be  used,  except  on  the  plain 
country,  Deut.  20:  1.  Josh.  17:  16—18.  Judg.  1:  19.  2:  7.  4:  3,  7. 
After  the  time  of  Solomon,  the  Hebrews  always  kept  such  chariots, 
and  placed  great  reliance  upon  them,  2Chron  1:  14.  1  K.  10:  26. 
22:  32,  35.  2  K.  2:  12.  Chariots,  owing  to  their  efficiency  as  in- 
struments of  war,  are  used  tropically  for  protection  and  defence  of 
the  highest  kind,  2  K.  2:  12.  13:  14. 

Chariots  of  war,  like  all  others  in  the  ancient  times,  of  which 
we  are  speaking,  were  supported  on  two  wheels  only,  and  were 
generally  drawn  by  two  horses,  though  sometimes  by  three  or 
four,  abreast.    The  combatant  stood  upright,  upon  the  chariot. 


§235.   GYMNASTIC  SPORTS. 


345 


Xenophon  mentions  chariots,  invented  by  Cyrus,  from  each  one 
of  which,  twenty  men  could  fight.  They  resembled  towers  Cy- 
ropaed.  IV.  1.  16,  17.  The  end  of  the  pole  of  the  chariot,  and 
the  end  of  the  axles  were  armed  with  iron  scythes,  which  were 
driven  with  vast  force  among  the  enemy,  and  made  great  slaugh- 
ter. 

§  284.  Sports  and  Exercises  preparatory  to  War. 

In  the  earliest  periods  of  the  history  of  our  race,  every  sol- 
dier was  indebted  to  himself,  to  his  own  exertions,  as  a  separate 
and  independent  individual,  for  whatever  skill  he  might  possess  in 
the  management  of  weapons  of  war.  For  the  acquisition  of  skill, 
nevertheless,  even  in  those  early  days,  in  the  use  of  weapons,  the 
hunting  of  wild  beasts,  which  was  then  practised,  afforded  a  fa- 
vourable opportunity.  But  as  hunting  itself  implied  some  previous 
skill  in  the  use  of  arms,  it  was  necessary,  that  there  should  be  some 
preparatory  practice.  Consult  Gen.  14:  14.  32:  6.  Job  16:  12,  14. 
Judg.  20:  16.  1  Chron.  12:  h  2  Sam.  2:  19.  1  Sam.  17:  50. 

That  such   a  preparatory  exercise  obtained  among  the  He- 
brews is  evident  from  a  vast  number  of  passages.    It  is  no  other, 
than  this  exercise,  which  is  expressed  by  the  phrase  troftVfa 
to  learn  war.    Those  who  have  been  trained  up  in  this  way  to  the 
exercise  of  arms,  were  denominated  instructed  in  war, 

1  Sam.  20:  20,  35—40.  2  Sam.  1:  22.  22:  85.  Is.'  2:  4.  Mic.  4:  3. 

§  285.  Gymnastic  Sports. 

The  gymnastic  sports  were  not  properly  military  exercises, 
but  since  they  had  a  tendency  to  prepare  youth  for  skill  in  arms 
and  war,  and  were  of  a  military  nature  in  their  commencement, 
we  shall  treat  of  them  in  this  place. 

The  sports  and  exercises  of  the  gymnasia  had  their  origin 
among  the  Greeks,  but  were  afterwards  introduced  among  other 
nations.  In  the  time  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  they  became  favour- 
ites with  many  of  the  Jews,  1  Mace.  1:  14,  15.  2  Mace.  4:  12 — 14. 
and  were  finally  introduced  into  Judea  by  Herod. 

The  Gymnasia,  yvpvaoicc,  were  large  edifices,  exhibiting  in 
their  construction  an  oblong  square,  and  surrounded  externally 

44 

i 


346 


$285.   GYMNASTIC  SPORTS. 


with  a  portico.  The  eastern  part  of  one  of  these  piles  of  buildings 
was  separated  by  a  wall  from  the  rest,  and  occupied  more  than 
half  of  the  area,  allotted  for  the  erection  of  the  whole.  A  range 
of  porticos  extended  round  three  sides  of  the  interiour  of  this  part 
of  the  Gymnasium  ;  but  the  fourth  side  was  lined  with  a  flight  of 
chambers,  some  for  bathing,  some  for  anointing  the  body,  and  some 
to  serve  as  wardrobes.  The  middle  of  these  chambers  was  de- 
nominated i<frl^etovy  ephebium,  [the  place  where  the  ephebi  or 
youth  exercised,]  by  which  name  the  whole  edifice  was  sometimes 
called. 

The  area  under  the  open  air  or  the  open  court,  including  the 
porticos  just  mentioned,  (one  range  of  which,  viz.  that  on  the 
north  side,  was  double,  was  denominated  the  palaestra,  anlaia- 
rgct,  in  which  were  witnesssed  games  and  exercises,  dancing  and 
wrestling,  throwing  the  quoit,  and  the  combat  with  the  caestus. 
The  whole  edifice  was  sometimes  called  the  palaestra. 

The  western  part  of  the  Gymnasium  was  an  oblong,  and  was 
surrounded  by  a  portico,  in  which  the  athletae  exercised  in  un- 
pleasant weather.  The  porticos  for  this  purpose  are  called  £vozoit 
Xysti,  from  which  the  other  parts  of  the  building  denominated  gu- 
crrcx,  Xysta,  differed  in  these  particulars,  viz  ;  they  were  surrounded 
with  rows  of  trees,  were  not  covered  with  a  roof  at  the  top,  and  were 
used,  as  places  for  promenading. 

At  the  end  of  the  western  part  of  the  Gymnasium,  was  the  sta- 
dium. It  was  a  large  semicircle,  an  hundred  and  twenty-five  ge- 
ometrical paces  long,  and  was  furnished  with  seats,  which  ran 
around  it  in  a  circuitous  manner,  and  ascended  gradually  one  above 
another  for  the  accommodation  of  the  spectators.  The  games,  which 
were  more  particularly  witnessed  in  the  stadium,  were  races  on 
foot,  on  horse  back,  and  with  chariots. 

The  athletae,  after  the  fourth  century  before  Christ,  went 
wholly  naked,  as  they  found  the  clothes,  which  they  wore,  were 
an  impediment  to  celerity  of  motion.  There  was  this  exception 
merely,  that  those,  who  threw  the  quoit,  or  rode  the  chariot, 
wore  a  sort  of  very  light  garment,  1  Mace.  1:  16.  Heb.  12:  1. 
The  caestus,  to  which  an  allusion  is  made  in  1  Cor.  9:  26.  was 
a  leather  strap,  bound  by  the  athletae  round  the  right  hand 
and  fingers.  This  strap  was  wide  enough  to  receive  a  piece  of 
iron  or  lead,  which  was  rolled  upon  it,  and  was  discharged,  m>y- 


§285.   GYMNASTIC  SPORTS. 


347 


fiiUiv,  with  all  the  strength  of  the  combatant  against  his  adversary. 
It  became  the  one  against  whom  it  was  discharged,  to  be  on  the 
look  out,  and  to  avoid,  if  possible,  the  intended  blow. 

The  chariot-race,  which  was  run  in  the  stadium,  and  from 
which  Paul,  in  1  Cor.  9:  24—27.  2  Tim.  4:  7,  8.  and  Philip.  3:  11 
— 14.  borrows  certain  illustrations,  was,  as  follows.  Four  chariots 
started  at  the  same  time  for  the  goal,  which  was  at  the  further  ex- 
tremity of  the  stadium.  The  one,  who  reached  it  first,  was  the 
conqueror.  Other  competitors  presented  themselves,  and  the 
course  was  run  again  by  four  at  a  time,  as  in  the  first  instance. 
The  one,  who  successively  gained  the  victory  over  all,  that  pre- 
sented themselves,  won  the  crown,  which  was  woven  of  branches 
of  various  trees,  and,  though  of  small  value  in  itself,  was  esteemed 
in  the  highest  degree  honourable.  A  crown  of  this  kind,  PQa(3e7ov, 
was  given  not  only  to  those,  who  came  off  victors  in  the  chariot 
race,  but  to  those  also,  who  succeeded  in  contests,  whatever  they 
might  be,  of  a  different  kind,  1  Cor.  9:  54.  Phil.  3:  14.  Coloss.  3: 
15.  2  Tim.  4:  8.  Wherever  the  victor  went,  he  received  a  branch 
of  palm,  Rev.  7:  9  ;  he  was  robed  in  a  splendid  dress,  and  escorted 
with  the  highest  honours  to  his  city  and  his  home. 

The  exercises,  in  which  the  athletae  engaged,  were  by  no 
means  trivial,  or  such  as  could  be  easily  gone  through.  It  was 
necessary,  in  order  to  secure  to  themselves  an  adequate  degree  of 
strength,  that  they  should  take  a  considerable  quantity  of  nou- 
rishment, but  their  principal  meal  was  in  the  evening.  Their  din- 
ner was  small,  and  they  were  not  at  liberty  to  eat  of  various  kinds 
of  food,  according  to  their  own  choice.  In  addition  to  some 
coarse  bread,  they  were  allowed  ten  dried  figs,  nuts,  soft  cheese, 
and  herbs.  Indeed  it  appears,  that,  in  progress  of  time,  they 
were  furnished  with  meat  of  the  most  nourishing  sort,  which  was 
roasted  and  eaten  with  coarse,  unleavened  bread ;  but  they  ab- 
stained altogether  from  wine,  and  were  not  permitted  to  have  the 
slightest  intercourse  with  the  other  sex,  not  even  to  look  upon 
them. 

Certain  regulations,  in  regard  to  the  mode  of  conducting  the 
contest,  were  entered  into  by  them  ;  and  he  who  violated  them, 
though  he  was  in  fact  the  victor,  could  not  receive  the  crown. 
Accordingly,  as  was  indeed  very  necessary,  there  were  judges  of 


348 


§285.  GYMNASTIC  SPORTS. 


the  games,  who  saw,  that  those  regulations,  which  were  made  in 
respect  to  them,  were  observed,  and  determined,  who  came  off 
conqueror,  2  Tim.  2:  5.  4:  8. 

As  the  games,  in  which  the  athletae  exerted  their  skill  and 
physical  ability,  were  extremely  popular  among  the  Greeks  and 
Romans,  it  is  not  at  all  surprising,  that  they  were  objects  of  ha- 
tred in  the  sight  of  the  greater  part  of  the  Jews.  It  was  the  fact, 
nevertheless,  that  there  existed  among  the  Jews  themselves  a  sort 
of  game,  (different  it  is  true,  from  those  of  the  Gymnasium,)  which 
was  practised  in  Palestine,  so  late  as  the  time  of  Jerome,  and 
of  which,  a  vestige  may  still  be  discovered  in  the  Arabic  word, 
?  '  " 

Sjt/jjyp .  This  game  consisted  in  lifting  a  stone ;  the  one,  who 
could  lift  it  higher  than  all  the  rest,  was  the  victor,  Zech.  12:  3. 

Note.  The  theatre,  which  was  introduced  by  Herod  and  his 
sons  into  Palestine,  was  an  edifice,  constructed  in  such  a  manner, 
as  to  describe  the  larger  half  of  a  circle.  The  games  were  exhibit- 
ed in  that  part  of  it,  where  a  line  would  have  passed  to  enclose  pre- 
cisely a  semicircle. 

Amphi-theatres  may  be  described  by  saying,  that  they  were 
two  theatres  united  ;  they  were,  of  course,  oblong  in  point  of  form, 
and  the  games  were  exhibited  in  the  centre  of  them.  The  seats, 
which  extended  round  the  interiour  of  both  theatre  and  amphi- 
theatre, ascending  gradually,  one  above  another.  These  edifices 
were  left  open  at  the  top,  except  in  the  later  periods  of  the  Ro- 
man empire,  when  there  was  some  change  in  the  style  of  their 
architecture.  In  case  of  great  heat  or  of  rain,  the  opening  above 
was  enclosed  by  means  of  a  piece  of  cloth  of  a  close  texture,  ex- 
tended over  it. 

In  theatres  of  this  kind,  comedies  and  tragedies  were  acted  ; 
assemblies  of  the  people  were  held,  and  ambassadors  were  re- 
ceived, Acts  12:  20.  19:  29.  Among  the  Romans,  sports  also  of 
various  kinds  were  exhibited.  They  were  mostly  gymnastic  ex- 
ercises, but  some  of  them  in  truth  were  of  a  very  bloody  charac- 
ter. Since  criminals,  who  had  been  condemned  by  the  laws  of 
the  country,  and  enemies,  who  had  been  captured  in  war,  were 
compelled  to  fight,  till  they  lost  their  life,  either  with  wild  beasts, 
or,  (in  order  to  gratify  the  spectators  with  the  mimic  representa- 


§  286.   OF  ENCAMPMENTS.  349 

tion  of  a  battle,)  with  one  another.  Compare  1  Cor.  4:  9.  and  Ileb. 
10:  33. 

§  286.  Of  Encampments. 

The  art  of  laying  out  an  encampment,  E^ntt,  nfarlJa ,  , 
appears  to  have  been  well  understood  in  Egypt,  long  before  the  de- 
parture of  the  Hebrews  from  that  country.  It  was  there,  that  Moses 
became  acquainted  with  that  mode  of  encamping,  which,  in  the 
second  chapter  of  Numbers,  is  prescribed  to  the  Hebrews. 

In  the  encampment  of  the  Israelites,  to  which  we  have  alluded, 
it  appears,  that  the  holy  tabernacle  occupied  the  centre.  In  re- 
ference to  this  circumstance,  it  may  be  remarked,  that  it  is  the 
common  practice  in  the  East  for  the  prince  or  leader  of  a  tribe  to 
have  his  tent  pitched  in  the  centre  of  the  others,  and  it  ought  not 
to  be  forgotten,  that  God,  whose  tent  or  palace  was  the  holy  tab- 
ernacle, was  the  prince,  the  leader  of  the  Hebrews.  The  tents, 
nearest  to  the  tabernacle,  were  those  of  the  Levites,  whose  busi- 
ness it  was  to  watch  it,  in  the  manner  of  a  pretorian  guard.  The 
family  of  Gershom  pitched  to  the  West,  that  of  Kohath  to  the 
South,  that  of  Merari  to  the  North.  The  priests  occupied  a  po- 
sition to  the  East,  opposite  to  the  entrance  of  the  tabernacle, 
Num.  Is  53.  3:  21 — 38.  At  some  distance  to  the  East,  were  the 
tribes  of  Judah,  Issachar,  and  Zebulun  ;  on  the  South  were  those 
of  Reuben,  Simeon,  and  Gad  ;  to  the  West  were  Ephraim,  Manas- 
seh,  and  Benjamin  ;  to  the  North,  Dan,  Asher,  and  Naphtali. 
The  people  were  thus  divided  into  four  divisions,  three  tribes  to 
a  division  ;  each  of  which  divisions  had  its  separate  standard, 
ba*. .  Each  of  the  large  family  associations  likewise,  of  which  the 
'different  tribes  were  composed,  had  a  separate  standard,  termed, 
in  contradistinction  from  the  other,  nitf ;  and  every  Hebrew  was 
obliged  to  number  himself  with  his  particular  division,  and  follow 
his  appropriate  standard.  The  Israelites,  probably  in  forming 
their  encampment  at  this  time,  imitated  the  method  of  the  Noma- 
des,  and  formed  it  in  such  a  way,  as  to  exhibit  a  circular  appear- 
ance. There  does  not  appear  to  be  any  proof,  that  this  mode  of 
encampment  was  especially  followed,  at  any  subsequent  period. 

We  learn  from  2  Sam.  16:  5,  et  seq.  that  there  were  no  senti- 
nels stationed  during  the  night  in  the  encampment  of  Saul ;  which 


350 


§  287.   ON  MILITARY  MARCHES. 


was  done,  as  we  learn,  in  other  instances,  in  case  there  was  any 
danger,  the  sentinels  relieving  each  other  at  stated  intervals,  Judg. 
7:  19.  1  Sam.  14:  16.  26:  14 — 17.  In  respect  to  this  point,  we 
may  infer,  moreover,  from  the  fact  of  sentinels  being  kept  perpetu- 
ally upon  the  walls  of  the  city  in  subsequent  periods  of  the  monar- 
chy, that  they  certainly  were  not  wanting  in  the  camps. 

Fires  also  were  kept  burning  before  encampments  during  the 
night.  Fires  of  this  kind  were  not  the  same  thing,  as  some  under- 
take to  say,  with  the  pillar  of  fire,  which  went  before  the  Israelites 
in  Arabia  Petrea.    See  Num.  9:  15 — 23. 

Moses  gives  the  following  regulations  in  respect  to  the  encamp- 
ment in  the  wilderness,  Num.  5:  1 — 4.  Deut.  23:  10 — 15. 

I.  That  every  unclean  person  shall  live  out  of  it. 

II.  [The  second  regulation,  to  which  reference  is  here  made, 
stands  in  the  English  version,  as  follows.]  "  Thou  shalt  have  a 
paddle  upon  thy  weapon  ;  and  it  shall  be,  when  thou  wilt  ease 
thyself  abroad,  thou  shalt  dig  therewith  and  turn  back,  and  cover 
that,  which  cometh  from  thee.  For  the  Lord,  thy  God,  walketh 
in  the  midst  of  thy  camp  to  deliver  thee  and  to  give  up  thine  ene- 
mies before  thee,"  &lc.  A  practice  of  this  kind  is  observed  to  this 
day  among  the  Ottomans.  See  the  third  Epistle  of  Busbeque,  p. 
250. 

§  287.  On  Military  Marches. 

The  same  order  was  observed  by  the  Hebrews  in  the  wilder- 
ness, when  on  their  march,  which  was  practised  by  them,  when 
forming  their  encampment.  As  soon  as  the  cloud  ascended  over  the 
tabernacle,  the  priests  sounded  with  the  silver  trumpets  FflhitiSSJft, 
Num.  9:  15 — 23.  a  warning  which  is  expressed  in  Hebrew  by  the 
phrases  it^Pi  and  rtap*Tn  3?j?n. 

Immediately  Judah,  Issachar,  and  Zebulun  on  the  East  set  for- 
ward. At  the  second  sound  of  the  trumpets,  Reuben,  Simeon,  and 
Gad  on  the  South  followed.  The  march  was  next  commenced  by 
the  Levites,  who  bore  the  parts  of  the  tabernacle,  and  the  ark  of 
the  covenant.  They  were  followed,  at  the  third  sound  of  the  trum- 
pets, by  Ephraim,  Manasseh,  and  Benjamin  from  the  West,  and,  at 
the  fourth,  by  Dan,  Asher,  and  Naphtali  from  the  North,  who 


§  288.    ON  MILITARY  STANDARDS. 


351 


brought  up  the  rear,  n:t  .  Each  one  followed  the  standard  of  his 
particular  corps  and  family. 

When  the  cloud  descended  again,  the  encampment  was  formed 
in  the  order,  mentioned  in  the  preceding  section,  Num.  2:  1,  3,  10, 
17,  18,  25,  31.  10:  5—8,  23—28.  That  the  Hebrews  could  not, 
at  a  subsequent  period,  after  they  had  settled  in  Palestine,  observe 
the  same  order  in  their  military  expeditions,  which  was  observed 
by  them,  while  marching  in  the  wilderness,  is  a  matter  so  evident, 
that  it  hardly  needs  to  be  mentioned. 

§  288.  On  Military  Standards. 
Of  military  standards,  there  were, 

I.  The  Standard,  denominated  b}/7  degcl;  one  of  which  pertain- 
ed to  each  of  the  four  general  divisions.  The  four  standards  of 
this  name  were  large,  and  ornamented  with  colours  in  white, 
purple,  crimson,  and  dark  blue.  The  Jewish  Rabbins  assert, 
(founding  their  statement  on  Gen.  49:  3,  9,  17,  22  which  in  this 
case  is  very  doubtful  authority,)  that  the  first  of  these  standards, 
viz.  that  of  Judah,  bore  a  lion ;  the  second,  or  that  of  Reuben,  bore 
a  man;  that  of  Ephraim,  which  was  the  third,  displayed  the  figure 
of  a  bull ;  while  that  of  Dan,  which  was  the  fourth,  exhibited  the 
representation  of  cherubim.  They  wrought  into  the  standards  with 
embroidered  work. 

II.  The  Standard,  called  rnN  oth.  The  ensign  of  this  name 
belonged  to  the  separate  classes  of  families.  Perhaps  it  was,  orig- 
inally, merely  a  pole  or  spear,  to  the  end  of  which  a  bunch  of 
leaves  was  fastened,  or  something  of  the  kind.  Subsequently,  it 
may  have  been  a  shield,  suspended  on  the  elevated  point  of  such 
pole  or  spear,  as  was  sometimes  done  among  the  Greeks  and  Ro- 
mans. 

III.  The  Standard,  called  D3  nes.  This  standard  was  not, 
like  the  others,  borne  from  place  to  place.  It  appears  from  Num. 
21:  8,  9.  that  it  was  a  long  pole,  fixed  into  the  earth.  A  flag  was 
fastened  to  its  top,  which  was  agitated  by  the  wind,  and  seen  at  a 
great  distance,  Jer.  4:  6,  21.  51:  2,  12,  27.  Ezek.  27:  7.  In  order 
to  render  it  visible,  as  far  as  possible,  it  was  erected  on  lofty  moun- 
tains, and  was  in  this  way  used  as  a  signal,  to  assemble  soldiers. 
It  no  sooner  made  its  appearance  on  such  an  elevated  position, 


352 


§  289.   RESPECTING  WAR. 


than  the  war-cry  was  uttered,  and  the  trumpets  were  blown,  Is.  5: 
26.  13:  2.  18:  3.  30:  17.  49:  22.  62:  10—13. 

Note.  It  has  been  already  remarked,  that  the  priests  blew 
alarms  and  warnings  with  silver  trumpets.  It  may  further  be  obser- 
ved, that,  in  very  many  instances,  such  notices  were  given  by  means 
of  horns,  which  were  used  in  war  likewise  by  many  other  nations, 
Josh.  6:  4,  5.  Judg.  3:  27.  6:  34.  7:  18.  1  Sam.  13:  3.  2  Sam.  2: 
28.  18:  16.  20:  1,  22.  Is.  18:  3.  Jer.  4:5, 15,21.  6:  1,  17.  42:  14. 
51:  27.  Hos.  5:  8.  8:  1. 

§  289.  Respecting  War. 

Previously  to  commencing  war,  the  heathen  nations  consulted 
oracles,  soothsayers,  necromancers,  and  also  the  lot,  which  was  as- 
certained by  shooting  arrows  of  different  colours,  1  Sam.  28:  1 — 10. 
Is.  41:  21—24.  Ezek.  25:  11.  The  Hebrews,  to  whom  things  of 
this  kind  were  interdicted,  were  in  the  habit,  in  the  early  part  of 
their  history,  of  inquiring  of  God  by  means  of  Urim  and  Thummim, 
Judg.  1:1.  20:  27,  28.  1  Sam.  23:  2.  28:  6.  30:  8. 

After  the  time  of  David,  the  kings  who  reigned  in  Palestine, 
consulted  according  to  the  different  characters,  which  they  sustain- 
ed, and  the  feelings,  which  they  exercised,  sometimes  true  prophets, 
and  sometimes  false,  in  respect  to  the  issue  of  war,  1  K.  22:  6 — 13. 
2  K.  19:  2,  et  seq.  20,  et  seq.  Sacrifices  were  also  offered,  in  re- 
ference to  which  the  soldiers  were  said  "  to  consecrate  themselves  to 
the  war,"  Is.  13:  3.  Jer.  6:  4.  51:  27.  Joel  3:  9.  Obad.  1.  There 
are  instances  of  formal  declarations  of  war,  and,  sometimes,  of  pre- 
vious negotiations,  2  K.  14:  8.  2  Chron.  25:  17.  Judg.  11:  12—28  ; 
but  ceremonies  of  this  kind  were  by  no  means  always  observed, 
2  Sam.  10:  1 — 12.  When  the  enemy  made  a  sudden  incursion, 
or  when  the  war  was  unexpectedly  commenced,  the  alarm  was 
given  to  the  people  by  messengers  rapidly  sent  forth,  by  the  sound 
of  warlike  trumpets,  by  standards  floating  on  the  loftiest  places, 
by  the  clamour  of  many  voices  on  the  mountains,  that  echoed 
from  summit  to  summit,  Judg.  3:  27.  6:  34.  7:  22.  19:  29,  30. 
ISam.  11:  7,  8.  Is.  5:26.  13:  2.  18:3.  30:  17.  49:2.  62:  10.  Mil- 
itary expeditions  commonly  commenced  in  the  spring,  2  Sam.  11:  1. 
and  were  continued  in  the  summer,  but  in  the  winter,  the  soldiers 


§  290.   PREPARATIONS  FOR  BATTLE. 


353 


went  into  quarters.  There  is  no  mention  made  in  Scripture  of  a 
war  being  settled  by  a  combat  between  two  individuals.  In  the 
case  of  David  and  Goliah,  it  is  true,  there  was  a  challenge  and  a 
combat,  but  there  was  no  previous  agreement  between  the  two 
armies,  which  prevented  the  further  effusion  of  blood. 

War  is  considered  by  the  Orientals,  as  a  judgment  sent  from 
heaven.  It  is  God,  who  grants  victory  to  those  who  are  in  the 
right,  but  sends  defeat  upon  those,  who  are  in  the  wrong,  2  Chron. 
20:  12.  Is.  66:  15,  16.  This  idea,  viz.  that  God  fights  for  the  good 
against  the  wicked,  very  frequently  discovers  itself  in  the  Old  Tes- 
tament, and  accounts  for  the  fact,  that,  not  only  in  the  Hebrew, 
but  also  in  the  Arabic,  Syriac,  and  Chaldaic,  words,  which  original- 
ly signify  justice,  innocence,  or  uprightness,  signify  likewise  vic- 
tory ;  and  that  words,  whose  usual  meaning  is  injustice  or  wick- 
edness, also  mean  defeat  or  overthrow.  The  same  may  be  said  in 
respect  to  words,  which  signify  help  or  aid,  [for  instance  IWia?  J  in 
as  much  as  the  nation,  which  conquered,  received  aid  from  God, 
and  God  was  its  helper,  Ps.  7:  9.  9:  9.  26:  I.  35:  24.  43:  I.  75:  3. 
76:  13.  78:  9.  82:  8.  1  Sam.  14:  45.  2  K.  5:  1.  Is.  59:  17.  Habak. 
3:  8.  Ps.  20:  6.  44:  5. 

§  290.  Preparations  for  Battle. 

Before  battle  the  various  kinds  of  arms  were  put  in  the  best 
order  ;  the  shields  were  anointed,  and  the  soldiers  refreshed  them- 
selves by  taking  food,  lest  they  should  become  weary  and  faint 
under  the  pressure  of  their  labours,  Jer.  46:  3,  4.  Is.  21:  5.  The 
soldiers,  more  especially  the  generals  and  kings,  except  when  they 
wished  to  remain  unknown,  (1  K.  22:  30 — 34.)  were  clothed  in 
splendid  habiliments,  which  are  denominated,  (Ps.  110:  3.)  ^'itl 
'inp  the  sacred  dress.  The  Hebrew  words  for  an  army  in  battle 
array  are  pdb  %  ^-}2>73  ,  ilD^E ,  rO^Jq .  The  phrase,  which  is  us- 
ed to  express  the  action  of  thus  setting  an  army  in  array,  is 
nttfrbtt  ^pHSrt ;  it  occurs  in  Gen.  14:  8.  and  very  frequently  af- 
terwards, but  we  are  left  in  some  uncertainty  in  respect  to  its 
precise  import.  There  is  evidence,  however,  for  stating  as  far  as 
this,  viz.  that  the  army  was  probably  divided  into  the  general  di- 
visions of  centre,  and  left,  and  right  wing,  in  as  much,  as  there  is 
frequent  mention  made  of  B^'Ji^S)  ,  i.  e.  leaders  of  a  third  part ,  Gen. 


354 


§  291.   CONCERNING  THE  BATTLE. 


14:  14,  15.  Judg.  7:  16—19.  Exod.  14:  7.  15:4.  2K.7:2.  17:  19. 
10:  25.  That  the  army  was  so  arranged,  as  to  form  a  phalanx  of 
some  sort,  there  can  hardly  be  room  for  a  doubt.  Bodies  of  men 
drawn  up  in  military  order,  in  some  instances,  especially  if  danger 
pressed  hard  upon  them,  performed  very  long  marches.  This  was 
the  case  with  the  Hebrews,  when  they  departed  from  Egypt,  Exod. 
13:  18.  comp.  Josh.  1:  14.  4:  12.  Judg.  7:  11.  While  the  ap- 
proaching army  was  at  a  distance,  there  was  nothing  discernible  but 
a  cloud  of  dust ;  as  they  came  nearer  the  glittering  of  their  arms 
could  be  discovered,  and  at  length  the  manner,  in  which  they  were 
drawn  up,  might  be  distinctly  seen,  Ezek.  26:  10.  Is.  14:  31.  Xeno- 
phon  in  Expedit.  Cyri  I.  8,  5. 

It  was  the  duty  of  the  priests,  before  the  commencement  of 
the  battle,  to  exhort  the  Hebrews  to  exhibit  that  courage,  which 
was  required  by  the  exigency  of  the  occasion.  [The  words,  which 
they  used,  were,  as  follows.  "Hear,  O  Israel;  ye  approach  this 
day  unto  battle  against  your  enemies  ;  let  not  your  hearts  faint ; 
fear  not,  and  do  not  tremble ;  neither  be  ye  terrified  because  of  them. 
For  the  Lord,  your  God,  is  he,  that  gocth  with  you,  to  fight  for  you 
against  your  enemies,  to  save  you,"]  Deut.  20:  2,  et  seq.  In  more 
recent  times,  exhortations  to  the  soldiers  of  this  kind  were  given  by 
generals,  and  kings,  2  Chron.  13:4.  20:  20.  In  some  cases,  sacri- 
fices were  offered,  either  by  some  prophet,  or  by  some  other  person, 
while  he  was  present,  1  Sam.  13:  8 — 13. 

The  last  ceremony,  previous  to  an  engagement,  was  the  sound- 
ing, S^ITJ  >  °f tne  sacred  trumpets  by  the  priests,  Num.  10:9,  10:  2 
Chron.  13:  12—14.  1  Mace.  3:  54. 

§  291.  Concerning  the  Battle. 

The  Greeks,  while  they  were  yet  three  or  four  furlongs  dis- 
tant from  the  enemy,  commenced  the  song  of  war ;  something  re- 
sembling which,  occurs  in  2  Chron.  20:  21.  They  then  rais- 
ed a  shout,  ccXcdd&iv,  which  was  also  done  among  the  Hebrews, 
rns,  nntibn  m'*nn,  1  Sam.  17:  52.  Josh.  6:  6.  Is.  5:  29, 

30.  T17:  12^  Jer.  4:  19.  25:  30.  The  war-shout  in  Judg.  7:  20. 
was,  as  follows  ;  "  The  sword  of  the  Lord  and  of  Gideon," 
p^ttb5!  nih^b  At  other  times  perhaps,  at  least  in  some  in- 

stances, it  was  a  mere  yell  or  inarticulate  cry.    The  mere  march 


§291.   CONCERNING  THE  BATTLE. 


355 


of  armies  with  their  weapons,  chariots,  and  trampling  coursers, 
occasioned  a  great  and  confused  noise,  which  is  compared  by  the 
prophets  to  the  roaring  of  the  ocean,  and  the  dashing  of  the  moun- 
tain torrents,  Is.  17:  12,  13.  28:  2.  The  descriptions  of  battles  in 
the  Bible  are  very  brief,  but,  although  there  is  nothing  especial- 
ly said  in  respect  to  the  order,  in  which  the  battle  commenced 
and  was  conducted,  there  is  hardly  a  doubt,  that  the  light-armed 
troops,  as  was  the  case  in  other  nations,  were  the  first  in  the  en- 
gagement. The  main  body  followed  them,  and,  with  their  spears 
extended,  made  a  rapid  and  impetuous  movement  upon  the  ene- 
my. Hence  swiftness  of  foot  in  a  soldier  is  mentioned,  as  a  ground 
of  great  commendation,  not  only  in  Homer,  but  in  the  Bible.  2  Sam. 
2:  19—24.  1  Chron.  12:  8.  Ps.  18:  33. 

It  was  often  the  case  in  battle,  that  soldier  contended  person- 
ally with  soldier.  As,  in  contests  of  such  a  nature,  the  victory 
depended  on  personal  strength  and  prowess,  the  animosity  of  the 
combatants  became  very  much  excited,  and  the  slaughter,  in  pro- 
portion to  the  whole  number,  was  immense.  A  common  stratagem 
of  war  among  the  Hebrews  was  that  of  dividing  the  army,  and 
placing  one  part  of  it  in  ambush,  Gen.  14:  14 — 16.  Josh.  8: 12.  Judg. 
20:  39.  Notwithstanding  it  was  the  sentiment  of  the  early  times, 
of  which  we  are  speaking,  that  deception  and  art  of  any  kind 
whatever,  however  unjust,  might  be  lawfully  employed  against  an 
enemy,  there  is,  nevertheless,  no  instance  of  such  deception  re- 
corded in  the  Bible,  except  the  one  in  Gen.  34:  25 — 31.  and 
which  is  there  far  from  being  approved  of.  If,  in  reference  to 
this  statement,  we  should  be  referred  to  the  conduct  of  Jael,  (Judg. 
4:  17 — 22.)  we  should  feel  at  liberty  to  say,  that  her  daring  deed 
could  hardly  be  considered  a  stratagem,  and  at  the  worst  was  only 
pursuing  a  wrong  course  amid  the  collision  of  opposite  duties. 

The  Hebrews,  when  about  to  attack  an  enemy,  deemed  it  a 
good  reason  for  rejoicing,  if  they  saw  a  storm  arising,  from  the 
hope  which  they  indulged  in,  that  God  was  coming  in  the  clouds 
to  their  assistance,  1  Sam.  7:  10.  Judg.  5:  20,  21.  Josh.  10:  12—15. 
Habak.  3:  11. 

The  attack,  which  is  made  by  the  Orientals  in  battle,  always 
has  been,  and  is  to  this  day,  characterized  for  vehemence  and  im- 
petuosity. In  case  the  enemy  sustain  an  unaltered  front,  they  re- 
treat, but  it  is  not  long  before  they  return  again,  with  renewed  ar- 


350 


$  293.  CIRCUMVALLATION. 


dour.  It  was  the  practice  of  the  Roman  armies,  to  stand  still  in 
the  order  of  battle,  and  to  receive  the  shock  of  their  opposers. 
To  this  practice  there  are  allusions  in  the  following  passages,  viz. 
1  Cor.  16:  13.  Gal.  5:  1.  Eph.  6:  14.  Philip.  1:  27.  1  Thess.  3:  8. 
2.  Thess.  2:  15. 

§  292.  On  Sieges. 

In  case  an  enemy  threatened  to  attack  a  city,  guards  of  vigi- 
lant and  sedulous  watchmen  were  stationed  in  towers,  and  on  the 
tops  of  mountains,  who  made  known,  by  signs,  or  by  messengers, 
whatever  they  had  observed.  At  Jerusalem  in  an  extremity  of 
this  kind,  the  fountains  beyond  the  walls  of  the  city  were  filled  up, 
Is.  22:  9 — 11.  Cities  were  sometimes  taken  by  sudden  and  vio- 
lent onsets,  sometimes  by  stratagem,  sometimes  by  treason,  and  at 
others,  were  reduced  less  expeditiously  by  means  of  famine.  When 
there  were  no  machines  to  assist  in  the  siege  and  to  break 
down  the  walls,  it  was  much  protracted,  and  under  such  circum- 
stances was  never  undertaken,  except  as  a  last  resort.  When  a 
city  was  threatened,  it  was  in  the  first  place  invited  to  surrender, 
fcfi*«&  rt*V«  *npr ,  Deut.  20:  10.  Is.  36:  1—20.  37:  8—20.  If  the 
besieged  had  concluded  to  capitulate,  the  principal  men  of  the 
city  went  out  to  the  enemy's  camp,  in  order  to  effect  the  object. 
Hence,  "  to  go  forth"  or  u  come  out"  in  certain  connexions,  mean 
the  same  as  to  surrender  by  capitulation,  1  Sam.  11:  3,  10,  11.  2 
K.  18:  31.  24:  12.  Jer.  21:  9.  38:  17,  18.  1  Mace.  6:  49. 

In  the  most  ancient  ages,  the  enemy  surrounded  the  city  with 
a  band  of  men,  sometimes  only  one,  at  most  only  two  or  three 
deep,  and  effected  their  object  by  assault ;  hence  the  very  common 
phrases,  "  to  encamp  against  a  city"  or  "  to  pitch  against"  and 
"  to  straiten  it,"  Josh.  10:  5.  Judg.  9:  50.  1  Sam.  11:  1.  2  K.  25: 
1.  Is.  29:  3. 

§  293.   ClRCUM  VALIDATION,  TlfQlTeiX0?')  p?.^  • 

Circumvallation  was  known  in  the  time  of  Moses,  also  the 
mound  called  iiirrb,  Deut.  20:  19,  20  ;  although  it  is  not  mentioned 
again  afterwards,  till  2  Sam.  20:  15. 

The  besiegers,  when  the  siege  promised  to  be  of  Jong  con- 


( 


§  294.  the  besieger's  mound.  357 

tinuance,  dug  a  ditch  between  themselves  and  the  city,  for  their 
own  security,  and  another  parallel  to  it  outside,  so  as  to  enclose 
their  camp  on  both  sides,  and  to  prevent  being  attacked  in  rear, 
as  well  as  in  front.  The  earth,  thrown  out  of  the  ditch,  form- 
ed a  wall,  on  which  towers  were  erected.  The  inhabitants  of 
the  city  shut  up  in  this  way  perished  by  degrees,  by  famine, 
pestilence,  and  missile  weapons,  2  K.  25:  1.  Jer.  52:  4.  Ezek  4: 
2.  17:  17.  2  K.  6:  28—31.  Ezek.  4:  10—15.  5:  10—15.  Jer.  32: 
24.  34:  17. 

§  294.  The  Besieger's  Mound,  ttbbb 

The  besiegers,  in  order  to  succeed  against  the  walls  of  the  city, 
when  they  were  elevated  and  strong,  cast  up  a  mound  of  earth 
and  strengthened  it  on  both  sides  with  beams  of  timber.  It  ran 
in  an  oblique  direction  from  the  lines  of  circumvallation  towards 
the  less  strongly  fortified  parts  of  the  city,  and  sometimes  equal- 
led in  altitude  the  city  wall  itself.  The  erection  of  this  mound  or 
wall  is  expressed  by  the  Hebrew  phrase,  "pyfi  iibbb 
literally  to  cast  up  a  bank  against  the  city,  2  Sam.  20:  15.  2  K. 
19:  32.  Jer.  6:  6.  32:  24.  33:  4.  Ezek.  4:  2.  17:  17—23.  26:  8. 
The  inhabitants  of  the  city  fought  against  the  mound  with  missile 
weapons ;  the  besiegers,  on  the  contrary,  posting  themselves  upon 
it,  threw  their  weapons  into  the  city.  In  the  meanwhile  the  bat- 
tering rams  were  erected  and  made  to  moye  forward,  in  order  to 
break  down  the  city  wall,  in  which  case,  the  besiegers  frequently 
erected  another  wall  inside  of  the  first,  in  doing  which  they  tore 
down  the  contiguous  houses,  and  employed  their  timbers  in  its 
erection,  Is.  22  :  10.  Sometimes  the  besieged,  when  they  had 
captivated  any  of  the  more  distinguished  of  the  assailants,  scourged 
them  or  slew  them  on  the  walls,  or  sacrificed  them,  that  they  might 
intimidate  their  enemies,  and  influence  them  to  depart,  2  K.  3:  27. 
When  the  wall  was  broken  through,  ns^s  Ezek.  21:  27.  and 
the  besiegers  had  entered,  the  remainder  of  it,  at  least  in  a  great 
degree,  was  thrown  down,  as  was  the  case,  when  the  city  capitulat- 
ed, 2  K.  14:  13.  2  Chron.  25:  23,  24.  The  expressions,  to  draw  a 
city  with  ropes  into  a  valley  or  river,  (2  Sam.  17:  13.)  is  a  proverb- 
ial boast. 


35S 


§295.   ON  THE  CONSEQUENCES  OF  VICTORY. 


§  295.  On  the  consequences  of  Victory. 

Anciently,  although  humanity  was  considered  praiseworthy, 
the  power  of  the  conquerors  owned  no  limitation  ;  flocks  and  cat- 
tle, the  fruits  of  the  earth,  fields,  gardens,  and  houses,  together 
with  the  idol  gods  of  the  conquered,  fell  into  their  possession. 
They  sold  the  wives  and  children  also,  of  those,  whom  they  had 
subdued,  for  slaves,  and  razed  their  cities  to  the  ground,  2  Sam. 
5:  21.  2  Chron.  25:  14.  Hos.  10:  5,  6.  Jer.  46:  25.  48:  7.  The 
principal  men  among  the  conquered,  the  soldiers,  and  the  artificers, 
who  were  employed  in  the  construction  of  arms,  and  the  erection 
of  fortifications,  were  sent  away  into  distant  provinces.  The 
conquerors,  however,  were  not  always  destitute  of  humanity.  In 
many  instances  they  permitted  the  conquered  kings  to  retain  their 
authority,  only  requiring  of  them  the  promise  of  good  faith,  and 
the  payment  of  tribute.  In  case  the  kings,  who  were  thus  used, 
rebelled,  they  were  treated  with  the  greatest  severity,  Gen.  14:  4. 
2  K.  23:  34.  24:  1,  14.  Is.  24:  2.  Jer.  20:  5,  6.  The  soldiers,  who 
were  taken,  were  deprived  of  all  their  property  and  sold  naked  into 
servitude.  When  the  city  was  taken  by  assault,  all  the  men  were 
slain  ;  the  women  and  children  were  carried  away  prisoners,  and 
sold  at  a  very  low  price,  Mic.  1:  11.  Is.  47:  3.  20:  3,  4.  2  Chron. 
28:  9—15.  Ps.  44:  12. 

We  might,  therefore,  well  expect  the  great  lamentation  and 
wailing,  which  were  customary  among  those,  who  were  conquer- 
ed. Those,  who  were  able  to,  made  their  escape,  Is.  16:  1 — 6. 
Jer.  41:  5.  43:  6.  Those,  who  could  not  escape,  threw  away  their 
gold  and  silver,  that  they  might  be  the  more  safe  from  the  cruel- 
ty of  the  soldiers,  Ezek.  7:  19.  The  fugitives  sought  for  safety  in 
the  tops  of  mountains,  in  caves,,  and  amid  rocks  ;  hence  God  on 
account  of  the  protection  he  affords  is  called  a  rock,  ""lIX,  Judg.  20: 
47,  48.  Jer.  4:  29.  16:  16.  22:  20.  Ezek.  7:  7, 17.  Is.  26:  4.  The 
prophets  sometimes  represent  the  calamity  of  subjection  by  a 
foreign  power,  as  a  great  drunkenness,  which  is  an  evil  every 
where,  but  peculiarly  so  in  the  East.  Further,  as  the  fortune  or 
destiny  of  man  is  sometimes  called  a  cup,  so  this,  (one  of  the  most 
afflictive  events,  that  could  fall  to  the  lot  of  man,)  was  denominat- 


§  295.    ON  THE  CONSEQUENCES  OF  VICTORY. 


359 


ed  the  cup  of  reeling  or  staggering,  ilb^n  Jer.  25:  15 — 31. 

Nah.  3:  11.  Zech.  12:  2.  Ps.  75:  8. 

If  the  conqueror  came  in  the  capacity  of  a  revenger  of  former 
injuries,  he  frequently  cut  down  trees,  obstructed  the  fountains, 
filled  the  cultivated  fields  with  stones,  and  reduced  the  ground  to 
a  state  of  barrenness  for  many  years.  This  mode  of  procedure 
was  forbidden  to  the  Hebrews  by  the  law  in  Deut.  20:  19,20; 
but  the  prohibition  was  not  always  regarded,  as  appears  from  1 
Chron.  20:  1.  2  K.  3:  18—25.  The  captivated  kings  and  nobles 
were  bound,  their  eyes  were  put  out,  and  their  bodies  mutilated, 
they  were  thrown  upon  the  ground,  and  trodden  under  feet,  till 
they  died,  Judg.  1:  6,  7.  2  K.  25:  7.  Josh.  10:  24  The  captives 
were  sometimes  thrown  down  upon  thorns,  sawn  asunder,  or  beaten 
to  pieces  with  threshing  instruments,  2  Sam.  12:31.  1  Chron.  20:  3. 
Judg.  8:  7. 

Frequently  old  men,  women  and  children  were  slaughtered, 
and  thrown  into  heaps  2  K.  8:  12.  Hos.  10:  14.  Is.  13:  17,  18. 
Even  "  the  women  with  child  were  ripped  up,"  Is.  13:  16 — 18. 
2  K.  8:  12.  Amos  1:  13.  In  defence  of  these  cruelties,  the  aven- 
gers were  unable  to  plead  the  precepts  or  the  example  of  Moses, 
since  the  excision  of  the  Canaanites,  of  which  we  shall  hereafter 
speak,  was  a  case  of  peculiar  kind,  as  was  also  the  Dnfr  or  irrevo- 
cable curse,  by  which,  in  certain  cases,  every  living  thing  in  the 
conquered  country  was  devoted  to  death,  and  property  of  all  kinds 
was  consigned  to  the  flames,  or  preserved  merely  for  the  sanctu- 
ary ;  by  which  it  was  required  also,  that  the  city  should  be  level- 
led with  the  ground,  that  the  site  should  be  sowed  with  salt,  and 
a  curse  pronounced  upon  every  one,  who  should  afterwards  re- 
build it,  Lev.  27:  21,  28,  29.  Num.  18:  14.  Deut.  13:  17.  The 
object  of  this  curse  or  vow,  was  to  make  an  example  of  certain 
idolatrous  nations,  and  thereby  to  deter  others  from  involving 
themselves  in  the  same  guilt,  and  revolting  in  like  manner  against 
God. 

In  some  cases  the  conquered  nations  were  merely  made  tribu- 
taries, 2  Sam.  8:  6.  2  K.  14:  4.  To  be  a  tributary,  however,  was 
considered  a  great  ignominy,  and  was  a  source  of  reproach  to  the 
idol  deities  of  the  countries,  who  were  thus  subjected,  2  Sam.  8:  6. 
2  K.  19:  8—13.  Is.  7:  20.  Ps.  9:  20. 

The  conquerors  were  intoxicated  with  joy  ;  the  shout  of  victo- 


360       §  296.   ON  THE  SEVERITIES  OF  ANCIENT  WARFARE. 

ry  resounded  on  their  tops  from  mountain  to  mountain,  Is.  42:  11. 
52:  7,  8.  Jer.  50:  2.  Ezek.  7:  7.  Nah.  1:  15.  The  whole  of  the 
people,  not  excepting  the  women,  went  out  to  meet  the  returning 
conquerors  with  singing  and  with  dancing,  Judg.  11:  34 — 37.  1 
Sam.  18:6,  7.  Triumphal  songs  were  uttered  for  the  living, 
and  elegies  for  the  dead,  2  Sam.  1:  17,  18.  2  Chron.  35:  25.  Judg. 
5:  1 — 31.  Exod.  15:  1 — 21.  Monuments  in  honour  of  the  victory 
were  erected,  2  Sam.  8:  13.  Ps.  60:  1.  and  the  arms  of  the  enemy 
were  hung  up,  as  trophies,  in  the  temples,  1  Sam.  31:  10.  2  K.  11: 
10.  The  soldiers,  who  conducted  meritoriously,  were  honoured 
with  presents,  and  had  the  opportunity  of  entering  into  honourable 
matrimonial  connexions,  Josh.  xiv.  1  Sam.  17:  25.  18:  17.  2  Sam. 
18:  11. 

David  instituted  a  separate  corps  or  order  of  military  men,  viz. 
those,  who  were  most  renowned  for  their  warlike  deeds,  2  Sam.  23: 
8—39.  1  Chron.  11:  10—50. 

Many  nations  were  in  the  habit  of  leaving  the  bodies  of  their 
enemies,  as  a  prey  to  the  wild  beasts  and  birds,  (1  Sam.  17:  44. 
Jer.  25:  33.)  and  the  feast,  which  was  given  to  these  destroyers,  is 
represented,  as  having  been  prepared  by  God  himself,  the  judge 
of  nations.  Frequently  the  lifeless  bodies  of  men,  who  had  been 
distinguished,  were  given  up  to  their  relations,  2  Sam.  2:  32.  21: 
14.  Ezek.  39:  11 — 14;  sometimes  they  were  made  the  subjects 
of  insults,  1  Sam.  31:  8.  The  Hebrews,  whether  citizens  at  home 
or  soldiers  in  war,  whenever  they  came  in  contact  with  a  dead 
body,  were  rendered  unclean,  and  were  obliged  by  the  Mosaic  law 
to  purify  themselves,  Num.  31:  19 — 24. 

§  296.  On  the  Severities  of  ancient  Warfare. 

Anciently  war  was  characterized  by  deeds  of  ferocity  and  cru- 
elty. The  Hebrews,  therefore,  have  a  claim  on  our  forgiveness, 
if,  in  some  instances,  they  resorted  to  those  cruel  measures,  which 
were  universally  prevalent  in  their  day,  in  order  to  strike  terrour 
upon  other  nations,  to  deter  them  from  committing  injuries  upon 
themselves,  and  to  secure  their  own  tranquillity.  There  are  some 
things,  however,  in  their  history,  which  cannot  be  approved,  2 
K.  15:  16.  2  Chron.  25:  12.  Judg.  8:  4—21.  20:  1—30.  Still,  as 
hinted  above,  their  severity  in  all  instances  cannot  be  condemned, 


§297.  JUSTICE  OF  THE  WAR  AGAINST  THE  CANAANITES.  301 

for  it  is  permitted,  by  the  natural  law  of  nations,  to  a  people,  to 
inflict,  as  many,  and  as  great  evils,  upon  an  enemy,  as  shall  be  ne- 
cessary to  deter  others  from  committing  the  like  offence.  The 
prevalent  state  of  feeling  among  nations,  whether  it  tend  to  kind- 
ness or  to  cruelty,  will  determine,  how  much  is  necessary  to  se- 
cure such  an  object.  Nations  anciently  could  not  exhibit  that  hu- 
manity and  forbearance  in  war,  which  are  common  among  modern 
European  nations,  without  running  the  risk  of  exposing  themselves 
to  every  sort  of  injury,  Num.  31:  14,  15.  2  Sam.  12:  31.  comp.  2 
Sam.  10:  1—5.  11:  1.  Amos  1:  13.  2  Sam.  8:  2.  comp.  2  K.  3:  27. 
Amos  2:  1.  For  the  most  part,  however,  the  Hebrews  were  com- 
paratively mild  and  humane,  2  Sam.  8:  2.  1  K.  20:  30—43.  2  K.  6: 
21—23.  2  Chron.  28:  8. 

§297.  Justice  of  the  War  against  the  Canaanites. 

The  cause  of  the  expulsion  of  the  Canaanites  is  stated  in  Gen. 
15:  16.  to  have  been  the  corruption  of  morals,  which  prevail- 
ed among  them.  God  took  it  upon  himself,  in  his  providence,  to 
punish  this  corruption,  and,  in  the  estimation  of  many  persons, 
employed  the  Hebrews,  as  the  instruments  of  his  justice,  and  gave 
to  them  (jus  belli,)  the  right  of  carrying  on  the  war  in  question. 
But  while  this  is  conceded,  viz.  that  God  designed  to  punish  the 
moral  delinquencies  of  the  Canaanites  and  gave  to  the  Hebrews 
jus  belli,  it  is  still  inquired,  why  God  did  not  send  the  Hebrews 
against  some  other  nations  not  less  corrupt,  as  well  as  against  the 
Canaanites,  and  why  he  chose  to  select  the  Hebrews  in  prefer- 
ence to  any  other  people.  Something  further,  therefore,  remains  to 
be  said. 

Those,  who  maintain,  that  the  Hebrews  attacked  the  Canaan- 
ites with  no  other  right  or  justice,  than  is  common  to  other  emi- 
grating nations,  who,  in  pursuit  of  new  habitations,  have  expel- 
led the  people  from  the  land,  where  their  ancestors  had  anciently 
dwelt,  say  in  effect,  that  they  had  no  right  or  justice  on  their  side 
at  all.  What  they  state  in  further  defence  of  their  opinions,  viz. 
that  the  sentiment  prevailed  during  the  early  period  in  question, 
that  the  nation,  which,  with  the  divine  favour,  and  approbation, 
conquered  another,  did  it  justly ,  proves  nothing,  because  the  very 
chapter,  (Judg.  11:  24.)  to  which  they  appeal,  actually  announ- 

46 


362    §  297.  justice  or  the  war  against  the  canaanites. 


ccs,  on  the  part  of  the  Israelites,  a  right  of  possession,  in  respect 
to  the  land  of  Canaan,  altogether  different,  Judg.  11:  12 — 28.  So 
that,  though  it  be  true,  that  they  were  in  the  habit  of  identifying 
success  with  justice,  and  of  saying,  that  the  nation,  which  conquer- 
ed, was  favoured  of  God  and  in  the  right,  it  is  evident,  in  this 
case,  they  had  other  and  more  legitimate  grounds  for  the  war. 

Further,  if  the  Hebrews  had  attacked  the  Canaanites  with  the 
same  right  that  other  emigrating  nations  have  attacked  those,  who 
came  in  their  way,  i.  e.  with  no  right  at  all,  they  would  not  have 
spared  the  Edomites,  Moabites  and  Ammonites,  nor  have  asked  of 
the  Amorites  a  peaceable  passage  over  the  Jordan,  Num.  20:  14 — 
22.  21:  4,  10—31.  22:  1—35.  31:  3—54.  Deut.  2:  4—12,  16—37. 

The  truth  is,  that  Abraham  with  his  servants  and  his  flocks 
had  originally  occupied  the  pastures  of  Canaan,  and  had  virtually 
declared  by  the  wells,  which  he  dug,  and  the  altars  he  erected, 
his  right  to  the  land,  and  his  determination  to  hold  it,  Gen.  12:  5, 
6,  8,  9.  21:  25—30.  comp.  13:  4,  14,  18.  15:  7,  13—21.  17:  S. 
This  patriarch  left  the  soil,  to  be  occupied  after  his  death,  not  to 
Ishmael,  but  to  Isaac  ;  who  in  turn  transmitted  it  to  Jacob,  to  the 
exclusion  of  Esau.  The  Canaanites,  it  is  true,  were  at  that  time  in 
the  land,  (Gen.  12:  6.)  but  they  were  few  in  number,  and  occupied  on- 
ly a  small  part  of  it.  The  patriarchs,  therefore,  had  come  into  a  fair 
and  undeniable  possession  of  this  territory,  and  furthermore  had  oc- 
cupied it,  in  their  own  persons,  for  two  hundred  and  fifteen  years ; 
and  Jacob  and  his  sons,  when  they  emigrated  into  Egypt,  were  so 
far  from  abdicating  the  country,  or  giving  up  their  right  to  it,  that 
they  evidently  went  away,  with  a  determination  to  return,  Gen. 
48:  4,  21,  22.  49:  1—26.  comp.  1  Chron.  7:  21,  24.  During  the 
abode  of  the  Hebrews  in  Egypt,  the  Canaanites,  who  had  increas- 
ed in  numbers,  occupied  the  whole  of  the  territory,  and  the  He- 
brews who  were  thus  excluded  from  their  own  soil,  soon  had  evi- 
dence, that  there  was  not  the  least  prospect  of  their  recovering  it, 
except  by  an  appeal  to  arms.  It  belonged  to  the  Canaanites  to  make 
the  first  advances  toward  an  amicable  adjustment,  but,  as  they  de- 
clined it,  they  owed  the  consequences  of  the  war,  disastrous  as  they 
were,  to  the  course  which  they  themselves  had  pursued,  Josh.  11: 
19.  9:  3—26. 


§  297.   RIGHT  OF  THE  ISRAELITES  TO  PALESTINE. 


363 


Note.  General  view  of  the  argument,  that  Palestine  had 
from  time  immemorial  been  the  property  of  hebrew  herdsmen, 
and  that  the  israelites  had  a  right  to  claim  it  again  from  the 

Canaanites,  ON  THE  GROUND  THAT  THEY  WERE  UNLAWFUL  POSSES- 
SORS. 

[As  the  propriety  of  Dr.  Jahn's  conclusions  in  the  above  sec- 
tion depends  essentially  on  the  proof,  which  can  be  exhibited,  that 
the  Hebrews  in  fact  originally  possessed  Palestine,  and  had  not  done 
anything  by  way  of  relinquishing  such  possession,  but  on  the  con- 
trary had  in  various  ways  asserted  the  continuance  of  their  claim 
to  said  territory,  it  will  be  proper  to  give  in  this  place  a  general 
view  of  the  argument,  which  is  gone  into,  to  show  that  such  was 
the  case.  The  opinions  of  our  author  coincide  in  the  main  on 
this  subject,  with  those  of  the  ingenious  writer  of  Commentaries  on 
the  Laws  of  Moses y  and  it  will  probably  answer  all  the  purpose  for 
those,  by  whom  this  translation  will  be  read,  if  the  statement  of 
that  writer,  which  forms  the  31st  Article  of  his  Work,  should  be  here 
inserted.] 

["  From  time  immemorial,  Palestine  had  been  a  land  occupied 
by  wandering  Hebrew  herdsmen,  in  which  even  Abraham,  Isaac, 
and  Jacob,  had  exercised  the  right  of  proprietorship,  traversing  it 
with  herds,  without  being  in  subjection  to  any  one,  or  acknowledg- 
ing the  Canaanites  as  their  masters.  The  Phenicians,  or  Cana- 
anites, were  certainly  not  the  original  possessors,  of  this  land,  but 
had  at  first  dwelt  on  the  Red  Sea,  as  Herodotus  relates;  with 
whom  Justin  and  Abulfeda  in  so  far  coincide,  as  that  the  former 
says,  that  they  had  another  country  before  they  came  to  dwell  on 
the  Lake  of  Gennesareth,  or  Dead  Sea  ;  and  the  latter,  that  they 
first  dwelt  in  Arabia.  Moses  is  so  far  from  contradicting  Herodo- 
tus here,  as  has  been  commonly  believed,  that  he  rather  express- 
ly confirms  his  account,  by  twice  saying  in  the  history  of  Abra- 
ham, The  Canaanites  were  then  in  the  land,  Gen.  12:  6.  and  13:  7. 
The  word  then,  cannot  imply  that  the  contrary  was  the  case  in  his 
own  time  ;  for  then  the  Canaanites  still  dwelt  in  Palestine,  and  their 
expulsion  only  began  under  his  successor,  Joshua :  so  that  he 
gives  us  clearly  to  understand,  that  there  had  formerly  been  a 
time  when  they  dwelt  not  in  that  land,  but  somewhere  else.  But 
another  relation  which  he  gives  in  Gen.  36:  20 — 30.  compared  with 
Deut.  2:  12,  22.  is  still  more  decisive.  He  there  describes  an  an- 
cient people,  that  before  the  time  of  Edom,  had  dwelt  in  Seir,  or 


364 


§  297.   RIGHT  OF  THE  ISRAELITES 


as  we  now  call  it,  Idumea,  and  whom,  from  their  living  in  subter- 
raneous caverns,  he  denominates  Horites,  or  Troglodites.  Of  this 
nation,  was  that  one  of  Esau's  wives,  mentioned  Gen.  36:  2,  24. 
and  as  Moses  elsewhere  relates  that  Esau  had  three  wives,  two  of 
Canaanitish  descent,  and  the  third  a  grand-daughter  of  Abraham, 
(Gen.  26:  34,  35.  and  28:  8,  9.)  it  evidently  follows,  that  the  Ho- 
rites who  of  old  inhabited  Tdumea,  must  have  been  Canaanites. 
Consequently  the  Canaanites  originally  dwelt  in  the  region  after- 
wards called  Idumea,  and  on  the  Red  Sea ;  but  when  they  began 
to  carry  on  the  commerce  of  the  world,  for  which  they  became  so 
renowned  in  history,  they  migrated  into  Palestine,  the  situation  of 
which  was  peculiarly  advantageous  for  that  purpose.  It  would 
appear,  that  at  first  they  only  established  trading  marts  and  facto- 
ries, which  could  not  but  be  very  acceptable  to  the  wandering 
hordes,  because  they  gave  them  an  opportunity  of  converting 
their  superfluous  produce  into  money,  and  of  purchasing  foreign 
commodities.  By  degrees,  they  spread  themselves  farther  into 
the  country,  improved  the  lands,  planted  vineyards,  and  at  last 
dispossessed  the  ancient  inhabitants ;  just  exactly  as  their  descen- 
dants did  at  Carthage,  who  first  asked  for  a  hide-breadth  of  ground 
whereon  to  sit,  and  then  by  an  artful  explanation,  got  a  bargain 
of  as  much  room  as  was  sufficient  to  build  a  city  on,  and  in  the  end 
made  themselves  masters  of  the  whole  country.  As  early  as 
Abraham's  time,  complaints  were  made  of  the  herds  not  having 
sufficient  room,  from  the  Canaanites  being  then  in  the  land,  and 
crowding  it.  But  this  always  went  on  farther  and  farther  ;  and 
when  the  Israelites  had  for  a  time  gone  down  to  Egypt,  the  Ca- 
naanites at  last  appropriated  to  themselves  the  whole  country. 
This  land  of  their  forefathers,  and  their  nation,  the  Israelites  had 
never  given  up  to  the  Canaanites  ;  and  therefore  they  had  a  right 
to  reclaim  it,  and  to  re-conquer  it,  by  force.  If  they  solicited 
from  other  nations  a  passage  into  Palestine,  it  was  merely  to  come 
at  their  own  property  again  :  and  when  they  passed  the  Jordan, 
and  found  the  Canaanites  in  arms  against  them,  the  latter  had  no 
longer  a  legitimate  cause  to  maintain,  for  they  wanted  to  keep 
possession  of  the  property  of  another  people  by  force. 

"  It  cannot  even  be  here  objected,  that  the  Israelites,  by  their 
descent  into  Egypt,  had  abandoned  their  right,  or  that  they  lost  it 
by  prescription.    They  went  down  to  Egypt  only  for  a  time,  on 


TO  PALESTINE. 


3G5 


account  of  a  famine ;  and  it  was  with  the  hope  and  determination 
of  returning  again,  as  the  divine  promise  given  to  Jacob,  Gen.  46: 
4.  confirms.  I  do  not  here  inquire  into,  or  draw  any  conclusion 
from  the  divinity  of  the  promise  :  it  is  sufficient  for  me  that, 
whether  true  or  false,  Jacob  gave  out,  that  he  had  in  a  vision  such 
a  promise  made  him  ;  because  it  proves  the  certainty  of  his  hav- 
ing it  in  view,  and  making  no  secret  of  it,  that  his  posterity  should 
one  day  go  back  to  Palestine.  Whether  prescription  holds  among 
nations,  the  single  case  excepted,  where  possession  goes  back  to 
times  of  which  history  gives  no  certain  account,  and  where  of 
course,  in  default  of  other  deductions,  prescription  does  inter- 
fere ;  and  again,  how  long  a  period  may  be  requisite  to  prescrip- 
tion in  the  law  of  nature  and  nations,  (longer,  no  doubt,  than  in 
civil  law)  I  will  not  here  stop  to  inquire ;  for  prescription  cannot 
operate  at  all  where  a  people  avow  and  maintain  their  rights 
with  sufficient  publicity  ;  and  this  was  done  by  the  Israelites.  Ja- 
cob went  down  into  Egypt  with  a  conviction  that  his  descendants 
should,  under  the  divine  guidance,  return  to  Palestine ;  nor  would 
he  allow  himself  to  be  buried  any  where  else  than  in  his  own  he- 
reditary sepulchre  in  Palestine,  exacting  from  his  son  Joseph  an 
oath  for  that  purpose,  (Gen.  47:  29 — 31.)  And  his  burial  was 
conducted  with  such  solemnity,  (Gen.  50:  7 — 13.)  that  the  people 
in  Palestine  could  not  possibly  entertain  a  doubt  of  the  intention 
of  the  Israelites  to  return  thither  at  some  future  period.  But 
were  the  matter  considered  still  as  somewhat  doubtful,  because 
Moses  does  not  expressly  mention  this  as  the  reason  of  Jacob's  de- 
sire to  be  carried  thither ;  on  the  occasion  of  the  death  of  Joseph, 
it  is  placed  in  the  clearest  light.  For  he  testifies  to  his  brethren., 
his  certain  hope  that  God  would  re-conduct  their  posterity  into 
Palestine  ;  and  therefore  he  desired  not  to  be  buried  in  Egypt, 
but  begged  that  his  body  might,  after  the  ancient  Egyptian  man- 
ner, remain  uninterred,  while  they  continued  there,  and  be  car- 
ried with  the  people  at  their  general  return  into  the  promised 
land,  and  laid  in  the  sepulchre  of  his  fathers.  Such  was  his  anx- 
iety on  these  points,  that  he  made  his  brethren  swear  that  they 
would  carefully  attend  to  them ;  and  accordingly  we  find,  that 
when  he  died,  they  did  not  bury  him,  but,  as  was  not  unusual  among 
the  Egyptians,  let  him  remain  embalmed  in  his  coffin,  until  their 
descendants,  at  their  departure  for  Palestine,  carried  his  remains 


3G6  $  297.   RIGHT  OF  THE  ISRAELITES 

along  with  thern,  Gen.  50:  24 — 36.  Exod.  13:  19.  Could  a  people 
have  given  a  stronger  proof  of  their  animus  revertendi,  and  that 
they  had  not  forever  abandoned  their  ancient  country  ?  Was  it 
necessary  (I  think  not)  that  they  should  have  sent  a  notary  every 
thirty-three  years,  to  protest  against  the  forfeiture  of  their  rights? 
Even  the  Egyptians  well  knew  the  expectations  of  the  Israelites 
on  this  head  ;  and  that  was  the  principal  reason  of  their  oppres- 
sions towards  a  people  that  were  not  to  remain  forever  within 
their  country,  and  in  subjection  to  them.  For  although  from  the 
first  they  did  not  intend  to  let  them  go,  yet  they  were  afraid, 
from  the  rapid  increase  of  their  numbers,  that  if  a  war  took  place, 
they  might  side  with  the  enemy,  and  not  perhaps  conquer  the 
country,  but  depart  from  it;*  or,  as  the  proper  expression  is,  go 
up  :  for  we  must  recollect,  that  to  go  from  Egypt  to  Palestine, 
was,  in  the  idiom  of  the  Hebrews,  to  ascend;  and  vice  versa,  from 
Palestine  to  Egypt,  was  to  descend.  From  the  representation  we 
have  now  given  of  the  origin  of  the  war,  it  will  be  easy  to  per- 
ceive (what  to  a  reader  of  the  Mosaic  history  must  otherwise  ap- 
pear at  first  very  strange)  why  Moses  did  not  attack  the  Canaan- 
ites  beyond  Jordan  ;  but  from  Og,  king  of  Bashan,  and  Sihon, 
king  of  the  Amorites,  requested  nothing  more  than  an  unmolested 
passage,  and  only  had  recourse  to  arms  when,  instead  of  granting 
it,  they  marched  hastily  into  the  wilderness  to  meet  him,  and  of- 
fered him  battle.  The  reason  was  manifestly  this,  that  the  Is- 
raelites laid  no  claim  to  the  country  beyond  Jordan,  but  only  to  the 
pasture-grounds  that  from  time  immemorial  had  belonged  to  the 
Hebrew  herdsmen,  and  which  their  ancestors,  Abraham,  Isaac,  and 
Jacob,  had  actually  occupied  with  their  cattle. 

"  But  might  they  not  at  least  have  left  to  the  Canaanites  those 
trading  cities  which  had  been  built,  without  opposition  from  their 
ancestors  ?"  This  question  is  easily  answered.  If  a  foreign  peo- 
ple, whom  we  permit  to  establish  factories  and  trading  cities  in 
our  land,  shall  so  abuse  our  generosity,  as  to  dispossess  us,  and 
gradually  appropriate  to  themselves  our  whole  country  ;  and  when 
we  wish  to  return  to  our  ancient  abode,  shall  meet  us  with  arms 
in  their  hands,  in  order  to  prevent  it;  and  shall,  finally,  have  be- 
come so  extremely  wicked,  as  to  render  it  impossible  for  us  to 
live  with  them,  without  having  our  morals  corrupted — we  certain- 
ly are  under  no  obligation  to  leave  to  them  these  factories  and 
*  See  Exodus  1:  9,  10. 


TO  PALESTINE.  3G7 

trading  cities,  and  thereby  expose  ourselves  anew  to  the  risk  of 
such  corruption. 

"  1  But  were  not  the  Israelites  in  duty  bound  first  to  send  the 
heralds,  and  formally  demand  their  lands  again  from  the  Canaan- 
ites  V  This  question  I  must  leave  completely  unanswered,  partly 
because  it  belongs  to  the  yet  controverted  point  whether  certain 
solemnities  are  or  are  not  necessary  at  the  commencement  of  a  war, 
by  way  of  declaration,  and  particularly,  because  we  do  not  know 
whether  Moses  and  Joshua  did  so  or  not. 

"  By  way  of  conclusion,  I  must  still  take  notice  of  hco  objec- 
tions, which  Mr.  Oepke  has  made  to  my  opinion,  and  on  which  I 
have  not  yet  touched.  But  because  they  are  of  more  weight  than 
those  before  noticed,  I  ought,  perhaps,  rather  to  ascribe  them  to 
Professor  Stiebritz  himself. 

"In  the  first  place,  he  is  of  opinion,  '  that  the  Israelites 
ought  not  to  have  re-appropriated  a  land  possessed  by  wandering 
herdsmen,  unless  all  the  posterity  of  such  herdsmen  had  transfer- 
red their  rights  to  them.'  But  let  it  be  remembered,  that  the 
question  here  is  not  concerning  wandering  herdsmen  quite  uncon- 
nected with  each  other,  but  only  concerning  those  of  Hebrew 
origin,  and  of  these,  more  particularly,  the  ancestors  of  Abraham, 
Isaac,  and  Jacob  :  and  I  do  not  see  wherefore  such  a  transfer 
could  have  been  necessary,  since  we  must  here  judge  not  by  civ- 
il, but  by  natural  law  only.  If  several  persons  have  an  equal  ti- 
tle to  a  certain  possession,  and  some  of  them,  either  from  weak- 
ness or  cowardice,  do  not  make  it  good,  and  relinquish  it ;  anoth- 
er, who  has  the  courage  to  act  otherwise,  does  not  from  their  pu- 
silanimity  lose  a  particle  of  his  right :  and  if  he  conquers  the  land 
which  they  have  abandoned,  he  holds,  first,  his  own  quota,  by  the 
right  of  former  proprietorship  ;  and  then,  the  remaining  part,  by 
the  right  of  conquest ;  which  in  the  case  of  a  legitimate  war,  is 
equally  legitimate.  The  other  claimants  who  did  not  support  him, 
and  had  relinquished  their  rights,  can  make  no  pretensions  to  the 
fruit  of  his  victories  ;  and  the  unlawful  possessors,  who  had  carried 
on  an  unjust  war,  have  it  to  thank  for  subjecting  them  to  greater 
loss  than  they  would  probably  have  experienced,  if  they  had  yielded 
with  a  good  grace. 

"  In  the  second  place,  he  objects,  '  that  I  ascribe  the  war  to  a 
cause,  to  which  Moses  himself  has  not  referred  it ;  and  that,  as 


368 


§297.   RIGHT  OF  THE  ISRAELITES 


any  people  that  begin  a  war,  are  anxious  to  convince  the  world  of 
the  justice  of  their  cause,  a  reason  never  once  urged  by  Moses, 
can  hardly  be  held  as  the  true  ground  of  the  war.'  But  here,  I 
may  very  confidently  reply,  that  Moses  only  gives  laws  for  the 
war  against  the  Canaanites,  without  any  where  mentioning  the  le- 
gal cause  of  the  war:  for  Mr.  O.  himself  does  not  account  the  di- 
vine commandment  and  promise,  as  its  cause.  Moses  writes 
histories,  and  records  laws ;  but  the  war-manifesto  against  the 
Canaanites,  from  whence  we  might  deduce  its  justice,  has  not 
been  furnished  us  by  him.  And  as  he  mentions  no  reasons  for 
the  war,  we  are  not  entitled  from  his  silence  to  form  conclusions 
against  any  particular  cause  to  which  it  may  be  ascribed.  And  of 
all  causes,  that  to  which  I  ascribe  it,  has  the  best  foundation  in  the 
history  recorded  by  Moses,  through  which  history  he  generally 
paves  the  way  for  his  laws. 

"  I  must  yet  add,  that  this  farther  objection  has  been  made  to 
my  opinion,  '  that  a  wandering  people  could  hardly  be  consider- 
ed as  proprietors  of  a  country,  in  which  no  individual  could  speci- 
fy any  particular  ground  as  his  own,  from  his  always  shifting  his 
abode  from  one  place  to  another.'  I  had  not,  indeed,  considered 
it  necessary  to  notice  this  objection,  because  the  fact  that  a  com- 
munity may  possess  undivided  property,  is  so  very  notorious  ;  but  as 
a  learned  person,  who,  in  his  writings,  often  refers  to  my  Mosaic 
law,  has  lately  repeated  it,  it  becomes  my  duty  to  explain  myself 
more  fully  on  this  point ;  and  my  answer  is  this  : 

"  A  community  and  even  a  whole  nation  may  possess  property 
undivided,  and  in  common.  What,  indeed,  is  more  frequent 
among  ourselves,  than  such  common  properties?  Many  a  village 
has  a  common  wood  ;  of  which,  not  a  tree,  nor  an  inch  of  the 
ground,  belongs  to  any  individual  villager,  and  yet  the  whole  is 
their  joint  property  ;  and  whoever,  without  full  right  and  leave, 
carries  off  wood,  or  even  fells  a  tree,  is  guilty  of  theft.  Or  again  ; 
a  village  or  a  town  has  a  common  meadow,  which  can  never  be 
conveniently  portioned  out  into  individual  properties ;  at  least  no 
part  of  it  belongs  to  any  private  person  exclusively  ;  and  yet  the 
whole,  to  the  community  at  large.  Did  those  to  whom  property 
in  common  appears  such  a  strange  matter,  never  hear,  that  in 
Germany  there  are  many  such  commonages,  which  our  modern 
improvers  would  fain  abolish  and  reclaim,  if  they  durst ;  where 


TO  PALESTINE. 


369 


green  pasture  land,  for  instance,  which  might  be  used  to  much  bet- 
ter purpose  under  tillage  belongs  merely  as  a  common  to  one  or 
more  villages.  The  disadvantage  of  the  present  system,  is  uni- 
versally understood  ;  and  the  allotment  of  such  lands  to  par- 
ticular tenants  is  much  to  be  desired  :  but  then  the  cry  is,  that 
communities  are  not  to  be  deprived  of  their  ancient  rights.  Even 
the  corn  fields  are  in  the  same  situation,  in  so  far  as  they  may  not 
be  fenced,  and  must  lie  fallow  at  certain  times,  and  after  harvest 
be  subjected  to  the  servitude  of  having  the  herds  driven  to  pasture 
upon  them,  from  perhaps  a  community  of  many  villages,  where  even 
those  who  have  not  a  foot  of  ground  of  their  own,  can  assert  a 
right  to  this  privilege,  from  the  mere  circumstance  of  occupying  a 
house.  This  too  is  justly  considered  as  extremely  prejudicial  to 
the  public  good,  not  merely  by  individual  economists,  but,  in  some 
countries,  even  by  the  legislative  authorities,  and  the  wish  to  alter 
it  is  very  general ;  but  it  cannot  be  done,  for,  it  is  said  as  before, 
No  man  is  to  be  deprived  of  his  right. 

"  But  even  a  whole  nation  may,  in  like  manner,  have  a  common 
undivided  property.  Thus  whole  nations,  by  particular  treaties, 
enjoy  the  right  of  certain  fisheries,  such  as  that  of  Newfoundland, 
without  this  property  being  actually  divided,  or  even  possibly  di- 
visible among  individual  fishermen.  Thus  also  the  Indians  in 
North  America,  possess  their  immense  forests  undivided,  as  wan- 
dering hunters ;  and  have  justly  made  great  complaints,  when  at 
any  time  the  English  or  French  colonists  have  attempted  to  clear 
and  cultivate  those  forests,  without  previously  purchasing  them, 
which  is  generally  done  for  a  mere  trifle.  I  remember  to  have 
read  a  great  many  years  ago,  in  an  English  journal,  (either  the 
London  or  Gentleman's  Magazine,)  the  speech  of  an  Indian  chief, 
which  he  made  in  a  congress  of  the  Indians  with  the  English,  and 
in  which  he  represented  the  injustice  of  this,  in  a  very  rational  and 
affecting  manner ;  observing,  that  those  forests  which  the  Great 
Spirit  had  of  old  given  to  the  Indians,  and  in  which  they  had  al- 
ways lived,  were  now  by  some  of  the  English  daily  more  and  more 
circumscribed,  so  that  in  the  end  they  would  have  no  dwelling 
place  left  them.  I  cannot  recollect  the  particular  place  where  I 
found  that  speech ;  but  allowing  it  had  been  entirely  fictitious, 
(which  it  by  no  means  seemed  to  be,  as  it  bore  all  the  marks  of 
truth,)  it  is  very  certain  that  the  English  governments  in  America 

47 


370  §  298.   ON  THE  DIVISION  OF  THE  SPOILS. 

do  recognize  the  rights  of  the  Indians.  Indeed,  the  first  colonists, 
who,  for  conscience-sake  and  religion,  emigrated  from  England, 
took  no  land  without  leave  of  the  Indians,  and  if  afterwards,  peo- 
ple less  conscientious,  such  as  transported  criminals,  whom  the 
Americans  will  now  no  longer  receive,  were  sent  out,  and,  taking 
forcible  possession  of  the  woods,  began  to  clear  and  improve  them, 
(which  actually  gave  rise  to  wars,)  this  was  absolutely  forbidden  by 
the  British  government ;  and  those  settlers,  who  wished  to  pene- 
trate into  the  woods  and  form  plantations,  were,  and  are  obliged 
either  to  purchase  the  ground  from  the  Indians,  or  come  to  terms 
with  them  in  some  other  way. 

"  By  the  same  common  right,  have  many  great  people  always 
possessed  their  lands,  and  still  possess  them  ;  as  for  instance,  the 
present  Mongul  tribes,  who  live  by  breeding  horses.  Their  soil 
is  extremely  rich,  and  susceptible  of  the  highest  cultivation :  the 
grass  grows  to  an  uncommon  height  in  the  fields  ;  but  the  whole 
country  belongs  to  the  people  at  large  as  a  common  pasturage  : 
and  against  strangers  who  should  attempt  to  seize  or  pasture  it, 
or  circumscribe  it  by  cultivation,  they  would  unite  to  defend  their 
right  to  it  with  all  their  might ;  just  as  our  Teutonic  ancestors 
defended  their  forests  as  public  property,  against  the  Romans.  I 
should,  therefore,  think,  that  until  a  new  code  of  natural  and  civil 
law  shall  be  devised,  and  as  long  as  we  must,  on  account  of  com- 
mon possessions,  abide  by  the  old,  objections  like  the 'present  can 
have  no  force."    Commentaries  on  the  Laws  of  Moses ,  Art.  31.] 

§  298.  On  the  Division  of  the  Spoils. 

The  spoils  of  the  enemy's  army,  bbtt) ,  13,  were  divided  among 
the  victorious  soldiers.  They  were  the  reward  of  the  toils,  which 
they  had  endured,  and  were,  consequently,  the  cause,  wherever 
they  were  won,  of  the  most  marked  indications  of  joy,  Gen.  49: 
27.  Exod.  15:  9.  Judg.  5:  30.  Is.  9:  2,  3.  Ezek.  29:  18—20.  Ps. 
119:  162.  There  seems  to  have  been  a  propriety  in  making  such 
a  division  of  the  property  taken,  for  the  soldiers  anciently,  with 
the  exception  of  the  officers,  and  the  life-guard  of  the  commander, 
did  not  receive  wages.  They  either  paid  their  own  expenses 
themselves,  or  were  supported  by  their  parents,  Judg.  20:  10.  2 
Sam.  17:  17 — 20.    The  Hebrew  kings,  however,  in  a  subsequent 


§  298.   ON  THE  DIVISION  OF  THE  SPOILS. 


371 


age  laid  up  provisions  for  the  use  of  the  soldiers  against  a  time  of 
war,  in  the  cities  called  store-cities  ntoptt         2  Chron.  17:  12. 

32:  28. 

Hired  soldiers,  (probably  in  imitation  of  the  Phenicians,  Ezek. 
27:  11,)  are  mentioned  in  2  Sam.  10:  6.  and  also  in  2  Chron.  25: 
6 — 9 ;  but  such  participated  in  the  spoils,  as  well  as  others,  for 
the  money  paid  appears  not  to  have  been  paid  to  the  soldiers  them- 
selves, but  to  the  king  or  prince,  of  whom  they  were  hired. 

The  soldiers  under  the  Persian  monarchy  received  a  regular 
stipend,  but  they  had  a  portion  also  in  the  spoils,  which  was  an  ad- 
ditional reward. 

The  Maccabees,  in  imitation  of  the  Greeks,  allowed  wages  to 
their  soldiers,  1  Mace.  14:  32.  Hence,  it  is  not  at  all  surprising, 
that  we  find  the  wages  of  a  soldier  frequently  mentioned  in  the  New 
Testament,  and  sometimes  tropically,  Luke  3:  14.  Rom.  6:  23.  1 
Cor.  9:  7.  2  Cor.  11:8.  2  Tim.  2:  4. 

The  spoils  consisted  not  only  of  property  in  goods,  but  of  men, 
women,  and  children ;  all  of  whom,  if  they  had  been  the  inhabi- 
tants of  cities,  that  were  taken  by  assault,  were  sold  into  slavery, 
Gen.  14:  11,  12.  The  Hebrew  soldiers  were  at  liberty,  (Num. 
31:  48 — 54.)  to  appropriate  to  themselves  whatever  spoils  they 
might  win,  with  the  exception  of  flocks  and  men.  Articles  of 
great  value  were  sometimes  claimed  by  the  leader  of  the  expedi- 
tion, Judg.  8:  24,  25  ;  a  practice,  which  David  himself  imitated,  and 
by  means  of  which,  he  was  enabled  to  collect  the  treasures,  which 
were  subsequently  employed  in  the  erection  of  the  temple,  2  Sam. 
8:  11,  12.  12:  30.  2  Chron.  28:  14—19.  When  the  spoil  was  di- 
vided, the  flocks  and  the  captives  were  assembled  together,  and 
when  they  had  been  numbered,  were  divided  into  two  parts,  one 
of  which  was  given  to  the  soldiers,  who  had  remained  at  home, 
and  who  were  obliged  to  give  the  fiftieth  part  of  it  to  the  Levites  ; 
the  other  half  was  given  to  the  soldiers,  who  had  been  actually  en- 
gaged, and  who  on  their  part,  were  obliged  to  give  only  the  five  hun- 
dredth part  to  the  priests.  Compare  Gen.  14:  20.  The  division  of 
the  property  taken  among  the  soldiers  was  equal,  whether  they  had 
been  in  battle,  or  merely  guarded  the  encampment,  and  baggage,  1 
Sam.  30:  20 — 25.  In  order  to  render  the  distribution  equal,  the 
flocks,  cattle,  and  prisoners  appear  to  have  been  publicly  sold,  and 
a  distribution  made  of  the  money. 


372         §  299.  spoils  taken  from  the  Egyptians. 

In  case,  however,  the  city  was  so  unfortunate,  as  to  be  subjec- 
ted to  the  tn.n  or  the  curse,  the  soldiers  were  not  at  liberty  to  take 
possession  of  the  spoils,  which  it  offered,  and  every  thing,  generally 
speaking,  was  destroyed,  Deut.  2:  34.  3:  7.  Num.  31:  9.  Lev.  27: 
28.  Josh.  6:  24— 26.  8:26—28.  10:28—30.  11:11. 

§  299.  Respecting  the  Spoils,  which  the  Hebrews  took  away 
from  the  Egyptians. 

It  was  a  principle  among  nations  anciently,  that  a  people,  after 
the  commencement  of  a  war,  could  fairly  make  plunder  of  the  prop- 
erty, which  had  been  deposited  or  left  among  them  in  any  way  what- 
ever, previously  to  the  war's  breaking  out.  In  accordance  with  this 
right,  the  precious  vases  and  garments,  &c.  which  were  borrowed 
by  the  Hebrews  from  the  Egyptians,  as  mentioned  in  Exod.  3:  22. 
11:2.  became,  when  Pharaoh  commenced  war  upon  them  by  pursu- 
ing with  his  army,  legal  spoil. 

An  objection  to  this  view  of  the  subject  arises  from  the  fact, 
that  God  himself  commanded  the  Hebrews  through  Moses,  to  bor- 
row the  articles,  and  that  the  Egyptians  evidently  lent  them  with 
the  expectation  of  their  being  returned,  and  would  not  otherwise 
have  done  it.  But  it  is  nevertheless,  the  fact  likewise,  that  the  He- 
brews had  as  much  expectation  of  returning  said  articles,  as  the 
Egyptians  had,  that  they  would;  for  it  is  altogether  out  of  the  ques- 
tion to  suppose,  that  they  had  any  knowledge  of  the  communica- 
tions, which,  in  Exod.  3:  22.  passed  between  God  and  Moses  on 
the  subject.  The  transaction  was  clearly  an  event  in  divine  Prov- 
idence, for  the  propriety  of  which  infinite  wisdom  is  a  sufficient 
guaranty,  which  was  designed  to  place  those  articles  in  the  hands 
of  the  Hebrews,  as  a  compensation,  (and  certainly  not  too  large  a 
one,)  for  the  houses,  which  they  left.  Supposing  it  then,  to  be  the 
case,  that  they  were  borrowed  with  the  expectation  of  being  return- 
ed, no  blame  certainly  can  be  attached  to  the  Hebrews  for  the  de- 
tention of  them,  since  they  were  driven  away  by  such  a  decided  and 
sudden  act  of  hostility,  that  it  was  not  in  their  power  to  do  other- 
wise. 

The  word  literally  to  plunder  or  rob,  which  in  Exod.  3:  22. 
is  used  in  reference  to  this  subject,  appears  to  be  employed  tropical- 
It/,  and  out  of  its  usual  signification. 


§  300.   OF  CESSATIONS  FROM  ARMS. 


373 


Note.  [The  above  section  is  rather  unskilfully  abridged  in 
the  original,  so  much  so,  that  it  would  be  difficult  for  a  person,  from 
a  literal  translation  of  it,  as  it  there  stands,  to  obtain  any  thing 
like  an  adequate  idea  of  our  author's  opinions  on  the  subject  in 
question.  Something,  therefore,  has  been  added  to  it,  from  the 
original  German,  and  from  Michaelis,  who  is  there  referred  to  by 
Dr.  Jahn,  as  his  authority  on  this  subject.  For  a  full  and  ingenious 
discussion  of  it,  the  reader  would  do  well  to  consult  Smith's  trans- 
lation of  the  Commentaries  on  the  Laws  of  Moses,  Vol.  III. 
Art.  179.] 

§  300.  Periods,  when  there  was  a  Cessation  from  Hostilities. 

It  was  anciently  the  practice  among  the  Arabs,  who,  it  may 
be  observed,  inherited  a  near  relationship  to  the  Hebrews,  to  con- 
sider four  months  of  the  year  sacred ;  during  which  they  made  it 
a  point  of  duty  to  abstain  from  the  exercise  of  arms.  A  practice 
of  a  similar  nature  appears  to  have  prevailed  among  the  Moabites, 
AmmoniteSj  and  Edomites,  and  likewise  among  other  nations. 

Perhaps  this  practice  will  enable  us  to  explain,  how  it  happen- 
ed, that  the  Hebrew  territories  remained  free  from  invasions, 
while  all  the  adult  males  three  times  every  year  went  to  the  ta- 
bernacle or  the  temple,  without  leaving  in  their  cities  and  villages 
any  guard  to  protect  them  from  foreign  incursions,  and  that  there 
appears  in  no  instances  to  have  been  any  hostile  attack  made  upon 
them  at  such  times.  It  is  true,  that  we  find  in  Exod.  34:  24.  that 
security  from  hostile  invasions  was  promised  to  the  Hebrews,  when 
they  had  occasion,  on  the  return  of  their  solemn  festivals,  to  appear 
in  the  presence  of  the  Lord  ;  but  it  is,  nevertheless,  clear,  that  a 
promise  of  this  kind  could  not  have  been  fulfilled  to  a  people,  who 
thus  lived  in  the  heart  of  unfriendly  nations,  except  by  the  interven- 
tion of  constant  miracles ;  unless  there  had  been  a  practice  of  the 
kind  here  mentioned,  which  caused  among  them  during  certain  pe- 
riods a  suspension  of  the  arts  of  war. 

The  same  remark  might  have  been  made  in  respect  to  the  sab- 
bath,  if  it  had  been  the  fact,  that  the  ancient  Hebrews  reckoned 
the  use  of  arms,  among  those  labours,  which  were  interdicted  on 
that  day ;    but  their  extreme   scrupulosity  in   this  respect,  and 


374 


§  300.   OF  CESSATION  FROM  ARMS. 


their  determination  to  adhere  to  the  letter  of  the  law  do  not  ap- 
pear to  have  existed,  till  after  the  Captivity.  Indeed  even  at 
this  period  they  soon  had  occasion  to  perceive,  that  to  defend 
themselves  against  the  insults  of  their  enemies  might  be  justly 
done,  even  on  the  sabbath,  1  Mace.  2:  39 — 42  ;  but  the  restrictions, 
notwithstanding  this,  which  they  continued  to  impose  upon  them- 
selves, occasioned  inconveniences,  of  which  we  have  no  examples 
in  the  earlier  periods  of  their  history. 


PART  THIRD. 

ON 

SMXBXID  M«flfili» 


377 


CHAPTER  I. 


HISTORICAL  VIEW  OF  THE  RELIGION  OF 
THE  BIBLE. 


Our  first  parents,  who  were  infants  in  point  of  knowledge,  al- 
though they  were  introduced  into  the  world,  without  being  such 
in  respect  to  form,  were  instructed  by  God  himself.  They  were 
taught  in  the  knowledge  of  the  creator  and  governour  of  all  things, 
and  were  likewise  subjected  to  a  course  of  moral  discipline  by 
the  interdiction,  which  was  made  in  respect  to  the  tree  of  good 
and  evil.  The  object  of  this  interdiction  was  to  introduce  the  hu- 
man mind  to  an  acquaintance  with  what  was  right,  and  what  was 
wrong,  what  was  good,  and  what  evil.  Hence  the  name  of  the 
tree,  snT  ait3  IW,  viz.  of  good  and  evil,  i.  e.  according  to  the 
spirit  of  the  Hebrew  idiom,  of  moral  distinctions,  Gen.  2:  8 — 20. 
Is.  7:  15.  Hence  two  points  were  established  in  the  religion  of 
our  first  parents,  the  one,  that  God  is  supreme,  and  that  all  things 
arose  from,  and  are  dependent  upon  him ;  the  other,  that  some 
things  are  right,  and  others  wrong,  and  that  those  things  are  to  be 
done,  which  are  agreeable  to  God,  and  those  things  to  be  avoided 
which  are  displeasing  to  him. 

The  punishment,  which  followed  the  eating  of  the  interdicted 
fruit,  remained  a  perpetual  monitor,  that  misery  is  the  conse- 
quence of  the  commission  of  those  things,  which  are  not  accepta- 
ble in  the  divine  sight,  and  that  such  things,  consequently,  are  not 
to  be  done.  Comp.  Gen.  5:  29.  The  example  of  Cain  also,  who 
slew  his  brother,  his  banishment  and  his  misery,  were  a  standing 
testimony  in  the  eyes  of  the  whole  world,  that  wickedness  is  hate- 
ful to  God,  and  ought  to  be  and  will  be  punished.    In  the  progress 


§  301.  Religion  down  to  the  Deluge. 


48 


378  §  302.   FROM  THE  DELUGE  TO  ABRAHAM. 


of  time,  when  many  crimes  received  no  visible  punishment,  the 
divine  commands  became  neglected,  the  powerful  oppressed  the 
weak  and  the  poor,  and  there  was  a  general  prevalence  of  levity 
and  sensuality.  The  earth  was  filled  with  violence  and  slaughter. 
About  the  year  235  after  the  creation,  wickedness  was  carried 
to  such  an  extent,  that  the  religious  thought  it  necessary  to  attach 
to  themselves,  the  title  of  sons  or  worshippers  of  God,  in  contradis- 
tinction from  the  sons  of  men,  or  those,  who  had  forgotten  God, 
and  were  hurried  by  the  impulse  of  corrupt  passions  to  every  sort 
of  wickedness.  The  prevalent  evils  were  increased  from  the  circum- 
stance, that  the  sons  or  worshippers  of  God,  married  the  daugh- 
ters of  men,  or  the  irreligious.  Wives  of  this  description  neglected 
the  right  instruction  of  their  children,  and,  as  this  devolved  on 
them,  rather  than  on  the  fathers,  the  offspring  followed  the  for- 
mer, rather  than  the  latter,  Gen.  4:  26.  6:  1.  In  this  way  corrup- 
tion increased  and  prevailed  to  such  a  degree,  that  the  warnings 
of  God,  which  were  uttered  by  the  spirit  of  prophecy,  were  without 
any  avail,  Gen.  6:  3.  The  Deluge  followed,  in  consequence  of  this 
state  of  things. 

§  302.  From  the  Deluge  to  Abraham. 

This  terrible  destruction  of  every  living  thing  was  predicted 
120  years  before  its  consummation,  Gen.  6:  3.  So  that  the  fami- 
ly of  Noah  might  know,  that  it  was^  sent  from  God,  and  that  the 
object  of  it  was,  to  leave  by  such  a  signal  event,  a  long  to  be  re- 
membered impression,  that  God  is  the  governour  of  all  things,  to 
whom  the  vices  of  men  are  abhorrent,  and  that,  however  long  suf- 
fering, he  will  at  length  punish  the  wicked.  A  command  was 
given  by  God,  after  the  Deluge,  that  every  homicide  should  be  pun- 
ished with  death,  and  a  promise  also,  that  the  deluge  should  no  more 
return.  He  made  the  rainbow  a  visible  sign  of  his  promise,  and  a 
confirmation  of  it. 

The  posterity  of  Noah  laid  up  in  their  minds  the  principles 
and  instructions,  which  have  been  mentioned  ;  and  when  they  af- 
terwards attempted  to  build  a  tower,  and  were  baffled  and  scatter- 
ed from  each  other,  they  easily  gathered  from  the  event,  that  the 
proceeding  was  displeasing  to  God.  They  appear  to  have  re- 
proved Nimrod  for  making  a  similar  attempt,  and,  in  allusion  to 


§  303.   ABRAHAM,   ISAAC,  AND  JACOB. 


379 


his  conduct,  called  him,  *i'm\J22  ,  or  the  rebel,  and  made  his  memory  a 
proverb,  saying,  "  Even  as  Nimrod,  the  exceedingly  mighty  hunter." 

At  a  later  period  still,  men,  being  still  uncultivated,  unable  to 
direct  themselves,  and  governed  by  the  promptings  of  imagina- 
tion, attributed  a  superiour  and  sublimer  energy  to  various  objects, 
and  began  to  expect  assistance  from  them.  Thus  rocks,  trees,  an- 
imals, winds,  rivers,  the  sun,  moon,  stars,  dead  men,  etc.  were  con- 
verted into  divinities.  Then  came  sculptured  images,  altars,  and 
temples.  At  first  they  worshipped  God,  as  the  ruler  of  all  things, 
at  the  same  time,  that  they  worshipped  idols  ;  but  soon  God  was 
forgotten,  and  they  adored  the  latter  alone.  These  false  divinities 
demanded  no  morality  in  their  conduct,  and  both  principles  and 
conduct  grew  worse  and  worse.  The  greatest  crimes  were  com- 
mitted, as  if  of  little  moment,  and  were  even  made  a  part  of  the 
worship  of  their  gods. 

§  303.  Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob. 

The  corruption,  which  has  been  described  in  the  preceding 
section,  continued  to  spread  itself  wider  and  wider,  till  God  gave 
a  peculiar  calling  to  Abraham,  whose  ancestors  had  from  the  be- 
ginning sustained  during  a  long  period  a  character  for  moral  in- 
tegrity and  religion,  Gen.  5:  1 — 32.  11:  10 — 32  ;  but  had  at  length 
become  idolatrous,  Josh.  24:  3. 

It  was  designed  in  the  Providence  of  God,  that  Abraham,  the 
Chaldean,  and  his  posterity  should  preserve  and  transmit  his  relig- 
ion, till  that  period,  when  it  should  be  communicated  to  other  na- 
tions. In  order  to  secure  these  objects,  God  promised  to  Abra- 
ham, who  was  a  descendant  from  Shem  of  the  tenth  generation, 
his  protection,  an  ample  progeny,  possession  of  the  land  of  Canaan  ; 
and  that  all  nations  should  at  last  be  blessed  through  his  seed, 
i.  e.  should  receive  the  true  religion,  Gen.  12:  13.  18:  18.  22:  18. 
He  coupled  these  promises  with  the  names  of  Abraham  and  Sa- 
rah, which  were  altered  with  a  reference  to  them,  and  connected, 
with  the  rite  of  circumcision,  the  obligation  to  protect  religion, 
Gen.  18:  19  ;  so  that  the  names  and  the  rite  might  be  perpetual  tes- 
timonies both  of  the  promises  in  its  favour,  and  the  obligations  to 
defend  it. 

God  afterwards  repeated  the  same  promises  to  Isaac  and  Jacobs 


380 


§  304.   RELIGION  OF  THE  PATRIARCHS. 


Gen.  26:  4.  28:  14.  who  faithfully  performed  their  various  duties, 
taught  the  true  worship  of  God  to  their  domestics,  and  left  it  to  their 
posterity,  Gen.  28 :  20— 22.  35:2—7.  9—13.  39:9.  50:17 
—20. 

These  promises  to  Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob,  and  the  fulfil- 
ment of  the  corresponding  duties  on  their  part,  form  the  promi- 
nent and  fundamental  principle,  the  hinge,  as  it  were,  of  the  an- 
cient covenant  ;  and  to  them,  accordingly,  every  thing,  which 
follows  after,  is  to  be  referred,  and  with  them  also  the  new  cove- 
nant itself  is  very  intimately  connected. 

§  304.  Respecting  the  Religion  of  the  Patriarchs. 

It  appears  from  what  has  been  hitherto  stated,  that  the  knowl- 
edge of  the  one  true  God,  which  is  coeval  with  the  existence  of  the 
human  race,  was  originally  communicated  by  revelation.  The  pa- 
triarchs themselves  knew  God  to  be  the  creator,  governour,  and 
judge  of  the  whole  earth,  not  by  reasoning  from  philosophical 
principles,  which  were  then  wholly  unknown ;  but  because  God 
had  revealed  himself,  as  such,  to  them.  The  ideas  of  men  in  re- 
spect to  God,  which  were  at  first  very  limited,  became  extended, 
in  the  progress  of  time,  by  events  both  ordinary  and  extraordina- 
ry. It  is  worthy  of  remark,  that  the  figure  anthropopathy  was 
very  prevalent  at  the  early  period,  of  which  we  are  speaking, 
and  that  men  used  the  same  language  in  respect  to  God,  which 
they  employed  when  speaking  of  one  another ;  but  there  was  truth, 
nevertheless,  hidden  under  the  garb  of  such  expressions,  Gen.  6:  6, 
7.  8:  21.  11:  5—7.  18:  10—21. 

The  worship  of  God  was  very  unconstrained,  such  as  was 
prompted  by  conscience  and  approved  by  reason,  and  consisted 
chiefly  in  tythes  and  vows  and  prayers,  in  the  erection  of  altars 
and  in  sacrifices,  Gen.  4:  3,  4.  8:  20.  12:  7,  8.  13:  4,  18.  14:  20. 
15:  18—20.  etc. 

With  respect  to  the  consecration  of  the  sabbath,  it  may  be  ob- 
served, there  is  no  trace  of  it,  any  further  than  this,  viz.  that  a  pe- 
riod of  seven  days  occurs  a  number  of  times,  Gen.  7:  4,  10.  8:  10, 
12  ;  likewise  the  word  yjarti ,  the  Hebrew  for  week,  Gen.  29:  27. 

It  may  be  inferred  from  these  circumstances,  that  the  seventh 
day  was  distinguished  in  some  way  or  other  from  other  days,  as  is 


§  305.   RESPECTING  MOSES. 


381 


represented  to  be  the  case  in  Gen.  2:  2.  Many  traces  of  mor- 
al discipline  occur,  Gen.  4:  6— 16.  6:3—8.  11:4—6.  13:8.  14: 
14 — 24.  18:  19.  We  must  not  suppose,  however,  that  nothing  more 
of  God,  and  of  moral  discipline,  was  known  by  these  pious  patriarchs, 
than  is  given  in  the  historical  fragments  of  Genesis.  For  those 
things  only  appear  to  have  been  selected  for  insertion,  which,  more 
than  any  others,  had  a  tendency  to  prepare  the  way  for  the  intro- 
duction of  the  Mosaic  dispensation. 

§  305.  Respecting  Moses. 

Very  many  of  the  Hebrews  were  addicted  to  the  worship  of 
the  Egyptian  gods,  at  the  time  that  Moses  was  sent  in  the  charac- 
ter of  a  divine  messenger,  to  break  the  chains  of  their  servitude, 
Exod.  3:  13.  To  rescue  the  Hebrews  from  their  bondage,  who 
were  destined  to  be  the  defenders  of  the  true  religion,  and  to 
bring  them  back  to  that  worship,  which  they  had  lost,  while  in 
Egypt,  gave  occasion  for  the  most  surprising  miracles  ;  miracles, 
which  not  only  compelled  Pharaoh  to  dismiss  the  Hebrews,  and 
brought  destruction  upon  his  army,  when  he  pursued  them  ;  but 
were  also  a  new  and  overwhelming  proof  to  the  Hebrews  them- 
selves, that  there  is  indeed  a  Go  d,  all  powerful  and  omniscient,  and 
that  Moses,  by  whom  these  wonderful  works  had  been  predicted 
and  performed,  was  in  truth  his  messenger,  Exod.  6:  7.  7:  5.  9: 
14—16,  29.  10:  2.  14:  4,  17—18,  31.  16:  12.  19:  4,  9.  Deut.  4: 
35,  39.  It  was  at  the  same  time  shown  by  the  miracles,  of  which 
we  are  speaking,  that  the  Egyptian  gods,  being  altogether  unable 
to  protect  their  votaries,  were  destitute  of  power,  and,  in  a  word, 
were  nothing,  Exod.  12:  12.  But  the  Hebrews,  after  all,  if  they 
had  not  afterwards,  when  in  Arabia,  been  confirmed  by  new  mira- 
cles in  the  belief  of  the  divine  omniscience  and  omnipotence, 
would  not  have  persevered  in  the  worship  of  the  true  God,  and 
would  not  have  consented  to  receive  those  ceremonies  and  Laws, 
without  which,  surrounded  as  they  were  by  nations,  who  regarded 
idolatry,  as  conformable  to  right  reason,  they  could  not  have  succeed- 
ed in  maintaining  their  religious  integrity.  This  is  clear  from  the 
fact,  that,  after  all  the  instructions  they  had  received,  and  after  all 
the  laws,  which  were  enacted,  they  went  so  often  back  to  various 
superstitions. 


382  §  306.  opinions  of  moses  in  respect 

Note.  Those,  who  attribute  the  miracles  of  Moses  to  leger- 
demain, and  undertake  to  rank  them  in  the  same  class  with  the 
tricks  of  jugglers,  also  those,  who  contend  that  the  accounts  of 
them  are  fabulous,  and  are  to  be  placed  on  the  same  footing  with 
the  wonders  of  profane  mythology,  can  neither  reconcile  the  ground, 
which  they  take,  with  the  departure  of  the  Hebrews  from  Egypt,  nor 
with  their  subsequent  history,  nor  with  the  origin  of  the  notion  of  a 
God,  as  it  appears  in  their  early  writings.  The  exodus,  the  subse- 
quent history,  and  their  ideas  in  respect  to  God,  all  bear  testimony, 
that  the  miracles  were  actually  performed.  Compare  the  large  Ger- 
man Edition  of  this  work,  P.  III.  §  12.  note  and  §  13. 

§  306.  On  the  question,  "  whether  Moses  taught  the  exis- 
tence of  a  merely  national  God  ?" 

That  the  God  of  Moses  was  something  more  than  the  tutelary 
or  national  God  of  the  Hebrews,  is  clear  from  so  many  passages 
of  scripture,  it  is  wonderful,  any  should  have  adopted  a  contrary 
opinion.  For  he  calls  him  by  the  name  Jehovah,  who  created 
heaven  and  earth,  Gen.  I.  Exod.  20:  8—12.  31:  17.  Deut.  4:  23, 
and  who  sent  the  deluge,  Gen.  6:  17.  He  is  addressed  by  Abra- 
ham and  Melchisedek  as  the  most  high,  the  Lord  of  heaven  and 
earth,  Gen.  14:  18—20.  17:  1.  18:  16—25.  He  is  acknowledged 
by  Joseph  to  be  the  all-wise  governour  of  the  universe.  Gen.  39:  9. 
15:  5,  8.  50:  20.  He  calls  himself  Jehovah,  who  is  always  the 
same,  Exod.  6:  3  ;  who  both  predicted,  and  performed  those  won- 
derful works  in  Egypt  and  Arabia,  which  proved  him  to  be  omni- 
scient and  omnipotent,  Deut.  4:  32 — 36.  10:  21.  Exod.  6:  7.  7:  5. 
10:  1,  2.  16:  12.  29:  46  ;  who  is  the  author  of  every  living  thing, 
Num.  16:  22.  27:  16;  who  is  invisible,  (for  the  descriptions,  which 
represent  him  as  appearing  at  times  in  a  bodily  form,  are  symbolic,) 
Exod.  33:  18—23.  Deut.  4:  12—20,  39  ;  who  is  the  Lord  of  heaven 
and  earth,  and  every  thing  in  them,  and  the  friend  of  strangers,  as 
well  as  of  the  Hebrews,  Deut.  10:  14 — 18.  Besides  him  there  is 
no  other  God,  Deut.  4:  39.  6:  4.  32:  39.  Moses  every  where  ex- 
hibits him,  as  the  omnipotent,  the  ruler  of  all  men,  who  cannot  be 
corrupted  by  gifts  and  sacrifices,  but  who  is  kind  and  merciful  to  the 
penitent.  He  teaches,  that  he  is  the  true  God,  who  is  worthy  of 
being  honoured  by  the  Hebrews,  not  only  because  He  alone  is 


TO  THE  CHARACTER  OF  GOD. 


383 


God,  but  because  he  had  promised  great  mercies  to  the  Patriarchs 
and  their  posterity,  and  had  already  bestowed  them  in  part ;  be- 
cause He  led  them  out  of  Egypt,  had  furnished  them  with  laws, 
would  soon  introduce  them  into  Canaan,  and  protect  them  through 
future  ages ;  finally,  because  they  had  chosen  God  for  their  king. 
The  whole  object  of  the  Mosaic  ritual  was  to  preserve  the  wor- 
ship of  God,  as  the  creator  and  governour  of  all,  till  the  time  when 
the  true  religion  should  be  made  known  to  the  rest  of  the  world, 
for  which  grand  end  it  had  been  originally  committed  to  Abra- 
ham and  his  posterity,  Gen.  17:  9 — 14.  18:  19. 

§  307.  On  the  question,  "  Whether  the  character  of  Jeho- 
vah, AS  REPRESENTED  BY  MoSES,  IS  MERELY  THAT  OF  A  BEING 
INEXORABLY  JuST 1" 

That  God  is  often  represented  by  Moses,  as  a  just  judge,  who 
punishes  with  no  little  severity  those,  who  are  wicked,  is  not  at 
all  to  be  wondered  at.  The  inconstant,  stiff-necked,  and  intracta- 
ble people,  whom  he  had  to  deal  with,  could  not  be  restrained 
from  vices,  nor  be  brought  in  subjection  to  the  laws,  without  hold- 
ing up  such  a  representation.  Such  a  representation  was  the  more 
necessary,  because  Jehovah  was  not  only  the  God,  but  in  a  strict 
sense  the  king  of  the  Jews  ;  on  whom  it  fell,  consequently,  (in  or- 
der to  render  due  protection  to  the  good,)  to  condemn  transgres- 
sors, and  to  make  them  objects  of  punishment.  Had  it  been  other- 
wise, had  he  not  defended  the  good  from  the  attacks  of  the  bad,  or 
had  pardon  been  given  to  the  guilty,  all  his  laws  would  have  been 
in  vain.  Still,  although  what  has  now  been  said  be  true,  the  state- 
ment, which  some  have  made,  viz.  that  Moses  has  made  God  an 
inexorable  Judge,  and  that  only,  is  utterly  false. 

The  original  promises  to  the  Patriarchs,  which  were  so  often 
repeated  to  their  descendants,  the  liberation  from  Egyptian  servi- 
tude, the  laws,  enacted  in  the  wilderness,  the  entrance,  that  was 
granted  to  the  Hebrews  into  the  land  of  Canaan,  are  deeds  of 
kindness,  which  prove  the  beneficence  of  God,  Deut.  7:  6 — 9.  8: 
2 — 20.  9:  4 — 8.  10:  1 — 11.  Hence  it  is  often  inculcated  upon  the 
Hebrews  to  exhibit  gratitude  towards  God;  and  the  fact  also,  that 
they  are  expressly  commanded  to  love  God,  is  at  least  an  implied  ad- 
mission of  his  kindness  and  beneficence,  Deut.  6:  4, 5.  11:  12,  15, 22. 


334  $  308.      REGULATIONS  TO  PRESERVE  RELIGION. 


Moses  calls  God  the  father  of  his  people,  the  merciful,  the  clement, 
the  benign,  the  faithful  Jehovah,  who  exhibits  through  a  thousand 
generations  the  love  of  a  parent  to  his  good  and  faithful  followers, 
who  forgives  iniquity  and  transgression,  but  to  whose  mercy,  never- 
theless, there  are  limits,  and  who  visits  the  sins  of  the  fathers  on  the 
posterity  to  the  third  and  fourth  generation,  Deut.  8:  5.  32:  6. 
Exod.  34:  6,  7.  Num.  14:  IS.  Deut.  7:  9,  10. 

The  infliction  of  punishments  even  to  the  fourth  generation, 
(i.  e.  by  means  of  public  calamities,  the  consequences  of  which 
would  be  experienced  even  by  posterity,)  a  principle,  which 
makes  its  appearance  even  in  the  fundamental  laws,  Exod.  20: 
5,  6.  has  given  offence  to  many,  who  are  either  unable  or  unwilling 
to  perceive,  that  the  prospect  of  misery  falling  on  their  posteri- 
ty, could  be  a  real  source  of  punishment  to  the  parents,  who,  it 
may  be  observed,  were  in  that  age,  particularly  solicitous  about  the 
well-being  of  their  descendants.  We  learn,  nevertheless,  from 
other  places  and  other  considerations,  that  the  punishments,  which 
were  due  to  the  fathers,  were  not  so  much  designed  to  be  inflicted 
in  truth  on  their  posterity,  as  to  remain  to  them  warnings,  that  if 
they  trod  in  their  fathers'  footsteps,  they  would  expose  themselves 
to  the  same  evil  and  fearful  consequences,  and  that,  when  they 
had  done  evil,  their  only  course  was  to  repent.  That  such  would 
be  the  case,  the  deep  and  serious  evils  of  the  Babylonish  Cap- 
tivity gave  them  so  clear  a  proof,  as  to  preclude  all  subsequent 
doubts  on  the  subjects  ;  they  repented  of  their  evil  ways,  and, 
as  Moses  himself  had  predicted,  became  at  length  the  constant 
worshippers  of  God,  Lev.  26:  20—25.  Deut.  4:  28—31.  30:  1—10. 


§  308.  Respecting  the  Regulations,  which  were  made  in  or- 
der to  preserve  the  true  Religion. 

That  the  Hebrews,  who,  while  in  Egypt,  had  to  a  great  extent 
worshipped  idols,  and  had  with  much  difficulty,  and  not  without 
the  aid  of  striking  miracles,  been  at  length  restored  to  the  true 
worship,  might  thereafter  remain  firm,  nor  be  easily  led  astray 
by  the  example  of  neighbouring  nations,  God  offered  himself 
to  them,  as  their  King.  (See  the  two  hundred  and  fourteenth 
section.)    As  such  he  was  accepted  ;  and  hence  it  happened,  that 


s 


§  308.   REGULATIONS  TO  PRESERVE  RELIGION.  385 


the  obedience,  which  they  rendered  him  as  king,  became  identified 
in  a  manner  with  the  reverence,  to  which  he  had  a  right,  as  God, 
and  that  while  they  yielded  the  former,  they  would  not  be  likely  to 
withhold  the  latter. 

This  theocratical  feature  in  the  form  of  the  commonwealth,  by 
means  of  which  the  people  were  so  often  reminded,  that  the  laws 
of  their  King  were  no  other  than  the  laws  of  God,  of  course  per- 
petually recalled  the  true  God  to  their  minds.  The  rigid  obser- 
vation also  of  the  sabbath,  of  the  feast  of  Pentecost  after  the  seven 
weeks  of  the  harvest,  of  the  seventh  or  sabbatic  year,  of  the  year 
of  Jubilee  after  seven  sabbatic  years,  were  all  of  them  symbolic  ac- 
knowledgments of  God,  as  the  creator  and  governour  of  all  things. 
The  Passover  likewise,  and  the  feast  of  tabernacles  vividly  recall- 
ed to  their  memory  the  fact,  that  the  creating  God  had  been  their 
deliverer  from  the  Egyptians,  and  their  guide  through  Arabia. 
And  when  on  the  feast  of  tabernacles  and  of  Pentecost,  they  were 
called  upon  to  render  thanks  for  the  fruits,  they  had  received,  they 
were  taught,  that  these  also  were  to  be  referred  to  the  creating 
power  and  the  goodness  of  God. 

That  their  minds  might  be  accustomed  to  the  fact  of  God's  in- 
visibility, that  they  might  have  no  disposition  to  attach  any  effica- 
cy to  idols,  and  that  all  temptation  to  believe  in  a  plurality  of  gods 
might  be  avoided,  and  images,  which  were  intended  as  a  bodily 
or  visible  representation  of  the  divine  Being,  were  absolutely  pro- 
hibited. The  erection  of  a  Tabernacle  alone  was  permitted;  and 
to  this  there  could  clearly  be  no  objection,  since  it  did  not  admit 
of  an  apotheosis.  But,  in  order  to  prevent  any  superstitious  rites 
from  introducing  themselves  into  this  sacred  place,  all  the  ceremo- 
nies were  prescribed  by  law.  It  was  commanded,  that  all  the  sa- 
crifices should  be  offered  on  one  altar ;  this,  with  the  reciprocal 
inspection,  that  was  exercised  over  each  other  by  Priests  and 
Levites,  would  have  an  influence  to  prevent  the  introduction  of 
any  practices,  which  might  have  a  tendency  to  pave  the  way  for 
idolatry.  It  was  sedulously  inculcated  on  parents,  that,  on  every 
occasion,  especially  at  the  return  of  the  national  festivals,  and 
when  performing  the  ceremonies  prescribed  by  the  Law,  they 
should  instruct  their  children,  both  in  the  religion,  and  the  history 
of  their  nation.  From  the  fear,  that  their  instructions  might, 
through  ignorance  or  from  a  failure  of  memory,  be,  in  some  re- 
49 


386  §  309.  MORAL  TENDENCY  OF  THE  INSTRUCTIONS 

spects,  erroneous,  provision  was  made,  that  the  booh  of  the  Law 
should  be  publicly  read  once  every  seven  years  in  the  Taberna- 
cle;  on  which  occasion,  not  only  parents  could  correct  the  errours, 
which  they  might  have  cherished,  but  the  children  also  could  de- 
termine, whether  the  instructions  they  had  received,  were  coinci- 
dent with  the  truth. 

To  sum  up  what  we  have  further  to  say  in  a  word  ;  we  observe 
that  the  names,  which  were  applied  to  the  supreme  Being,  viz.  Je- 
hovah, the  God  of  Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob  ;  that  their 
residence  in  the  land  of  Canaan,  that  one  sacred  tabernacle,  one 
high  priest,  one  family  of  priests,  one  tribe  of  Levites  ;  that  even 
the  tithes  and  sacrifices,  the  redemption  of  the  first  born,  the  sys- 
tem of  impurities  and  purifications,  and  other  things,  which  were 
prescribed  in  the  Law,  perpetually  admonished  the  Hebrews,  that 
God  was  the  sole  ruler  of  all  things,  even  that  God,  who  had 
brought  them  out  from  Egypt  into  the  land  of  their  present  resi* 
dence,  and  had  commanded  all  these  things  to  be  observed. 

Compare  particularly  Deut.  20:  1 — 11.  and  Exod.  10:  1,  2.  12: 
25—28.  13:  4—16. 

The  Hebrews  were  commanded,  moreover,  to  commit  to  memory 
the  song  recorded  in  the  32d  of  Deuteronomy,  that  it  might  be  a 
perpetual  monitor  of  their  duty,  and  in  case  they  failed  in  duty,  of 
the  consequences,  which  would  follow. 

§  309.   ON  THE  MORAL  TENDENCY  OF  THE  TNSTRCTIONS  AND  INSTI- 
TUTIONS of  Moses. 

When  we  remember  that  Moses  prefixed  to  those  instructions, 
and  Laws,  and  the  ritual,  of  which  he  may  be  considered  espe- 
cially the  author,  the  Book  of  Genesis,  which  is  so  abundant  in 
instances  of  moral  discipline,  we  shall  be  justified  in  expecting  to 
find,  that  what  has  been  termed  "  the  Mosaic  religion"  will  not  be 
deficient  in  respect  to  its  moral  tendency.  Our  expectations  are  by 
no  means  disappointed. 

We  are  every  where  taught  in  the  Laws  of  Moses,  that  God  is 
the  creator  and  governour  of  the  universe,  to  whom  all  men  owe 
obedience  and  gratitude.  We  find,  moreover,  that  he  in  particu- 
lar teaches  his  countrymen,  the  Hebrews,  that  they  were  bound 
to  devote  themselves  to  God  by  obligations,  which  were  multipli- 


AND  INSTITUTIONS  OF  MOSES. 


387 


ed  and  peculiar ;  since  they  had  received  from  him  such  distin- 
guished favours,  and  the  promise  of  others  at  a  future  period, 
Exod.  20:2.  Lev.  11:  45.  25:  38.  Deut.  4:  32—40.  5:  24—26.  6: 
12,  13,  20—25.  7:  6—11.  8:  J— 6,  10—18.  9:  4,5.  10:  12.  ih  1. 
26:  1 — 10.  32:  6.  They  are,  accordingly,  commanded  to  love 
God,  with  all  the  heart  and  mind  and  strength,  not  only  as  the 
governour  of  the  universe,  and  the  benefactor,  in  numberless  ways, 
of  all  mankind,  but  to  love  him  also,  as  their  own  especial  deliver- 
er and  friend.  And,  as  the  result  of  such  gratitude  and  love,  they 
are  required  to  obey  his  laws,  and  this  in  truth  for  the  additional 
reason,  that  without  such  obedience,  they  would  not  deserve  the 
kindness  of  God,  and  would  not  be  in  a  situation  to  receive  any 
further  benefits  from  his  hand,  Deut.  6:  4,  5.  11:  1,  13,  14.  13:  4,  5. 

They  are  not  only  admonished  to  abstain  from  these  kinds  of 
food,  which  were  reckoned  unclean,  but  also  to  keep  themselves 
free  from  moral  defilements,  and  to  be  pure  and  holy  even  as  God 
is  holy,  Lev.  11:  45.  20:  26.  Deut.  14:  1,  2,  21.  Lev.  19:  2.  20: 
7,8. 

They  are  taught  to  love  their  neighbour  ,  as  themselves, 
Lev.  19:  18  ;  not  only  the  Hebreio,  but  the  stranger  also,  Lev.  19: 
33,  34.  Exod.  22:  20,  21.  23:  9,  12.  Num.  15:  14.  Deut.  10:  18, 
19.  24:  17.  27:  19. 

Hatred  and  revenge  are  prohibited,  Exod.  23:  4,  5.  Lev.  19:  16 
—18.  Deut.  23:  7,  8.  comp.  Job  31:  29—31. 

Cruelty  and  inhumanity  to  servants  are  guarded  against,  Exod. 
20:  10,  11.  21:  2—11,  20—26.  Lev.  25:  39—53.  Deut.  5:  14,  15. 
12:  18.  15:  12—15.  16:  11—14.  23:  15,  16.  25:  4.  comp.  Job  31: 
13 — 15.  The  exhibition  of  kindness  to  the  poor  likewise,  to  wi- 
dows, and  orphans,  is  inculcated,  Exod.  22:  25,  26.  Lev.  19:9 — 13. 
23:  22.  25:  5,  6.  Deut.  12:  5—7.  14:  22—24.  15:  7—15.  16:  10— 
12.  26:  11—15.  27:  19. 

As  an  incitement  to  deeds  of  kindness  of  this  sort,  the  people 
are  told  to  remember,  that  they  themselves  were  of  old  strangers 
and  servants  in  the  land  of  the  Egyptians ;  an  exhortation,  which 
implies  the  knowledge  and  the  admission  of  the  duty  of  doing  to 
others,  what  we  wish  done  to  ourselves,  and  of  not  inflicting  on 
others,  what  we  should  ourselves  be  unwilling  to  suffer.  It  may 
be  remarked,  furthermore,  that  the  Hebrews  were  forbidden  to 


388  §  309.   MORAL  TENDENCY  OF  THE  INSTRUCTIONS 


exercise  cruelty  to  their  animals,  Exod.  20:  10,  11.  23:  11,  12.  34: 
26.  Lev.  22:  28.  25:  7.  Deut.  14:  21.  22:  6,  7,  10.  25:  4. 

The  people  are  commanded  not  to  curse  the  deaf,  and  not  to 
cast  an  obstacle  in  the  way  of  the  blind,  Lev.  19:  14.  Deut.  27: 
18.  They  are  forbidden  to  utter  falsehoods,  Exod.  23:  1 — 7;  and 
are  admonished  not  to  go  about  among  the  people  in  the  charac- 
ter of  tale-bearers,  as  they  will  have  done  their  duty,  by  informing 
the  guilty  persons  of  their  faults  in  private,  and  only  have  made 
themselves  partakers  in  their  guilt,  by  giving  to  those  faults  an 
unnecessary  publicity,  Lev.  19:  16. 

They  are  not  left  at  liberty  to  utter  curses  against  those  magis- 
trates, who,  in  their  estimation,  have  been  unfavourable  to  them, 
Exod.  22:  27,  28. 

They  were  commanded  to  avoid  all  fraud,  as  an  abomination  in 
the  sight  of  God,  Deut.  25:  13 — 16 ;  when  they  have  found  any 
property,  carefully  to  inquire  out  its  owner,  and  restore  it,  Deut. 
22:  1,3;  and  to  keep  themselves  guiltless  not  only  of  fornication, 
adultery,  incest  and  bestiality,  but  of  all  impure  concupiscence, 
which  are  great  crimes  in  the  sight  of  Jehovah,  Lev.  18:  1 — 30. 
Deut.  23:  18,  19.  22:  5.  Exod.  20:  7. 

The  obedience,  which  was  due  to  the  civil  laws,  was  urged 
on  the  ground,  that  they  originated  from  that  merciful  and  holy 
Being,  who  is  the  creator  and  the  governour  of  all  things,  Lev.  Hi 
44.  18:  3—5.  19:  10,  12,  14,  18, 25, 28,  30—32, 34, 37.  22:  3,  8,  30 
— 33.  23:  22,  43.  25:  17,  etc.  Moses,  accordingly,  in  reference  to 
this  subject,  viz.  obedience  to  the  civil  laws,  never  fails  to  re- 
mind the  people  of  their  divine  origin,  and  teaches  them,  that, 
unless  those  laws  are  observed,  as  religious,  as  well  as  civil  insti- 
tutions, it  will  be  of  no  avail.  Consult  particularly  the  passages, 
which  follow,  and  which  are  worthy  of  a  repeated  perusal,  Deut.  4: 
i_40.  5:  1—6,  25.  8:  1—19.  10:  12.  11:  1.  29:  1.  30:  20. 

Numerous  sacrifices  were  insisted  on,  not,  in  truth,  for  any  sup- 
posed worthiness  in  the  sacrifices  themselves,  but,  because  they 
were  an  indication  of  a  grateful  mind,  because  they  present- 
ed a  symbolick  representation  of  the  punishment  due  to  trans- 
gressors, and  uttered,  as  it  were,  an  impressive  admonition, 
that  all  sins  were  to  be  avoided.  Sacrifices,  accordingly,  and 
other  ceremonies  are  never  esteemed,  in  themselves  considered, 
of  much  consequence.    On  the  contrary,  it  is  expressly  said,  that 


AND  INSTITUTIONS  OF  MOSES. 


389 


God  does  not  have  respect  to  gifts  and  offerings,  and  that  vows 
are  not  necessary,  Deut.  10:  17.  23:  22,  23.  A  person  who  had 
made  a  vow,  could  free  himself  from  the  performance  of  it,  by* 
paying  a  certain  amount,  to  be  estimated  by  the  priest,  and,  fur- 
thermore, the  power  was  lodged  in  the  master  of  a  family  of  mak- 
ing void  the  vows  of  his  wives  and  daughters,  Lev.  27:  1 — 33.  Num. 
30:  2—14. 

Particular/brms  of  words,  to  be  used  in  prayer,  are  not  found 
among  the  instructions  of  Moses,  [and  the  probable  reason  of  it, 
as  represented  in  the  original  German,  is,  that  such  forms  of  words 
would  have  been  too  near  an  approach  to  the  superstitious  forms 
employed  in  charms,  and  incantations  among  the  neighbouring 
idolatrous  nations,  and  might  have  led  to  unpropitious  consequen- 
ces.] Still  there  is  what  may  be  considered  in  some  respects  an 
exception  to  this  statement,  for  we  find  a  form  of  words  prescrib- 
ed for  the  benediction  in  Num.  6:  24 — 26.  and  also  for  the  return  of 
thanks  in  Deut.  26:  1  —  10,  13—15. 

Promises  of  temporal  good,  and  threats  of  temporal  evil  were 
necessary  in  an  age,  in  which  the  knowledge  of  a  future  life  was 
limited  and  obscure.  But  they  are  no  more  obstacles  to  moral 
discipline  and  instruction,  than  like  threats  and  promises  are,  at 
the  present  day,  to  the  moral  education  of  our  offspring.  Fur- 
thermore, the  threats  and  promises,  of  which  we  speak,  may  be  con- 
sidered, as  addressed  to  the  Jews,  as  a  people,  rather  than  as  indi- 
viduals, and,  in  this  way,  as  making  apart  of  the  civil  polity;  and, 
after  all,  they  are  in  themselves  an  evidence  that  God  approves 
what  is  moral,  and  condemns  what  is  immoral  and  corrupt,  and  it  is 
in  this  way,  that  he  governs  the  universe. 

The  religion  of  Moses,  therefore,  had  a  good  moral  tendency  ; 
it  disciplined  many  men,  whose  characters,  for  their  moral  eleva- 
tion and  worth,  are  fit  subjects  of  admiration.  If  it  had  defects, 
let  us  have  the  candour  to  acknowledge,  that  they  are  to  be  attrib- 
uted in  a  measure  to  the  circumstances  of  the  times,  and  the  grat- 
itude to  confess,  that  its  deficiencies  have  been  amply  supplied  by 
the  gospel  of  Jesus  Christ. 


390 


§  310.  RESPECTING  TYPES. 


§  310.   Of  the  Question,  "  Whether  there  are  Types  in  the 
Laws  of  Moses  t" 

That  there  are  historical  and  moral  types  in  the  Laws  of  Moses, 
is  evident  from  the  Passover,  and  from  the  feast  of  tabernacles, 
Exod.  12:  1—13,  16.  Lev.  23:  4,  8.  Deut.  16:  1—8;  also  from  the 
rite  of  circumcision,  and  the  gold  mitre  of  the  high  priest,  for  a  typ- 
ical import  is  expressly  assigned  to  these  last  by  Moses  himself. 
Consult  Exod.  28:  38,  and  Deut.  10:  16.  30:  6. 

But  whether  there  are  to  be  found  in  the  writings  of  Moses 
what  are  termed  prophetical  types,  has  been  a  subject  of  very  great 
contention.  We  see  in  the  discussions,  which  have  arisen  upon 
this  subject,  the  tendency,  which  there  is  in  men  to  rush  from 
one  extreme  to  another ;  and  because  types  of  this  kind  were 
formerly  too  much  multiplied,  the  wisdom  of  these  latter  days  has 
taken  upon  itself  boldly  to  deny  the  existence  of  any  such  types  at 
all. 

One  thing,  however,  seems  to  be  certain,  that  the  whole  Mo- 
saic discipline,  taken  in  connexion  with  the  promises  made  to  the 
patriarchs,  was  not  only  introduced  to  preserve  and  transmit  the 
true  religion,  but  implied  and  intimated  something  better  to  come. 
Those  better  times  were  not  hidden  from  the  sight  of  the  proph- 
ets, and,  in  age  after  age,  and  with  much  frequency,  they  predict- 
ed them  in  their  poetry.  But  express,  and  insulated  types  of  Christ, 
or  of  the  Christian  Church,  known  to  be  such  by  the  ancient  He- 
breios,  do  not  appear  to  be  found  in  the  Laws  of  Moses.  Still  it  is 
a  question  worthy  of  further  investigation,  than  has  hitherto  been 
bestowed  upon  it,  Whether  God,  through  the  instrumentality  of  Mo- 
ses, did  not  so  order  certain  events  and  ceremonies,  that  they 
should  be  discovered  to  be  typical  at  the  coming  of  Christ,  and  in 
this  way  facilitate  the  conversion  of  the  Jews  to  the  Christian  sys- 
tem ?  Compare  my  Hermeneuticam  gencralem  Veteris  et  Novi  Foe- 
deris, §  15,  16.  p.  43—48. 

Note.  [As  the  subject  of  the  types  of  the  Old  Testament  is 
one,  which  has  not  failed  to  interest,  to  a  considerable  degree,  the 
feelings  of  many  in  this  country,  I  take  it  for  granted,  that  it  will 
not  be  deemed  out  of  place,  to  subjoin  to  this  section  the  opinions 


§311.  RELIGION  TILL  AFTER  THE  CAPTIVITY.  391 

of  the  translator  of  Ernesti's  Elements  of  Interpretation.  The  re- 
marks, to  which  I  refer,  may  be  found  in  a  note  to  the  twenty-fifth 
section  of  that  publication,  and  are,  as  follows. 

"If  it  be  asked,  How  far  are  we  to  consider  the  Old  Testa- 
ment as  typical?  I  should  answer  without  any  hesitation;  Just  so 
much  of  it  is  to  be  regarded  as  typical,  as  the  New  Testament 
affirms  to  be  so  ;  and  no  more.  The  fact,  that  any  thing  or  event 
under  the  Old  Testament  dispensation  was  designed  to  prefigure 
something  under  the  New,  can  be  known  to  us  only  by  revelation  ; 
and,  of  course,  all  that  is  not  designated  by  divine  authority  as  ty- 
pical, can  never  be  made  so  by  any  authority  less  than  that,  which 
guided  the  writers  of  the  Scriptures."] 

§  311.  Sketch  of  Religion  from  Moses  till  after  the  Baby- 
lonish Captivity. 

The  institutions  of  Moses  retained  their  influence  through  sub- 
sequent ages.  Whenever  religion  was  endangered,  by  neglect  or  by 
idolatry,  the  invariable  consequence  was,  that  there  were  calamities 
and  evils,  which  admonished  the  people  of  the  necessity  of  choos- 
ing rulers,  who  should  restore  to  them  both  the  full  operation  of 
their  religion,  and  their  prosperity,  as  a  nation.  In  case  God  did 
not  send  upon  them,  in  the  first  instance,  public  calamities,  he 
commissioned  his  prophets,  who  severely  reproved  kings  and 
princes,  threw  great  obstacles  in  the  way  of  their  wicked  attempts 
to  introduce  idolatry,  and  when  it  was  introduced,  had  the  happi- 
ness of  seeing,  in  some  cases,  pious  kings  raised  up,  as  the  succes- 
sors of  the  impious,  who  rescinded  what  their  predecessors  had 
done,  removed  idolatry,  and  restored  again  the  true  worship  of 
God. 

When  at  length  admonitions  ceased  to  be  of  any  great  avail, 
and  every  thing  was  growing  worse  and  worse,  the  Israelitish  com- 
monwealth was  overthrown,  253  years  after  their  separation  from 
Judah,  and  722  before  Christ.  The  people  were  carried  away 
by  the  Assyrians  into  Gozan,  Chalacene,  the  cities  of  Media,  and 
into  Assyria. 

The  kingdom  of  Judah  was  overthrown  387  years  after  the 
separation,  588  before  Christ,  by  the  Chaldeans,  and  the  people 
were  carried  captive  to  the  banks  of  the  river  Cheber  in  Babylonia. 


392  §  311.   RELIGION  TILL  AFTER  THE  CAPTIVITY. 


Ill  these  events,  were  fulfilled  the  predictions  both  of  Moses  and 
the  Prophets. 

The  difference  in  the  condition  of  the  Hebrews  under  the 
Judges,  who  ruled  four  hundred  and  fifty  years,  and  under  the 
Kings,  consisted  in  this,  that  under  the  former,  idolatry  was  not 
commanded,  but  the  people  rushed  into  it  of  their  own  accord. 
Wherefore  the  contamination  never  extended  so  far,  as  to  reach 
the  Tabernacle.  On  the  contrary,  those  kings,  who  were  impious, 
either  expressly  commanded  the  worship  of  idols,  or  promoted  it 
in  some  way  by  their  authority ;  so  that  its  pernicious  influence 
penetrated  even  to  the  Temple  itself. 

The  most  impious,  in  the  kingdom  of  Judali,  were  Ahaz  and 
Manasseh,  who  immolated  their  sons  to  Moloch;  and  the  former  of 
whom  shut  up  the  Temple.  In  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  Ahab  with 
his  Zidonian  wife,  Jezebel,  surpassed  all  others  in  wickedness. 

During  the  period  immediately  preceding  their  overthrow, 
every  kind  of  superstition,  and  every  moral  pollution  prevailed  in 
both  kingdoms,  especially  in  that  of  Judah.  No  other  means, 
therefore,  remained,  to  correct  their  vices,  but  that  of  extreme 
severity,  by  which  the  whole  nation,  dispersed  from  their  country 
into  distant  regions,  and  humbled  and  afflicted,  might  learn,  that 
they  could  do  nothing  without  God,  and  that  idols  could  lend  them 
no  assistance. 

When  at  length  the  Return,  predicted  by  Moses  and  the  proph- 
ets, was  unexpectedly  secured  by  the  instrumentality  of  Cyrus, 
and  the  Temple  and  city  rebuilt,  the  people  being  convinced  by 
the  fulfilment  of  so  many,  and  such  distinguished  prophecies,  that 
God  is  the  omnipotent  and  omniscient  governour  of  the  uni- 
verse, and  that  all  idols  are  a  vanity,  continued  firm  to  Jehovah  ev- 
er after.  So  much  so,  that  they  opposed  the  commands,  and  set  at 
defiance  the  punishments  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  endured  every 
suffering,  seized  their  arms,  in  vindication  of  their  liberty  and  re- 
ligion, and  brought  over  other  nations  also  to  the  worship  of  their 
fathers.  The  rest  of  the  Jews,  who  were  widely  dispersed  both 
in  the  East  and  the  West,  made  proselytes  every  where,  and  it 
became  known  to  the  other  nations,  that  there  was  a  people,  who 
worshipped  one  invisible  God,  the  creator  and  governour  of  the 
world. 

The  Jews  supposed  at  this  time,  that  the  age  was  approach- 


§  312.  PERSEVERANCE  OF  HEBREW9  IN  THEIR  RELIGION.  393 

ing,  when  the  true  religion,  should  be  propagated  to  all  nations, 
as  had  been  promised  to  the  patriarchs  and  predicted  by  the  pro- 
phets. 

Their  condition  as  a  nation,  it  is  true,  through  the  discord  of 
the  rulers,  grew  worse,  than  it  had  been  previously,  and  every 
thing  threatened  ruin.  That  which  was  promised,  notwithstand- 
ing, was  performed  by  Jesus  and  the  apostles,  and  their  religion,  in 
subsequent  ages,  has  been  propagated  even  to  us ;  a  grand  fulfil- 
ment of  what  was  predicted  to  the  patriarchs  four  thousand  years 
ago. 

§  312.  Perseverance  op  the  Hebrews  in  their  Religion  after 
the  Captivity. 

The  perseverance  of  the  Hebrews  after  the  captivity,  in  their 
religion,  to  which  we  have  already  alluded,  was  the  result  chiefly  of 
the  fulfilment  of  the  prophecies,  respecting  the  overthrow  of  the 
kingdoms  of  Israel,  Judah,  Assyria,  and  Chaldea,  and  respecting  the 
return  from  captivity  ;  as  is  clear  from  Zech.  1:  2 — 6.  Ezra  9:  7 — 
15.  Neh.  9:  32—37.  13:  17,  18.  The  punishment  of  a  long  exile, 
which  the  foreign  gods,  they  worshipped,  could  not  avert,  and  their 
return,  which  was  effected  by  the  Providence  of  God  alone,  without 
any  co-operation  on  the  part  of  the  people,  excited  their  minds,  al- 
ready softened  by  the  concurrence  of  so  many  afflictions,  to  renew- 
ed reflection  on  these,  and  on  other  events,  equally  striking  and 
more  ancient,  especially  on  the  mercies  of  God. 

In  order  to  keep  the  memory  of  the  past  fresh  and  living  in  their 
minds,  they  built  synagogues,  in  which  the  Law  of  Moses  was  read 
every  sabbath  day.  And  not  long  after,  other  sacred  books  were 
read  likewise,  especially  the  prophets  ;  prayers  were  also  offered  ;  sa- 
cred hymns  were  sung ;  and  the  people  were  exhorted  to  a  moral 
and  religious  course. 

Schools  also  were  established,  in  which  the  rising  generation 
were  instructed  more  carefully  in  the  truths  of  religion,  than  they 
could  be  by  their  parents. 

The  similitude,  which  existed  between  the  system  of  Moses, 
and  that  of  Zoroaster,  which  prevailed  in  Persia  and  Media,  may  be 
summed  up  in  a  single  article,  viz.  that  they  both  discountenanced 
the  worship  of  idols.  For, 

50 


394    §  312.  PERSEVERANCE  OF  HEBREWS  IN  THEIR  RELIGION. 

I.  That  original  beginning  of  all  things,  called  Hazaruam,  was 
neither  the  creator  nor  governour  of  the  world,  but  the  endless  suc- 
cession of  time,  which  was  represented  by  Zoroaster,  as  the  su- 
preme existence,  ens,  or  fountain  of  being.  From  Hazaruam, 
proceeded  Ormuz  and  Ahrimanes.  Ormuz  acted  the  part  of  crea- 
tor of  the  world, ;  a  circumstance,  which  caused  no  little  envy  in 
the  mind  of  Ahrimanes,  and  induced  him  to  mingle  with  the  work- 
manship of  Ormuz,  the  seeds  or  principles  of  evil,  which  exist. 
By  the  Mehestani,  moreover,  or  followers  of  Zoroaster,  not  only 
Ormuz,  but  six  Amschaspandi,  also  innumerable  spirits,  dispersed 
every  where,  the  sun,  moon,  and  stars,  and  other  earthly  existences, 
were  worshipped  without  distinction. 

II.  If  the  example  of  the  Medes  and  Persians,  who  worship- 
ped Ormuz,  as  the  creator  and  governour  of  the  world,  confirm- 
ed the  Hebrews  in  the  worship  of  Jehovah,  it  was  equally  likely, 
on  the  other  hand,  to  induce  them  to  adore  the  stars,  and  spirits, 
which  occupied  so  conspicuous  a  place  in  the  system  of  those  na- 
tions ;  also  the  horses  and  chariot  of  the  sun,  which  the  ancestors 
of  king  Josiah,  influenced  by  the  example  of  the  Mehestani,  had 
introduced  at  Jerusalem,  and  perhaps,  to  practise  that  species  of 
Magian  worship,  witnessed  by  Ezekiel  in  the  temple  of  Jerusa- 
lem. 

III.  The  Jews,  if  they  had  been  excited,  by  the  example  alone  of 
their  conquerors,  to  perseverance  in  their  religion,  would  not  cer- 
tainly have  continued  their  adherence  to  it  after  the  overthrow  of 
the  Persians,  when  they  were  under  the  dominion  of  the  idolatrous 
Greeks  ;  a  period,  in  which,  though  exposed  to  the  hostility  of 
Antiochus  Epiphanes,  they  gave  ample  proofs  of  their  integrity. 

The  assertion,  that  the  Jews  adhered  to  the  religion  of  their 
ancestors,  because  they  had  learnt  the  knowledge  of  the  true  God 
from  philosophical  principles,  is  opposed, 

I.  By  the  representations  of  the  books,  which  remain  of  that 
period.  For  it  is  evident  from  Haggai,  Zechariah,  Ezra,  Nehemi- 
ah,  and  Malachi,  also  from  the  apocryphal  books  of  Wisdom  and 
Ecclesiasticus,  that  the  prevalent  belief  was  founded  on  ancient 
history,  especially  on  ancient  miracles,  and  the  fulfilment  of  the 
prophecies. 

II.  Moreover,  the  firm  persuasion,  which  existed,  would  not 
have  arisen  from  any  philosophical  speculations  about  the  being 


\ 

§  313.   KNOWLEDGE  OF  GOD  FROM  PHILOSOPHY.  395 

of  God,  if  it/  had  not  existed  in  a  previous  period,  since,  in  the 
Psalms,  and  the  writings  of  the  Prophets,  were  many  arguments, 
drawn  from  the  nature  of  things,  to  show  the  doctrine  of  the  true 
God,  and  the  vanity  of  idols. 

III.  To  overturn  at  once  this  unfounded  supposition,  it  is  suffi- 
cient to  say,  that  the  men,  who  are  best  instructed  in  Grecian  phi- 
losophy, endeavoured  to  bring  back  idolatry  again.  But  on  points 
connected  with  this  subject,  something  further  is  to  be  said. 

§  313.  Respecting  the  Knowledge  of  God  before  the  time  of 
Christ,  as  developed  by  Philosophy. 

Not  a  single  philosopher  had  any  idea  of  a  God  of  such  an  exal- 
ted character,  as  to  be  the  agent  in  the  construction  of  the  Uni- 
verse, till  Anaxagoras,  the  disciple  of  Hermotimus.  This  philoso- 
pher came  to  Athens  in  the  year  456  before  Christ,  and  first  taught, 
that  the  world  was  organized  or  constructed  by  some  mind  or  men- 
tal being,  out  of  matter,  which  this  philosopher  supposed,  had  al- 
ways existed.  Socrates,  Plato,  and  others  adopted,  illustrated,  and 
adorned  this  opinion. 

Aristotle,  on  the  contrary,  supposed --the  world  to  have  existed 
in  its  organized  form  eternally,  and  that  the  supreme  being,  who 
was  coexistent,  merely  put  it  in  motion. 

The  Epicureans  believed  a  fortuitous  concurrence  of  atoms  to 
have  been  the  origin  of  all  things.  Many  were  atheists ;  many  were 
sceptics,  who  doubted  and  assailed  every  system  of  opinions. 

Those,  who  maintained  the  existence  of  a  framer  or  architect 
of  the  world,  (for  no  one  believed  in  a  creator  of  it,)  held  also  to 
an  animating  principle  in  matter,  which  originated  from  the  su- 
preme architect,  and  which  animated,  and  regulated  the  material 
system. 

Things  of  minor  consequence,  especially  those,  which  touched 
the  destiny  of  man,  were  referred  by  all  classes,  to  the  govern- 
ment of  the  gods,  who  were  accordingly  the  objects  of  worship, 
and  not  the  supreme  architect.  Paul  gives  a  sufficiently  favour- 
able representation  of  this  defective  knowledge  of  God,  Rom.  1: 
19 — 24.  After  all,  it  may  be  made  an  inquiry,  whether  Anaxago- 
ras or  Hermotimus  had  not  learnt  some  things  respecting  the  God 
of  the  Jews  from  those  Jews,  who  were  sold  as  slaves  by  the 


396  §  314.  condition  or  man  after  death. 

Phenicians  into  Greece,  Joel  3:  6,  or  from  the  Phenicians  them- 
selves, who  traded  in  Ionia  and  Greece,  and  whether  these  philoso- 
phers did  not  thus  acquire  that  knowledge,  which  was  thought  to 
have  originated  with  themselves.  Perhaps,  they  derived  their  no- 
tions of  an  eternal  architect  from  the  doctrine  of  the  Persians 
respecting  Hazaruam  or  the  endless  succession  of  time,  and  Ormuz. 
However  this  may  be,  we  observe  on  this  topic, 

I.  That  the  Hebrews  remained  firm  to  their  religion  before 
their  acquaintance  with  Grecian  philosophy,  although  many  receded 
from  it,  after  forming  such  an  acquaintance. 

II.  The  philosophic  doctrine  respecting  the  architect  of  the 
world,  rested  on  arguments  of  so  subtile  a  kind,  that  they  could  not 
have  been  estimated  by  the  Jewish  populace,  and  could  not  have 
been  applied  by  them,  to  confirm  their  minds  in  religious  truth. 
For,  according  to  Cicero,  de  Nat.  Deorum,  Lib.  I.  6.  such  was 
the  contention,  even  among  the  learned,  in  respect  to  the  doctrine  of 
the  gods,  that  those,  who  had  the  most  strength  and  confidence  on 
their  side  were  compelled  to  doubt. 

The  books  of  Cicero,  de  Natura  Deorum  are  by  all  means  to 
be  read. 

§  314.  On  the  Condition  of  Man  after  Death. 

That  the  ancient  Hebrews,  that  the  Patriarchs  themselves  had 
some  idea  of  a  future  life,  although  we  must  acknowledge  their 
information  on  the  subject  to  have  been  limited  and  obscure,  is  evi- 
dent. 

I.  From  the  distinction,  which  is  made  between  the  subterrane- 
an residence  denominated  Sheol,  ^Ktti  and  ^13,  and  the  grave  or 
place  of  interment  for  the  body,  denominated  lip.  Gen.  25:  8.  37: 
35.  49:  33.  50:  2—10.  Num.  20:  24—26.  Deut.  34:  7.  31:  16.  1 
K.  11:43. 

II.  That  they  believed  in  the  existence  of  the  spirit  after  the 
death  of  the  body,  is  evident  likewise  from  the  credit,  which  they 
were  disposed  to  give  to  the  art  of  necromancy,  by  means  of  which 
the  Jews  believed,  that  the  spirits  of  the  dead,  niaifi*  ,  iifct,  "^b^T  , 
were  summoned  back  to  the  present  scene  of  existence,  Lev.  19: 
31.  20:6,7,26,27.  Deut.  18:  11.  1  Sam.  28:  3— 10.  2  K.  23: 
24.  1  Chron.  10:  13.  Is.  19:  3.  29:4.  57:9.  comp.  Zech.  13:2—6. 


$314.   CONDITION  OF  MAN  AFTER  DEATH. 


397 


The  objection,  which  is  sometimes  made,  viz.  that  persons, 
whose  minds  are  under  the  influence  of  superstition,  are  very  in- 
consistent with  themselves  and  in  their  opinions,  does  not  avail 
any  thing  in  the  present  case,  for  it  would  in  truth  be  a  miracle 
of  inconsistency,  if  those  persons,  who  believed,  that  departed 
spirits  were  no  longer  existing,  should,  nevertheless,  give  full 
credit  to  the  ability  of  such  non-existent  spirits,  to  reveal  the  mys- 
teries of  the  future. 

The  belief  of  the  ancient  Hebrews,  therefore,  on  this  subject, 
was,  that  the  spirits  of  the  dead  were  received  into  Sheol,  which 
is  represented,  as  a  large  subterranean  abode,  Gen.  37:  35.  comp. 
Num.  16:  30—33.  Deut.  32:  22.  Into  this  abode,  we  are  told,  that 
the  wicked  are  driven  suddenly,  their  days  being  cut  short,  but 
the  good  descend  into  it  in  tranquillity,  and  in  the  fullness  of  their 
years. 

This  very  spacious  dwelling-place  for  those,  who  have  gone 
hence,  is  often  described  as  dark,  as  sorrowful,  and  inactive,  Job 
10:  21.  Ps.  6:  5.  88:  11,  12.  115:  17.  Is.  38:  18  ;  but  in  Is.  14:  9, 
et  seq.  it  is  represented,  as  full  of  activity  ;  and  in  other  places, 
as  we  may  learn  from  Job  26:  5,  6.  and  1  Sam.  28:  7,  more  than 
human  knowledge  is  ascribed  to  its  inhabitants,  which  is  indeed 
implied  in  the  credit,  which  was  given  to  necromancers.  In  this 
abode,  moreover,  the  departed  spirits  rejoice  in  that  rest,  so  much 
desired  by  the  orientals,  Job  3:  13  ;  and  there  the  living  hope  to 
see  once  more  their  beloved  ancestors  and  children,  Gen.  37:  35. 
comp.  Gen.  25:  10.  35:  28.  49:  29.  Num.  20:  24—26.  1  K.  2:  10, 
11.  etc  ;  and  there  also  the  servant  is  at  length  freed  from  his  mas- 
ter, and  enjoys  a  cessation  from  his  labours,  Job  3:  13 — 19. 

That  the  ancient  Hebrews  believed,  that  there  was  a  differ- 
ence, in  their  situation  in  Sheol,  between  the  good  and  the  bad, 
although  it  might  indeed  be  inferred  from  their  ideas  of  the  jus- 
tice and  benignity  of  God,  (Matt.  22:  32.)  cannot  be  proved  by  di- 
rect testimony.  The  probability,  however,  that  this  was  the 
case,  seems  to  be  increased,  when  it  is  remembered,  that  the  au- 
thor of  the  book  of  Ecclesiastes,  who,  in  chapter  3:  18.  speaks 
somewhat  sceptically  of  the  immortality  of  the  soul,  says  in  chap- 
ter 12:  7,  that  the  "  spirit  shall  return  to  God,  who  gave  it,"  [and, 
although  he  no  where  in  express  terms  holds  up  the  doctrine  of  fu- 
ture rewards  and  punishments,  informs  us  in  chap.  12:  14.  of  some- 


398     §  315.   RESPECTING  THE  PROPAGATION  OF  JUDAISM. 


thing  very  much  like  it,  viz.  "  That  God  shall  bring  every  work  in- 
to judgment,  with  every  secret  thing,  whether  good  or  evil"] 

We  have  not  authority,  therefore,  decidedly  to  say,  that  any 
other  motives  were  held  out  to  the  ancient  Hebrews  to  pur- 
sue the  good  and  to  avoid  the  evil,  than  those,  which  were  deriv- 
ed from  the  rewards  and  punishments  of  this  life.  That  these 
were  the  motives,  which  were  presented  to  their  minds  in  order 
to  influence  them  to  pursue  a  right  course  of  conduct,  is  express- 
ly asserted  in  Is.  26:  9,  10.  and  may  be  learnt  also  from  the  im- 
precations, which  are  met  with,  in  many  parts  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment. 

The  Mehestani,  who  were  disciples  of  Zoroaster,  believed  in 
the  immortality  of  the  soul,  in  rewards  and  punishments  after 
death,  and  in  the  resurrection  of  the  body ;  at  the  time  of  which 
resurrection,  all  the  bad  would  be  purged  by  fire,  and  associated 
with  the  good,  Zend  Avesta,  P.  I.  p.  107,  108.  P.  II.  p.  211.  227. 
229.  124,  125.  173.  245,  246.  comp.  Ezek.  37:  1—14. 

There  is  some  uncertainty  respecting  the  passages  in  Daniel 
12:  2,  3,  13 ;  but  it  is  possible  at  any  rate,  that  they  may  be  a  con- 
firmation of  the  doctrine  of  the  resurrection  of  the  dead,  and  it 
is  very  clear,  that  Haggai  (2:  23.)  speaks  of  some  state  of  glory 
after  the  termination  of  this  present  life.  Compare  Zech.  3:  7. 
These  sentiments  of  the  later  prophets,  which  are  perfectly  in  uni- 
son with  what  is  said  of  the  justice  and  clemency  of  God,  in  other 
parts  of  the  Old  Testament,  were  at  length  adopted  by  the  Jews 
generally  with  the  exception  of  the  Sadducees,  against  whom  they 
are  defended  in  the  following  passages  of  the  Apocryphal  Books,  viz. 
2  Mace.  7:  9,  11,  14,  23,  29,  36.  12:  40—45.  and  Wisdom  3:  1— 
11.  4:  7—16. 

Thus  the  Jews  were  gradually  prepared  to  receive  that  broader 
and  fuller  light,  which  Jesus  shed  upon  them,  2  Tim.  1:  10. 

§  315.  Respecting  the  Propagation  of  Judaism. 

# 

The  Jews,  during  the  four  centuries  preceding  the  destruc- 
tion of  Jerusalem,  were  very  extensively  dispersed,  and  they  did 
not  fail  to  make  proselytes  to  Judaism,  in  all  the  places,  where  it 
was  their  fortune  to  reside.  The  persecutions  of  Antiochus  Epi- 
phanes  promoted  the  cause  of  proselytism ;  for  those  persecutions, 


§316.  RESPECTING  THE  PROPAGATION  OF  JUDAISM.  399 

under  the  good  providence  of  God,  were  the  occasion  of  many 
victories  to  the  Jews,  and  excited,  at  the  same  time,  the  interest 
and  notice  of  the  surrounding  nations.  In  consequence  of  the  stand, 
which  the  Jews  then  took,  and  the  victories  which  they  won, 
whole  nations,  as  the  Idumeans,  the  Itureans,  and  Moabites,  pro- 
fessed the  Jewish  faith,  and  underwent  the  initiatory  rite  of  cir- 
cumcision. The  king  of  Yaman  or  Yemen,  a  district  of  country 
in  Arabia  Felix,  became  a  Jew,  more  than  an  hundred  years  be- 
fore Christ,  and  his  successors  both  defended  and  propagated  the 
Jewish  religion. 

The  Jews  in  Asia  Minor,  in  Greece,  and,  in  the  progress  of 
time,  at  Rome  also,  were  the  means  of  drawing  numbers  within 
the  pale  of  their  country's  religion.  In  Rome,  in  particular,  they 
eventually  became  so  numerous,  as  to  have  a  majority  at  elections  ; 
and  because  they  were  restless  and  turbulent,  they  were  ordered 
by  Tiberius,  to  depart  from  Italy,  and  by  Claudius,  from  Rome. 
These  orders,  however,  in  respect  to  them,  were  not  fully  put  in 
execution,  Tacitus,  Annal.  II.  85.  Suetonius  in  Tiberio,  §  36.  et  in 
Claudio  §  25.  Dio  Cassius  4.  60.  p.  669. 

Ample  privileges  were  in  general  given  to  the  Jews  by  the 
Romans,  and  the  obstacles  were  mostly  removed,  which  might  have 
had  a  tendency  to  prevent  the  increase  of  their  numbers  by  the  ac- 
cession of  proselytes.  In  this  state  of  things,  proselytes,  especially 
from  the  female  sex,  who  were  not  subjected  to  the  inconveniences 
of  circumcision,  were  perpetually  multiplied,  and  are  often  mentioned 
in  the  New  Testament.  See  Acts  2:  11.  6:  5.  13:  43.  16:  14.  17: 
4.  18:  7,  13.  19:  29.  13:  50.  Josephus,  Jewish  War,  II.  20,  and 
Antiquities  XVIII.  3,  5. 

About  the  time  of  Christ,  Izates  the  king  of  Adiabene,  hav- 
ing been  instructed  by  some  females,  was  circumcised,  and  intro- 
duced the  Jewish  religion  into  his  kingdom.  See  the  Antiquities 
of  Josephus,  XX.  2,  1 — 5.  Providence  thus  prepared  the  way  for 
the  propagation  of  the  Christian  religion  into  all  parts  of  the 
world  :  for  the  Apostles,  wherever  they  travelled,  found  those, 
who  had  embraced  the  Jewish  religion,  and  they  not  only  had  the 
liberty  to  preach  in  their  synagogues,  but,  as  we  may  learn  from 
various  passages,  were  very  essentially  aided  by  the  Jewish  pros- 
elytes, in  announcing  Jesus  Christ  to  the  heathen,  Acts  2:  5 — 11. 
11:  19.  13:  4—6,  13—52.  14:  1—28.  16:  1—40.  12:  1—17,  etc. 


400 


§  316.   GENERAL  STATE  OF  JEWISH  AFFAIRS. 


§  316.  General  State  of  Jewish  Affairs. 

The  Jews,  wherever  they  dwelt,  lived  in  a  measure  separate 
from  the  rest  of  the  community,  but  they  were  extremely  harmo- 
nious among  themselves.  Indeed  those,  who  lived  in  countries, 
that  were  separate  and  distant,  still  maintained  a  connexion,  with 
each  other,  by  means  of  the  Temple  at  Jerusalem.  For  every  in- 
dividual was  in  the  habit  of  sending  to  it  yearly  a  half  shekel  in 
money  ;  those,  who  were  able  to,  visited  it  in  person,  in  order  to  at- 
tend the  great  festivals,  and  those,  who  were  not  in  a  condition  to 
do  this,  transmitted  gifts,  either  for  the  Temple,  or  to  be  employed 
in  the  sacrifices,  by  the  hands  of  others. 

The  Jews  of  Egypt,  who  inhabited  Leontopolis  in  the  district 
of  Heliopolis,  from  the  year  149  before  Christ  to  Anno  Domini  73, 
had  a  temple  of  their  own,  though  they  still  kept  up  a  connexion 
with  the  Jews  at  Jerusalem.  Nor  was  this  general  harmony  in 
the  least  interrupted  by  the  existence  of  the  three  prominent  sects, 
which,  influenced  by  their  philosophical  systems,  differed  so 
much  in  their  interpretation  of  the  Scriptures.  When  we  speak 
of  their  interpretation,  and,  consequently,  belief  being  influenced 
by  their  philosophy,  the  meaning  is  obvious  ;  for  Josephus,  (Antiq. 
XV.  10,  4.)  informs  us  that  the  Pharisees  approximated  very  near 
to  the  Stoics,  the  Sadducees  to  the  Epicureans,  and  the  Essenes  to 
the  Pythagoreans. 

The  Pharisees  cultivated  a  very  friendly  intercourse  with 
each  other,  and,  as  they  were  the  favourites  of  the  people,  and 
generally  secured  to  their  party  the  influence  of  females  of  high 
rank,  they  were  very  powerful.  As  is  too  apt  to  be  the  case, 
where  there  is  power,  they  became  audacious,  were  inclined  to 
make  disturbances,  and  were  in  truth  formidable  to  the  high  priests, 
and  to  the  kings  themselves,  Josephus,  Antiquities,  XIII.  10,  5 — 
6.  XVII.  2,  4.  XVIII.  1.  3.  The  minor  divisions,  which  eventual- 
ly introduced  themselves  into  this  sect,  and  ranked  its  members,  as 
the  followers,  some  of  Shammai,  some  of  Hillel,  and  others  at  length 
of  Judas  of  Galilee,  did  not  interrupt  the  exercise  of  general  har- 
mony and  good  feeling. 

The  sect  of  the  Sadducees  in  general  consisted  of  those  only, 
who  were   wealthy,  and  honourable.     When,  however,  it  was 


§317.   ON  THE  ANTIQUITY  OF  THESE  SECTS.  401 

their  fortune  to  sustain  any  public  offices,  they  found  themselves 
under  the  necessity  of  conforming  to  the  sentiments  of  the  Phari- 
sees, for,  otherwise,  they  would  not  have  been  tolerated  by  the  peo- 
ple, Josephus,  Antiquities,  XIII.  10,  6.  XVIII.  1,  3,  4. 

The  Essenes  were  a  sect,  who  were  very  closely  linked  togeth- 
er, and  constituted  what  may  be  termed  an  order  of  monks.  The 
members  of  this  sect  not  only  lived  in  Egypt,  and  in  other  coun- 
tries ;  but  nearly  four  thousand  of  them  resided  in  Palestine  itself, 
particularly  on  the  western  shore  of  the  Dead  Sea.  Consult  Jose- 
phus' Antiquities  of  the  Jews,  XVIII.  1,  5,  and  Pliny's  Natural 
History,  Bk.  V.  ch.  17. 

§  317.  On  the  Antiquity  of  these  sects. 

It  is  remarked  by  Josephus,  (Antiquities  XIII.  10,  5 — 6)  that 
John  Hyrcanus  went  over  from  the  Pharisees  to  the  Sadducees, 
and  thereby  created  much  trouble  to  his  family.  This  happened, 
when  he  was  young,  i.  e.  about  the  year  150  before  Christ ;  of 
course  both  of  these  sects  were  not  only  in  existence,  but,  it  may 
reasonably  be  inferred,  had  secured  no  little  notoriety,  as  far  back 
as  that  period. 

Furthermore  ;  Josephus  expressly  says,  (Antiquities  XIII.  5,  9.) 
that  the  Pharisees,  Sadducees,  and  Essenes  existed,  as  separate 
sects,  at  the  time,  when  Jonathan  was  prince,  i.  e.  between  159 
and  144  before  Christ ;  that  they  were  flourishing  at  that  period, 
and  were  even  then,  as  he  remarks,  ix  zov  navv  ctg%aiov.  It  is 
true,  they  are  not  mentioned  in  the  book  of  Maccabees,  but  it  is 
clear  from  the  passage  in  Josephus  just  referred  to,  that  they  ex- 
isted in  the  time  of  those  princes.  Some,  however,  suppose,  that 
the  Pharisees  are  meant  to  be  designated  by  the  word  uotdouoig, 
t^T&t?  >  tne  pious,  which  occurs  in  1  Mace.  2:  42.  7:  13.  also  in 
2  Mace.  14:  6.  and  that  this  sect  are  there  called  the  pious,  from 
the  circumstance  of  their  being  desirous  to  do  more,  than  the  Law 
required  ;  while  on  the  contrary,  other  persons,  (among  whom  are 
to  be  reckoned  the  Sadducees,)  who  were  willing  to  be  satisfied 
with  adhering  to  the  letter  of  the  Law,  and  with  doing  as  much 
and  no  more,  than  it  demanded,  were  denominated  d^'^  the  just. 
That  these  sects,  the  Sadducees  and  Pharisees,  were  nearly  simul- 
taneous in  their  origin,  there  is  hardly  room  to  doubt ;  but  the 
51 


402  §318.   ON  THE  DOCTRINE  OF  THE  PHARISEES. 

precise  time  of  their  origin  is  to  be  referred,  at  any  rate,  to  a  period, 
anteriour  to  the  days  of  the  Maccabees. 

It  is  further  to  be  added,  that  the  aoidaioi,  Assideans,  men- 
tioned in  1  Mace.  2:  42.  are  said  to  have  been  those,  ixovaia- 
£optvoi  ro)  vofAO)  rninb  312*?E  -S,  who  voluntarily  fought  for 
their  religion ;  and,  furthermore,  the  Jewish  soldiers  in  general, 
in  2  Mace.  14:  6.  are  denominated  aoidaioi.  Josephus  likewise 
(Antiquities,  XII.  10,  3.)  does  not  call  the  aoidaioi  Pharisees, 
but  ayw&ovg  xai,  oaiovg  tov  t&vovq,  the  good  and  pious  of  the  peo- 
ple. 

The  circumstance,  which  is  stated  in  Pirke  Aboth,  viz.  that 
Zaddok  and  Baithos,  disciples  of  Antigonus  Sochaeus,  were  the 
founders  of  the  sect  of  the  Sadducees,  is  not  of  so  much  weight,  in 
as  much  as  nothing  of  the  kind  is  mentioned  in  Josephus.  It 
seems  to  be  the  fact,  nevertheless,  that  both  Sadducees  and  Phari- 
sees had  their  origin  about  the  time  of  Antigonus  Sochaeus,  who 
was  the  disciple  of  Simon  the  Just,  i.  e.  about  the  beginning  or  mid- 
dle of  the  third  century  before  Christ. 

In  respect  to  the  Essenes,  it  appears,  both  from  their  mode  of 
life,  and  from  the  great  numbers,  who  resided  in  that  country,  that 
they  had  their  origin  in  Egypt.  Philo  likewise,  in  his  treatise 
(de  vita  contempl.)  expresses  himself  in  such  a  way,  as  to  afford 
evidence,  that  this  was  the  fact.  He  indeed  makes  a  distinction 
between  the  Essenes  or  Esseans,  iODtt ,  and  Therapeutae,  fcgemev- 
tcm,  but  it  is  only  in  some  minute  particulars  of  small  consequence. 
Both  names  signify  physicians,  for  the  members  of  this  sect  pro- 
fessed not  only  the  healing  of  the  body,  but  of  the  mind. 

§  318.  On  the  Doctrine  of  the  Pharisees. 

The  Pharisees  boasted,  that  they  were  peculiarly  acceptable 
to  God,  on  account  of  their  accurate  knowledge  of  the  Jewish  Law 
and  religion,  Josephus,  Antiquities,  XVII.  2,  4.  Jewish  War,  II. 
8,  14.  Luke  11:  52.  18:  11. 

We  shall  give  a  short  account  of  their  opinions,  as  far  as  they 
are  mentioned  or  alluded  to  in  the  New  Testament. 

I.  They  agreed  with  the  Stoics  in  teaching  the  doctrine  of 
fate,  or  an  immutable  order  of  things,  fixed  by  the  decree  of  God. 
Perhaps  it  may  be  more  agreeable  to  some,  if  we  should  denomi- 


/ 


§  318.  ON  THE  DOCTRINE  OF  THE  PHARISEES.  403 

nate  their  opinions  in  this  respect  the  doctrine  of  divine  Providence, 
i.  e.  that  oversight  in  the  Supreme  Being,  which  rules  and  co-ope- 
rates with  all  events  in  such  a  manner,  as  to  prevent  at  least  their 
being  left  entirely  dependent  on  the  will  of  man  :  since  the  ac- 
tions of  man  himself  are  dependent  on  the  eternal  purpose  of  God, 
Josephus,  Antiquities,  XIII.  5,  9.  XVIII.  1,  3,  Jewish  War,  II.  8, 
14.  Acts  5:  38,  39. 

II.  They  taught,  that  the  souls  of  men  were  immortal,  and  dwelt, 
after  the  present  life,  in  some  subterranean  abode,  (sheol.) — 
They  further  taught,  that  the  spirits  of  the  wicked  were  torment- 
ed with  everlasting  punishments,  and  that  they  at  times  made 
their  reappearance  upon  the  earth  to  vex  men  with  epilepsy,  men- 
tal derangement,  madness,  and  melancholy  ;  that  the  good,  on  the 
other  hand,  received  rewards,  and  at  length  passed  into  other  hu- 
man bodies,  Antiquities,  XVIII.  1,  3.  Jewish  War,  1%  8,  14.  III. 
8,  5.  Matt.  14:  2.  16:  14.  John  9:  2,  34. 

It  is  no  where  remarked  by  Josephus,  that  they  believed  in  the 
resurrection  of  the  dead,  but  that  they,  nevertheless,  held  to  such 
a  belief,  is  clear  from  the  New  Testament.  Consult  Matt.  22:  24 
—34.  Mark  12:  18—23.  Luke  20:  27—36.  John  11:  24.  2  Mace. 
7:  9—11,  14,  23,  29,  36.  12:  40—45. 

III.  The  Pharisees  believed  in,  and  taught  the  existence  of 
angels,  both  good  and  bad.  The  angel,  that  held  the  highest  rank 
among  the  latter  class,  they  believed,  to  have  been  uncreated. 
The  name  of  this  angel,  at  least  as  it  occurs  in  the  more  recent 
Jewish  writings,  is  that  of  Mittatron.  The  highest  in  rank 
among  the  former  class,  or  the  prince  of  bad  angels,  received  vari- 
ous names,  and  was  called  the  devil,  Samael,  Ashmedai  or  the 
tempter,  a  liar  and  homicide  from  the  beginning,  the  old  serpent, 
the  prince  of  this  world,  who  accuses  men  before  God  and  de- 
mands their  destruction,  Matt.  4:  3.  Luke  4:  2.  John  8:  44.  14:  30. 
Rev.  12:  9.  20:  2.  Heb.  2:  14.  They  believed,  that  angels  were 
the  ministers  or  agents  of  the  divine  Being  on  the  earth,  and  that 
some  one  of  them  was  assigned,  not  only  to  every  kingdom,  but  to 
every  individual,  and  at  times  made  his  appearance,  Matt.  18:  10. 
Luke  4:  10.  Heb.  2:  5.  Acts  12:  15.  23:  8,  9. 

IV.  They  believed,  furthermore,  that  God  was  under  obliga- 
tion, and  bound  in  justice,  to  bestow  favours  upon  the  Jews,  to 
render  them  partakers  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Messiah,  to  justify, 


404     §  319.  DEFECTS  IN  THE  MORALS  OF  THE  PHARISEES. 

and  to  render  them  eternally  happy  ;  and  that  He  could  not  con- 
demn any  of  them.  The  ground  of  justification  in  the  case  of  the 
Jews,  they  alleged  to  be  the  merits  of  Abraham,  the  knowledge  of 
God  which  existed  among  them,  circumcision,  and  the  offering  of 
sacrifices,  Josephus,  Antiquities,  XVII.  2,  4.  Jewish  War,  II.  8,  4. 
Justin's  Dialogue  icith  Trypho,  Pirke  Aboth,  Rom.  i — xi.  Heb. 
10:  1—18. 

§  319.  Defects  in  the  Moral  Principles  and  Practice  of  the 

Pharisees. 

The  pharisees  professed  to  aim  at  the  strictest  moral  integrity 
in  their  conduct ;  but  the  principles,  by  which  their  conduct  was 
guided  in  this  respect,  were  in  a  great  degree,  both  lax  and  errone- 
ous.   For  instance, 

I.  They  considered  many  things,  which,  in  order  to  prevent 
greater  evils,  had  been  admitted  to  hold  a  place  in  the  civil  Laws 
of  Moses,  to  be  for  that  reason,  morally  right ;  for  instance,  the 
laio  of  retaliation,  (jus  talionis,)  and  the  divorce  of  a  wife,  for  any 
cause  whatever,  Matt.  5:  31.  et  seq.  19:  3.  et  seq. 

II.  In  some  instances,  they  adhered  too  closely  to  the  letter  of 
the  Mosaic  Laws,  and  further  perverted  their  spirit  by  accommo- 
dating them  to  their  own  philosophy.  Thus,  according  to  the 
construction,  which  they  put  upon  the  Law  in  respect  to  loving 
one's  neighbour,  they  were  bound  to  love  their  neighbour  merely, 
and  considered  themselves  at  liberty  to  exercise  hatred  towards 
their  enemies,  Matt.  5:  43.  Luke  10:  33.  They  maintained,  that 
the  oath,  in  which  God  was  not  expressly  named,  was  not  binding, 
or,  at  least,  esteemed  it  but  of  little  consequence,  Matt.  5:  33.  On 
the  Sabbath,  they  forbade  the  gathering  of  a  few  ears  of  corn, 
healing  the  sick,  &,c.  Matt.  12:  1.  et  seq.  Luke  6:  6.  et  seq.  14:  1. 
et  seq. 

III.  They  attached  but  little  importance  to  those  natural  Laws 
which  Moses  had  not  enforced  by  a  penalty,  and  gave  a  decided 
preference  to  the  ceremonial  Laws,  as  if  the  latter  were  great  and 
weighty  commands,  Matt.  5:  19.  22:  34.  15:  4. 

They  esteemed  anger  without  any  adequate  cause,  and  likewise 
the  exercise  of  impure  affections,  matters  of  but  very  little  moment, 
Matt.  5:21,22,  27—30. 


§  320.   ON  THE    TRADITIONS  OF  THE  PHARISEES.  405 

They  were  anxious  to  make  proselytes,  but  they  cared  more 
about  merely  enrolling  them  in  their  number,  than  about  making 
them  better  men,  Matt.  23:  15.  Avaricious  and  devoted  to  the 
pleasures  of  the  world,  they  resorted  to  any  measures,  whether 
just  or  unjust,  to  procure  riches,  Matt.  5:  1 — 12.  23:  4.  James  2:  1 
—8.  Luke  16:  14,  Josephus,  Antiquities,  XIII.  3:  4,  5.  They 
were  so  desirous  of  vain  glory,  and  so  impressed  with  the  idea  of 
their  own  personal  sanctity,  that  they  uttered  their  prayers  pub- 
licly, in  the  sight  of  all  men,  Matt.  6:  2,  5.  Luke  18:  11.  They 
took  a  pride  in  ornamenting  the  tombs  of  the  prophets,  Matt. 
23:  29. 

§  320.  On  the  Traditions  of  the  Pharisees. 

The  Pharisees  observed  a  multitude  of  traditions,  i.  e.  un- 
written ordinances,  which  originated  with  their  ancestors,  and 
some  of  them  indeed,  as  they  maintained,  with  Moses  himself. 
They  not  only  placed  these  traditions  on  an  equality  with  the 
Laws,  which  were  acknowledged  to  be  divine,  but  even  esteemed 
them  of  still  higher  importance,  Matt.  15:2,3,6.  Mark  7:  3— 13. 
Talmud,  Rosh  Hashchana,  p.  19,  1.  Zebachim,  p.  101,  1.  Jose- 
phus, Antiquities,  XIII.  10,  6. 

The  practices,  which  were  founded  on  tradition,  at  length 
made  their  appearance  in  a  collected  form  in  the  Talmud,  and  in 
truth  with  many  additions.  By  the  aid  of  what  is  there  stated,  we 
shall  endeavour  to  illustrate  some  things,  which  occur  in  the  New 
Testament. 

The  washing  of  hands,  before  meals,  (a  custom  which  originat- 
ed from  the  practice  of  conveying  food  to  the  mouth  in  the  fin- 
gers,) was  eventually  made  a  religious  duty  ;  on  the  ground,  that, 
if  any  one,  though  unconscious  of  the  circumstance  at  the  time, 
had  touched  any  thing,  whatever  it  might  be,  which  was  unclean, 
and  remained  unwashed,  when  he  ate,  he  thereby  communicated 
the  contamination  to  the  food  also.  The  Pharisees  judged  the 
omission  of  this  ablution  to  be  a  crime  of  equal  magnitude  with 
fornication,  and  worthy  of  death.  Consult  the  Talmud  of  Babylon, 
Aboda  Zara  p.  11,  1.  Sota  p.  4,  2.  Berachoth  p.  46,  2.  Thaanith 
p.  20,  2.  compared  with  Matt.  15:  1.  et  seq. 

They  taught  that,  if  a  person  had  not  departed  from  the 


406  §  320.   ON  THE  TRADITIONS  OF  THE  PHARISEES. 

house,  the  hands,  without  the  fingers  being  distended,  should  be 
wet  with  water  poured  over  them,'  and  then  elevated,  so  that  the 
water  might  flow  down  to  the  elbows ;  furthermore,  the  water 
was  to  be  poured  a  second  time  over  the  arms,  in  order  that,  (the 
hands  being  held  down,)  it  might  flow  over  the  fingers.  This 
practice  is  alluded  to  in  Mark  7:  3,  iav  /urj  nvyprj  vlxpcovrai,  and  is 
denominated  by  the  Rabbins  ^02 .  See  Buxtorf's  Chaldaic,  Talmu- 
dic,^and  Rabbinic  Lexicon,  col.  1335.  On  the  contrary,  those, 
who  had  departed  from  the  house,  washed  in  a  bath,  or  at  least, 
immersed  their  hands  in  water  with  the  fingers  distended.  The 
ceremony  in  this  case,  (Mark  7:  4.)  is  denominated  lav  fiTj  panTi- 
Covtcci,  and  by  the  Rabbins  ^Stt  .  See  Buxtorf's  Lexicon,  col.  849. 
The  water-pots,  which  are  mentioned  in  John  2:  6,  appear  to 
have  been  used  in  ablutions  of  the  kind,  that  have  now  been  men- 
tioned. From  these  ablutions,  it  is  necessary  to  distinguish  the 
symbolic  washings,  spoken  of  in  Deut.  21:  6.  Ps.  26:  6.  and  Matt. 
27:  24.  Indeed  the  Pharisees  were  so  scrupulously  cautious,  that 
they  deemed  it  necessary  to  strain  the  liquids  they  were  to  drink, 
from  the  fear,  that  they  might  inadvertently  swallow  some  unclean 
animalcule,  Matt.  23:  24. 

They  were  so  fearful  of  being  contaminated,  that  they  would 
not  eat  with  Gentiles,  nor  indeed  with  those  persons,  to  whom  it 
fell  to  discharge  the  unpopular  office  of  tax-gatherer,  and,  in  the 
true  spirit  of  the  philosophers  of  their  times,  were  disposed  to 
consider,  as  sinners,  and  to  spurn  from  their  presence  all,  who 
were  not  of  their  own  sect,  Talmud,  Chagiga  2,  7.  Luke  7:  39. 
Matt/9:  11. 

They  fasted  twice  a  week,  viz.  on  Thursday,  when,  as  they 
supposed,  Moses  ascended  mount  Sinai,  and  on  Monday,  when  he 
descended,  Taanith,  II.  9.  p.  Shabb.  I.  24.  compare  Luke  18:  11. 

They  enlarged  their  phylacteries,  and  the  borders  of  their 
garments,  Matt.  23:  5.  Of  the  border  or  fringe  of  the  garment, 
xgaantdov,  rPiTiZ ,  Chald.  "p^iSD^ ,  a  slight  mention  has  already 
been  made  in  the  hundred  and  twenty  second  section.  The  phy- 
lacteries, which  had  their  origin  from  Exodus  13:  16.  and  Deut. 
6:  8.  11:  18.  were  pieces  of  parchment,  on  which  were  inscribed 
four  passages  of  scripture,  to  wit,  Exod.  13:  1 — 10,  11 — 16.  and 
Deut.  5:  4—9.  11:  13 — 21  ;  and  which  were  then  rolled  up  in  the 
form  of  the  letters  of  the  word  «$2) ,  and  placed  in  receptacles  of 


§321.   CONCERNING  GALILEANS  AND  ZEALOTS.  407 

leather.  They  were  confined  upon  the  back  part  of  the  left  hand 
by  a  leather  thong,  "p  rha ,  and  likewise  upon  the  forehead 
between  the  eyes,         "pa  mSDtl 

Note.  The  Pharisees  then,  as  appears  from  the  statements, 
which  have  now  been  made,  were  in  general  a  corrupt  class  of  men. 
This  assertion,  nevertheless,  will  not  apply  to  every  individual  of 
them  ;  for  there  were  not  wanting  persons  even  in  that  sect,  who 
were  distinguished  for  their  moral  integrity,  Mark  15:  43.  Luke  2: 
25.  23:  51.  John  19:  38.  Acts  5:  34. 

That  such  was  in  truth  the  case,  may  be  inferred  both  from 
the  Jerusalem  Talmud,  (Berachoth  p.  13,  2.  Sota  p.  20,  3.)  and 
from  the  Talmud  of  Babylon,  (Sota  p.  22.  2.)  where  it  is  stated, 
that  there  were  seven  classes  of  Pharisees,  who  were  very  much 
unlike. 

Of  two  of  these  classes  we  shall  briefly  make  mention,  viz,  (1) 
the  Pharisees,  who  were  called  Sichemites,  fcbttS  iDT'ns,  who  enter- 
ed into  that  sect  merely  for  the  purposes  of  temporal  emolument, 
Matt.  23:  5,  14 ;  and  (2)  those,  who  were  anxious  to  place  them- 
selves under  strict  moral  discipline,  and  were  ready  to  perform 
every  duty.  It  was  in  reference  to  the  last  mentioned  persons, 
that  the  name  of  Pharisee  was  given,  which  means  one,  who  is  de- 
sirous of  knowing  his  duty,  in  order  that  he  may  do  it,  SHtt  ttj?"UI 
rTtoSW  '■nsih  HJ2,  Luke  18:  18. 

§321.  Concerning  Galileans  and  Zealots. 

In  the  twelfth  year  of  Christ,  about  the  time,  that  Archelaus 
was  sent  away  from  his  government,  a  secession  was  made  from 
the  sect  of  the  Pharisees,  and  a  new  sect  arose,  called  the  Gali- 
leans. Not  far  from  this  time,  Judea,  which  was  a  Roman  prov- 
ince, was  added  for  civil  purposes  to  Syria,  over  which  Quirinus 
was  governor.  It  happened,  when  the  tax  was  levied  by  Quiri- 
nus, that  one  Judas  of  Galilee,  otherwise  called  Gaulonites,  in 
company  with  Zaduk,  a  Sadducee,  publicly  taught,  that  such  tax- 
ation was  repugnant  to  the  Law  of  Moses,  according  to  which  the 
Jews,  they  maintained,  had  no  Jang,  but  God.  The  tumults,  which 
this  fellow  excited,  were  suppressed,  (Acts  5:  37,)  but  his  disci- 
ples, who  were  called  Galileans,  continued  to  propagate  this  doc- 


403  §  322.   RESPECTING  THE  SADDUCEES. 

trine,  and,  furthermore,  required  of  all  proselytes,  that  they  should 
be  circumcised.  Consult  Josephus,  Antiquities,  XVIII.  1,  6.  Jew- 
ish War,  II.  17:  7—9.  VII.  8:  1—6.  9,  1,  2. 

It  was  in  reference  to  this  sect,  that  the  captious  question  was 
proposed  in  Matt.  22:  17.  et  seq.  viz.  "  Whether  it  was  lawful  to 
give  tribute  to  Caesar  V1  The  Galileans,  whom  Pilate  slew  in  the 
Temple,  (Luke  13:  1,  2.)  appear  to  have  been  of  this  sect. 

Simon,  one  of  the  Apostles  of  Jesus,  is  called  aavaviTrjg  or  £?]\o- 
z?ig  Zelotes,  Luke  6:  15.  and,  in  Acts  21:  20.  22:  3.  we  find,  that 
there  were  certain  Christians  at  Jerusalem,  who  are  denominat- 
ed Zealots.  But  these  merely  insisted  on  the  fulfilment  of  the 
Mosaic  Law,  and  by  no  means,  went  so  far  as  those  persons,  term- 
ed Zelotae  or  Zealots,  whom  we  read  of  in  the  history  of  the  Jew- 
ish War. 

Note.  Calmet  respecting  Simon  the  Zealot. 

["  Simon,  the  Canaanite,  or  Simon  Zelotes,  an  apostle  of  Jesus 
Christ.  It  is  doubtful  whether  the  name  Canaanite  were  derived 
to  him  from  the  city  of  Cana  in  Galilee  ;  or  whether  it  might  not 
be  written  Chanancan,  from  ">22::d  Chenani,  Chananean  or  Canaan- 
ite ;  or  whether  it  should  not  be  taken  according  to  its  significa- 
tion in  Hebrew,  from  the  root  Kana  top,  from  which  comes  13a  or 
^2ip  Kant  or  Kanani,  to  be  zealous.  St.  Luke  gives  him  the  sur- 
name of  Zelotes,  the  zealot,  Luke  6:  15.  Acts  1:  13.  which  seems 
to  be  a  translation  of  the  surname  Canaanite,  given  him  by  the  oth- 
er evangelists,  Matt.  10:  4.  Mark  3:  18.  Some  fathers  say,  he  was 
of  Cana,  of  the  tribe  of  Zebulun,  or  of  Naphtali.  Theodoret,  in 
Ps.  67:  18.  Hieron.  in  Matt.  x.  The  learned  are  divided  about 
the  signification  of  Zelotes  ;  some  take  it  only  to  denote  his  zeal  in 
embracing  the  gospel  of  Jesus  Christ ;  others  think  he  was  of  a 
sect  called  Zealots,  mentioned  in  Josephus,  de  Bello,  lib.  iv.  cap.  2. 
item  lib.  vi.  cap.  1."] 

§  322.  Respecting  the  Sadducees. 

The  opinions  of  the  Sadducees  were  peculiar.    They  believed, 
I.   That   besides  God,  there  was  no  other  spiritual  being, 
whether  good  or  bad.    They  believed,  that  the  soul  and  the  body 


$  322.  RESPECTING  THE  SADDUCEES.  409 

died  together,  and  that  there  neither  was,  nor  could  be  any  resur- 
rection, Matt.  22:  23.  Acts  23:  8. 

II.  They  rejected  the  doctrine  of  fate,  or  of  an  overruling  Pro- 
vidence, and  maintained  on  the  contrary,  that  the  events,  which 
happened,  depended  on  the  free  and  unconstrained  actions  of 
men. 

They  held,  that  the  traditions,  which  were  received  by  the 
Pharisees,  were  not  binding,  Josephus,  Antiquities,  XIII.  5,  9.  10, 
6.  XVIII.  1,  4.  Jewish  War,  II.  8,  14. 

They  held  other  sentiments,  it  is  true,  peculiar  to  them  as  a 
sect,  but  they  neither  disseminated  them  with  much  zeal,  nor  cul- 
tivated a  close  intercourse  and  union  with  each  other.  It  cannot 
be  inferred,  as  some  suppose,  from  what  is  remarked  by  Josephus, 
(Antiquities,  XIII.  10,  6.)  that  they  merely  received  the  Penta- 
teuch, and  rejected  all  the  other  Books  of  the  Old  Testament,  for 
he  does  not,  in  the  passage  in  question,  oppose  the  Law  to  the  oth- 
er Books,  but  to  those  unwritten  traditions,  which  it  was  one  of  their 
principles  to  reject.  Accordingly  we  find  in  the  disputes  of  the 
Talmud,  that  the  Sadducees  are  not  only  attacked  from  the  other 
Books  of  the  Old  Testament,  beside  the  Pentateuch,  but  also  draw 
arguments  from  them  in  their  own  defence,  Sanhedrin,  p.  90,  2. 
Cholin,  p.  87,  1. 

Note.  The  Sadducees,  in  progress  of  time,  appear  to  have 
admitted  the  existence  of  angels,  and  also  to  have  embraced  the 
belief  of  the  immortality  of  the  soul,  and  in  the  eighth  century, 
were  distinguished,  as  a  sect,  merely  by  rejecting  the  authority  of 
traditions.    Whence  they  were  at  length  called  Caraites. 

If  any  are  disposed  to  doubt  this  statement,  it  is,  nevertheless, 
certain,  that  the  Caraites  are  comparatively  of  recent  origin,  since 
Josephus  says  not  a  word  concerning  them.  Dr.  Rosenmueller, 
however,  contends,  (Analectae  III.  Stuck  S.  163—176.)  that  the 
Scribe,  mentioned  in  Mark  12:  28.  et  seq.  was  a  Caraite. 


62 


410 


§  323.   ESSENES  AND  THERAPEUTAE. 


§  323.  Essenes  AND  Therapeutae. 

The  principal  ground  of  difference  between  the  Essenes  or  Es- 
saei,  and  Therapeutae,  consisted  in  this ;  the  former  were  Jews, 
who  spoke  the  Aramean,  the  latter  were  Greek  Jews,  as  the 
names  themselves  intimate,  viz.  fiTSfij  and  dsQcmiVTcu.  The  Es- 
senes lived  chiefly  in  Palestine,  the  Therapeutae  in  Egypt.  The 
Therapeutae  were  more  rigid  than  the  Essenes ;  since  the  latter, 
although  they  made  it  a  practice  to  keep  at  a  distance  from  large 
cities,  lived,  nevertheless,  in  towns  and  villages,  and  practised  ag- 
riculture and  the  arts,  with  the  exception  of  those  arts,  which  were 
made  more  directly  subservient  to  the  purposes  of  war.  The  The- 
rapeutae on  the  contrary,  fled  from  all  inhabited  places,  dwelt  in 
fields  and  deserts  and  gardens,  and  gave  themselves  up  to  contem- 
plation. 

Both  the  Essenes,  and  the  Therapeutae  held  their  property  in 
common,  and  those  things,  which  they  stood  in  need  of  for  the 
support  and  the  comforts  of  life,  were  distributed  to  them  from  the 
common  stock.  The  candidates  for  admission  among  the  Es- 
senes gave  their  property  to  the  society,  but  those,  who  were  destin- 
ed for  a  membership  with  the  Therapeutae,  left  theirs  to  their 
friends  :  and  both,  after  a  number  of  years  of  probation,  made  a 
profession,  which  bound  them  to  the  exercise  of  the  strictest  upright- 
ness. 

The  Essenes  offered  prayers  before  sunrise :  after  which  each 
one  was  sent  by  the  person,  who  was  placed  over  them,  to  his  re- 
spective trade,  or  to  some  agricultural  employment.  About  eleven 
o'clock,  they  left  their  work,  and  assembled  to  partake  of  their 
bread  and  pottage.  In  the  evening  also  their  supper  was  in  com- 
mon.   Before  and  after  meals,  the  priest  offered  up  prayers. 

On  the  Sabbath,  the  Essenes  listened  to  the  reading  of  the  Law 
in  their  Synagogues,  which  was  attended  with  an  allegorical  ex- 
planation ;  they  also  read  books  by  themselves  in  private  on  that 
day. 

They  pretended  to  possess  the  secret  names  of  angels,  which, 
it  would  have  been  an  act  of  impiety,  to  have  communicated  to 
profane  persons.  They  were  upright,  kept  themselves  free  from 
crimes,  and  were  particularly  celebrated  for  their  veracity.  They 


§  324.   CONCERNING  THE  HELLENISTS. 


411 


did  not  approve  of  oaths,  and  never  took  one,  except  when  join- 
ing the  order.  They  asserted,  that  slavery  was  repugnant  to  na- 
ture. Some  of  them  made  pretensions  to  possessing  the  gift  of 
prophecy.  The  Essenes  avoided  matrimony,  with  the  exception 
of  a  particular  class  of  them,  who  married,  but  did  not  cohabit,  af- 
ter there  was  evidence  of  pregnancy.  The  rest  lived  in  celibacy, 
not  because  they  had  any  objection,  in  itself  considered,  to  the 
marriage  state,  but  because  they  supposed  all  women  to  be  adulter- 
esses. If  any  one  of  this  sect  was  found  to  be  guilty  of  any  crime, 
he  was  excluded  from  their  society. 

In  point  of  doctrine,  their  sentiments  were  nearly  the  same 
with  those  of  the  Pharisees. 

I.  They  believed,  that  God  was  the  author  of  all  good,  but 
not  of  evil ;  or,  in  other  words,  cooperated  in  good  actions,  but 
not  in  evil. 

IL  They  believed,  that  the  soul  was  immortal,  that  the  good 
after  death  received  rewards  beyond  the  islands  of  the  sea,  and 
that  the  wicked  suffered  punishments  under  the  earth. 

III.  They  objected  to  sacrifices  from  slain  animals,  and,  ac- 
cordingly, did  not  visit  the  Temple,  Josephus,  Antiquities,  XV.  10, 
5.  XVII.  13,  3.  XVIII.  1,  5.  10,  5.  Jewish  War,  II.  8,  2—12. 

The  Therapeutae  agreed,  in  most  things,  with  the  Essenes, 
but  they  all  lived  unmarried.  They  received  females  into  their 
sect,  but  such  remained  virgins,  and  followed  the  same  mode  of 
life  with  the  men.  On  the  Sabbath  only,  both  sexes  sat  at  the 
same  table,  the  men  on  the  right,  and  the  females  on  the  left  side 
of  it ;  their  meals  consisted  of  bread  and  salt  alone,  sometimes  with 
an  addition  of  hyssop.  The  Therapeutae  kept  vigils  on  the  night 
of  the  sabbath,  and,  in  imitation  of  the  Israelites  after  their  pas- 
sage through  the  Red  Sea,  sung  hymns,  and  led  sacred  dances,  Phi- 
lo  de  vita  contemplativa. 

§  324.  Concerning  the  Hellenists. 

Hellenist  is  the  name,  which  is  given  to  the  Jews,  who  are 
mentioned  in  Acts  6:  1.  9:  29.  11:  20,  and  who,  not  only  in  Egypt, 
Asia  Minor,  and  Greece,  but  in  all  places,  spoke  the  Greek,  as 
their  vernacular  tongue.  They  do  not  appear  to  be  the  same 
with  those,  who  are  mentioned  in  John  7:  35,  James  1:1,  and  first 

\  5;':>"' 


412  §32d.   CONCERNING  PROSELYTES. 

Peter  I:  1,  and  are  called  dictanoga  tcov  ilktjtmv  the  dispersed 
among  the  Gentiles  ;  for  it  appears,  that  the  Hellenists  were  found 
at  Jerusalem,  Acts  6:  1  ;  and  there  were  likewise  found,  among 
the  dtaanOQoc  or  dispersed,  Jews,  who  spoke  the  Aramean  dialect, 
as,  for  instance,  Paul  himself,  who  was  born  at  Tarsus,  2  Cor.  11: 
22.  Philipp.  3:  5.  Indeed  those,  who  spoke  the  Aramean  dialect, 
were  thought  to  possess  the  preeminence  over  those  Jews  who 
spoke  the  Greek  merely,  and  they,  therefore,  strove,  in  various 
places,  to  transmit  their  vernacular  tongue  down  to  their  posteri- 
ity. 

Onias,  son  of  Onias  III,  as  has  already  been  mentioned,  erect- 
ed a  Temple  in  Leontopolis  in  Egypt,  for  the  accommodation  of  the 
Hellenists,  who  resided  there,  about  the  year  149  before  Christ ; 
in  which  priests  of  the  house  of  Aaron,  and  Levites  administer- 
ed. 

In  this  Temple,  the  internal  arrangements  were  the  same,  as 
in  that  of  Jerusalem,  except  that  the  golden  candlestick,  instead  of 
being  placed  on  a  base,  was  suspended  by  means  of  a  gold  chain, 
Josephus,  Antiquities,  XIII.  3,  1 — 3.  Onias,  in  engaging  in  this  un- 
dertaking, was  supported,  as  he  supposed,  by  the  expressions  in 
Is.  19:  18,  et  seq.  but  the  representations,  which  are  there  given 
are  not  to  be  so  literally  interpreted.  This  Temple,  therefore, 
was  erected  without  any  sufficient  authority  from  the  Jewish 
Scriptures,  and  was  not  frequented  by  any  other  Jews,  than  the 
Egyptian  and  Cyrenian,  who,  notwithstanding  its  erection  in  the 
midst  of  them,  frequently  went  to  the  Temple  of  Jerusalem,  Acts 
6:  9.  Talmud  of  Jerusalem,  megilla,  page  73,  4.  The  Egyptian 
Temple  was  shut  up,  in  the  year  73  of  the  Christian  era,  by  the 
command  of  the  emperour  Vespasian,  on  account  of  some  tumults 
of  the  Jews,  Josephus,  Jewish  War,  VII.  10,  4.  Antiquities,  XX. 
10,1. 

§  325.  Concerning  Proselytes. 

Proselytes,  nooor}).v$oi,  i.  e.  those  who  have  come  in,  (so 
called  dno  tov  TtQOolr}lv&evcu,)  are  mentioned  at  a  very  an- 
cient period,  but  scarcely  any  where,  except  in  connexion  with 
the  journey  through  Arabia,  and  afterwards  in  the  history  of  the 
reigns  of  Solomon  and  David.    Persons  of  this  description  are  do- 


§325.   CONCERNING  PROSELYTES, 


413 


nominated  by  Moses  t3"»"i3  ,  if  they  are  destitute  of  a  house,  and 
Pfiftftft,  if  they  have  one. 

In  the  time  of  Christ  and  his  Apostles,  they  were  found  every 
where  in  great  numbers;  some  circumcised,  and  some  uncircumcis- 
ed.  The  former  were  called  pl^n  *H1/M*<  or  righteous  proselytes ; 
the  latter  "IglgSI  *V  proselytes  of  the  gate.  In  the  New  Testa- 
ment we  find  a  number  of  epithets  applied  to  the  latter  class  of 
proselytes,  as  follows,  tvkccfli7g,  tvotpsig,  oepopevoi  iov  -deov, 
cf  o^ovfxevoo  jov  &tQv,  the  pious,  the  devout,  the  reverential,  etc.  Acts 
2:  5.  10:  2,  22.  13:  16.  18:  7.  comp.  2  K.  5:  17—19. 

The  ancient  Kenites,  also  the  Rechabites,  who  were  the  pos- 
terity of  Hobab,  the  father-in-law  of  Moses,  are  to  be  reckoned 
with  this  class  of  proselytes  ;  for  they  worshipped  the  one  true  God, 
while  at  the  same  time,  they  altogether  refused  to  observe  the 
Laws  of  Moses,  Num.  10:  29.  Judg.  1:  16.  4:  11,  1  Sam.  15:  6. 
Jer.  xxxv. 

It  is  a  saying  among  the  Jews,  that  these  proselytes  observed 
those  precepts,  which  are  called  the  precepts  of  Noah,  viz. 

(I.)  That  men  should  abstain  from  idolatry. 

(2.)  That  they  should  worship  the  true  God  alone. 

(3.)  That  they  should  hold  incest  in  abhorrence. 

(4.)  That  they  should  not  commit  homicide. 

(5.)  That  they  should  not  steal  nor  rob. 

(6.)  That  they  should  punish  a  murderer  with  death. 

(7.)  That  they  should  not  eat  blood,  nor  any  thing,  in  which 
blood  is,  consequently,  nothing  strangled. 

They  frequented  the  Synagogues  in  company  with  the  Jews, 
and  although  they  were  at  liberty  to  offer  sacrifices  to  God  in  any 
place,  where  they  chose,  they  preferred  visiting  the  Temple  of  Je- 
rusalem, and  offered  sacrifices  through  the  priests. 

The  other  class  of  proselytes,  called  the  righteous,  p*1S2£j  "n-i, 
were  united  with  the  great  body  of  the  Jewish  people,  not  only 
by  circumcision,  but,  (after  they  were  restored  from  the  wound, 
that  was  inflicted  in  consequence  of  that  rite,)  by  baptism  also. 
Three  witnesses,  or  sponsors  were  present  at  the  ceremony  of 
baptism.  Their  immersion  was  not  only  a  symbol  of  their  having 
been  purified  from  the  corruption  of  idolatry,  but  it  signified  like- 
wise, that,  as  they  had  been  burried  in  the  water,  they  now  arose 


414 


§  326.   CONCERNING  THE  SAMARITANS. 


new  men,  or  regenerated,  as  it  were,  the  new  born  sons  of  Abraham, 
John  3:  3. 

The  Jews  assert,  that  the  baptism  of  proselytes,  which  has  now 
been  spoken  of,  is  mentioned  in  Exod.  19:  10,  14.  24:  8.  and  Gen. 
35:  2.  They  not  only  maintain,  that  it  is  a  necessary  ceremony, 
but  assert,  it  is  so  efficacious,  that  it  puts  an  entire  end  to  the  con- 
nexion of  the  proselyte  with  his  kindred  according  to  the  flesh,  so 
much  so  that  he  is  at  liberty,  if  he  chooses,  to  marry  his  own  moth- 
er. Comp.  1  Cor.  5:  1.  et  seq. 

Christ  speaks  of  this  baptism  in  such  a  way,  as  to  imply,  that 
it  was  well  known,  John  3:  10 ;  and  the  only  point,  which  Nicode- 
mus  did  not  understand,  was,  that  the  Jews  also,  who  were  already 
the  children  of  Abraham,  were  to  be  born  again  by  baptism.  The 
proselyte,  after  baptism,  offered  a  sacrifice  of  two  turtle  doves,  and 
two  young  pigeons. 

The  female  proselytes,  who  received  the  Mosaic  Law,  were 
baptized  likewise,  and  were  expected  to  present  a  similar  offering. 
See  Selden  de  jure  nat.  et.  gent.  II.  25.  c.  4.  p.  158.  et  seq. 

§  326.  Concerning  the  Samaritans. 

The  people  who  were  sent  by  Shalmaneser  and  Esarhaddon 
from  Cuthah,  Ava,  Hamath,  and  Sepharvaim  into  the  tract  of 
country,  which  had  formerly  belonged  to  the  tribes  of  Ephraim 
and  Manasseh,  (2  K.  17:  24.  Ezra  4:  2 — 11.)  united  with  one  an- 
other, and  with  the  Israelites,  who  were  left  there,  and  formed 
one  people.  They  were  called  Samaritans  from  their  principle 
city,  Samaria. 

At  first  these  people  worshipped  the  respective  gods  of  their 
own  nations.  But  being  harassed  by  lions,  which  had  increased 
in  number  on  account  of  the  country's  having  been  desolated,  they 
attributed  their  sufferings  from  this  source  to  the  circumstance  of 
their  having  neglected  to  worship  the  God  of  the  country.  They, 
therefore,  received  back  from  the  king  of  Assyria  an  exiled  He- 
brew priest,  who  took  up  his  residence  in  Bethel,  where  the  golden 
calf  had  formerly  been. 

This  priest  taught  them  in  the  worship  of  Jehovah  from  the 
Books  of  Moses  ;  not,  however,  as  we  may  well  suppose,  without 
mingling  with  it  the  idolatry  of  the  calf,  and  representing  that  ani- 


§  S2G.   CONCERNING  THE  SAMARITANS. 


415 


mal,  as  the  embodied  form  of  the  Deity  ;  so  that  the  people  were 
led  in  this  way  to  worship  idols  and  Jehovah  at  the  same  time,  2  K. 
17:  26—34.  comp.  2  Chron.  30:  1—10. 

The  Hebrews,  after  their  return  from  exile,  commenced  build- 
ing the  Temple.  The  Samaritans  obtruded  themselves  upon  them, 
as  companions  in  the  undertaking.  The  Jews,  who  saw,  that 
they  merely  sought  a  participation  in  the  benefits  conceded  by 
Cyrus,  that  they  would  not  leave  their  idols,  and  cared  but  little 
about  the  true  religion,  repelled  their  proposals  for  an  union. 
This  was  the  source  of  an  implacable  hatred  in  the  minds  of  the 
Samaritans  against  the  Jews.  They  impeded,  as  much  as  possible, 
the  building  of  the  Temple,  and  surreptitiously  obtained  from  the 
false  Smcrdis  a  decree,  counteracting  that  of  Cyrus. 

The  Jews,  on  the  other  hand,  were  in  turn  greatly  embitter- 
ed, and  somewhat  intimidated,  Ezra  4:  4 — 24.  Hence,  while  they 
were  pursuing  their  labours  in  the  reign  of  Darius  Hystaspes,  they 
were  often  exhorted  by  the  prophets  Haggai  and  Zechariah,  to  be 
of  good  courage.  While  Nehemiah  was  engaged  in  restoring  the 
walls  of  Jerusalem,  the  Samaritans  tried  every  art  to  frighten  him 
from  his  labours,  but  in  vain,  Neh.  6:  1 — 14.  These  things  in- 
creased the  hatred  of  the  Jews.  When  Nehemiah,  about  the  year 
408  before  Christ,  took  the  resolution  of  removing  from  the  people 
their  foreign  wives  for  fear  of  their  being  led  astray  by  them,  Ma- 
nasses,  the  son  of  the  high  priest  Joiada,  was  unwilling  to  part  with 
Ms.  This  woman  was  the  daughter  of  Sanballat,  the  ruler  of  the 
Samaritans,  and,  accordingly,  Manasses,  her  husband,  went  over  to 
them,  Neh.  13:  28. 

Sanballat  obtained  leave  of  Darius  Nothus,  and  built  a  Temple 
on  Mount  Gerezim,  and  placed  the  Jew,  his  son-in-law,  over  the 
sacred  observances.  W7hile  he  fulfilled  the  office  of  high  priest 
among  them,  the  Samaritans  appear  to  have  dismissed  their  idols. 

After  this,  very  many  of  the  Jews,  when  they  had  transgress- 
ed the  laws,  fled  to  the  Samaritans,  that  they  might  escape  punish- 
ment, and  thus  the  hatred  was  increased  on  both  sides.  In  the 
year  167  before  Christ,  when  Antiochus  Epiphanes  was  king,  the 
Samaritans  consecrated  their  Temple  to  Jupiter,  1  Mace.  3:  10. 
Antiq.  XII.  5,  5.  but  they  returned  afterwards  to  the  religion  of 
Moses. 

In  the  year  129  before  Christ,  John  Hvrcanus  destroyed  their 


416 


§  326.   CONCERNING  THE  SAMARITANS. 


Temple,  Josephus,  Antiquities,  XIII.  9.  ] .  On  the  other  hand,  the 
Samaritans,  whenever  they  could,  harassed  and  injured  the  Jews, 
Antiq.  XII.  4,  I.  XVIII.  2,  2.  Whence  the  hatred,  already  strong, 
was  mutually  increased,  and,  in  the  time  of  Christ,  there  appears 
to  have  been  no  intercourse  between  them,  Luke  17:  16.  John  4: 
9.  et  seq.  So  that  the  Jews  in  going  from  Galilee  to  Jerusalem 
could  not  with  safety  pass  through  Samaria,  but  crossed  the  Jor- 
dan, and  went  through  Gilead.  The  Jews,  under  the  influence  of 
the  hatred  they  bore  to  the  Samaritans,  changed  the  name  of  the 
city  Sichem,  into  that  of  '"1311?  Sychar,  which  means  drunken, 
John  4:  5. 

Other  grounds  of  controversy  and  ill-feeling,  between  the  Sama- 
ritans and  Jews,  were  as  follows. 

I.  The  Samaritans  did  not  receive,  as  of  divine  authority,  all 
the  Books  of  the  Old  Testament,  but  only  the  Pentateuch,  which 
they  had  received  from  the  Jewish  priest,  who  had  been  sent  to 
them  from  Assyria.  They,  nevertheless,  expected  the  advent  of  a 
Messiah,  John  4:  25.  et  seq.  ;  grounding  their  expectations  on  this 
point  probably  on  Gen.  12:  3.  18:  18.  22:18.  26:  4.  28:  14. 

II.  The  Samaritans  contended,  that  the  proper  place  of  wor- 
ship was  not  Jerusalem,  but  mount  Gerezim,  John  4:  20.  Josephus, 
Antiquities,  XIII.  3,  4. 

For  some  remarks,  respecting  the  errours,  which  Josephus  has 
committed  in  his  account  of  Manasses,  mentioned  in  this  section, 
etc.  see  the  original  German  edition  of  this  Work,  P.  II.  vol.  II. 
§  63.  p.  278—280. 


i 


417 


CHAPTER  II. 


OF  SACRED  PLACES. 


§  327.  Of  Sacred  Places  in  general. 

In  the  earliest  ages,  God  was  worshipped,  without  any  distinc- 
tion, at  any  time  and  at  any  place,  whenever  and  wherever,  the 
promptings  of  devotion  moved  in  the  hearts  of  his  creatures  ;  more 
especially,  however,  under  the  shade  of  imbowering  trees,  on  hills, 
and  mountains,  and  in  places,  where  they  had  experienced  some 
special  manifestations  of  his  favour. 

The  earliest  altar,  of  which  we  have  any  account,  is  that  of 
Noah,  Gen.  8:  20. 

Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob  erected  a  number  of  altars  in  the 
land  of  Canaan,  particularly  in  places,  where  they  had  been  favour- 
ed with  communications  from  God,  Gen.  12:  7.  13:  4,  18.  26:  25. 
33:  20.  35:  1,  3,  7. 

Moses,  and  the  author  of  the  Book  of  Joshua  both  speak  of 
idols,  altars,  and  groves,  but  are  silent  respecting  Temples.  The 
first  Temple  of  which  we  have  any  account,  was  the  one  at  She- 
chem,  which  was  dedicated  to  the  god,  Baal-berith,  but,  as  it  was 
furnished  with  a  tower,  &c.  there  had  probably  been  others  before 
it,  Judg.  9:  4. 

Moses,  although  he  had  been  acquainted  with  temples  in  Egypt, 
was  not  in  a  condition  to  erect  one,  while  marching  through  Ara- 
bia, and,  constructed  in  its  stead  the  Tabernacle,  which  could  ea- 
sily be  transferred  from  place  to  place.  This,  as  we  may  infer 
from  Amos  5:  26,  was  not  the  first  of  its  kind,  and  it  is  further- 
more, worthy  of  notice,  that  the  Carthaginians  are  said  to  have 
borne  with  them  likewise,  at  least  in  their  warlike  expeditions,  a 
sacred  tent. 

With  respect  to  the  Temple,  which  was  subsequently  erected 
53 


4 IS  §  328.  or  the  tabernacle. 

in  Palestine,  it  may  be  observed,  that  Moses  gave  no  command  on 
the  subject.  The  plan  appears  to  have  originated  with  David ;  al- 
though it  was  left  to  be  executed  by  his  successor. 

§  328.  Of  the  Tabernacle. 

The  place,  where  public  worship  was  held  from  the  time  of 
Moses,  till  Solomon,  viz.  the  Tabernacle,  is  mentioned  in  the  Old 
Testament  by  various  names,  to  wit,  anient,  ]2ZJ2  a  habitation, 
U"7p£)  a  sanctuary,  n*2n  a  house,  mn)  I^SIS  "p^tt  the  dwelling 
place  of  Jehovah's  glory,  TIVV  bntt  Jehovah's  tent,  ISpE  and 
nni;n  the  tent  of  the  congregation,  and  sometimes  b^n  the 
palace.    It  was  divided  into  three  parts. 

Theirs*  part  was  the  area  or  court  of  the  Tabernacle,  an  hun- 
dred cubits,  [about  an  hundred  and  fifty  feet,]  long,  and  fifty  cubits, 
[about  seventy  five  feet,]  broad. 

It  was  surrounded  on  all  sides,  to  the  height  of  five  cubits, 
with  curtains  cVrp  made  of  linen.  They  were  suspended  from 
rods  of  silver,  which  reached  from  one  column  to  another,  and 
rested  on  them.  The  columns,  CHI  7?i* ,  on  the  East  and  West,  were 
ten,  on  the  North  and  South,  twenty  in  number,  and  were,  with- 
out doubt,  made  of  the  acacia,  (shittim  wood.)  The  columns,  in 
order  to  prevent  their  being  injured  by  the  moisture  of  the  earth, 
were  supported  on  bases  of  brass  .    Near  the  top  of  the  col- 

umns, were  silver  hooks  ,  in  which  the  rods  that  sustained  the 
curtains,  were  inserted. 

That  part  of  the  court  of  the  Tabernacle,  which  formed  the 
entrance,  was  twenty  cubits  in  extent,  and  was  on  the  East  side  of 
it.  The  entrance  was  closed  by  letting  fall  a  sort  of  tapestry, 
which  hung  from  rods  or  poles,  resting  on  four  columns,  and 
which  was  adorned  with  figures  in  blue,  purple,  and  scarlet.  When 
the  entrance  was  opened,  the  tapestry  was  drawn  up.  The  cur- 
tains of  the  entrance  were  called  ^073  [in  distinction  from  the  cur- 
tains, that  were  suspended  around  other  parts  of  the  court  of  the 
Tabernacle,]  Exod.  27:  9—19.  39:  9—20. 

The  tabernacle,  (strictly  so  called,)  was  situated  in  the  mid- 
dle of  the  western  side  of  the  court.  It  was  covered  on  every  part, 
and,  in  point  of  form,  was  an  oblong  square,  being  thirty  cubits  long 
from  West  to  East,  and  ten  broad  from  North  to  South. 


§  329.  THE  ALTAR  AND  BRAZEN  LATER. 


419 


The  walls  were  composed  of  forty  eight  boards  or  planks,  viz. 
twenty  on  the  North  side,  twenty  on  the  South  side,  and  six  on 
the  West.  The  two  at  the  angles  were  doubled,  making  the  forty 
eight,  Exod.  26:  15 — 30.  The  Eastern  side  was  not  boarded. 
The  boards,  tP'I^p  ,  were  of  acacia  or  shittim  wood,  ten  cubits 
long,  one  and  a  half  broad,  and  overlaid  with  plates  of  gold.  They 
rested  on  bases  of  silver,  and  were  united  together  by  bars  or  poles 
also  of  gold. 

The  tabernacle,  thus  constructed,  was  shielded  by  four  cov- 
erings. The  first,  or  rather  interiour  or  lower  covering,  called 
13*553 ,  was  made  of  "fine  twined  linen,"  extended  down  within 
a  cubit  of  the  earth,  and  displayed  pictures  of  Cherubim,  wrought 
into  it  with  various  colours,  viz.  blue,  purple,  and  scarlet.  The 
second,  properly  called  bt"»N>was  a  fabric,  woven  of  goats'  hair, 
and  extended  very  nearly  to  the  ground,  Exod.  26:  7 — 13.  The 
third  was  of  rams'  skins  dyed  red,  the  fourth,  of  the  skins  of  the 
*£ftn,  a  difficult  word,  meaning,  according  to  some,  a  sky-blue  col- 
our, according  to  others,  a  sea-animal ;  both  of  the  last  were  called 

The  eastern  side  or  entrance  was  closed  by  means  of  a  curtain 
made  of  cotton,  which  was  suspended  from  silver  rods,  that  were 
sustained  by  five  columns,  covered  with  gold. 

The  interiour  of  the  Tabernacle  was  divided  into  two  parts  ; 
the  first,  twenty  cubits  long,  and  ten  broad  and  high,  was  separated 
from  the  second  or  inner  apartment,  by  a  curtain  or  veil,  which 
hung  down  from  four  columns  overlaid  with  gold,  and  was  denom- 
inated divregop  xazaTiiTCcOfJCi,  or  the  inner  veil,  Exod.  26:  36,  37. 
The  first  apartment  was  called  tfinp,  or  the  Holy,  and  in  Hebrews 
9:  2.  OY.YIVYI  TiQfoTr]  ,*  the  inner  apartment  was  called,  C^dTp  *I5*ip, 
ayca  aylmv  or  the  most  Holy,  and  sometimes  axrju^  divrtga,  or  the 
inner  Tabernacle. 

§  329.  The  Altar  and  brazen  laver. 

Nearly  in  the  centre  of  the  outer  court  was  the  altar,  ttattt , 
Srfcton  rDTtt,  Exod.  40:  29.  It  was  a  kind  of  coffer,  three  cubits 
high,  five  long  and  broad,  made  of  shittim  wood.  The  lower  part 
rested  on  four  short  columns  or  feet,  the  sides  of  which  were 
grates  of  brass,  through  which  the  blood  of  the  victim  flowed  out. 


420 


$  330.  THE  GOLDEN  CANDLESTICK. 


The  sides  of  the  upper  part  of  the  altar  were  wood  covered  with 
brass,  and  the  interiour  space  was  filled  with  earth,  upon  which 
the  fire  was  kindled.  The  four  corners  of  the  altar  projected  up- 
wards, so  as  to  resemble  horns.  At  the  four  corners  were  rings, 
myztt,  through  which  poles,  tJVja  j  were  placed,  for  the  purpose 
of  transporting  it  from  place  to  place.  On  the  South  side  there 
was  an  ascent  on  to  it,  made  of  earth  heaped  up,  Exod.  20:  24.  24: 
4.  27:  ]— 8.  38:  1—7.  Lev.  9:  22. 

The  appurtenances  of  the  altar  were  the  "J^b  ni^PD ,  or  urns 
for  carrying  away  the  ashes ;  the  or  shovels,  for  collecting 

them  together;  the  rnpn»72,  or  skins  for  receiving  and  sprinkling 
the  blood  of  the  victims ;  the  ni^rTXD ,  a  sort  of  tongs  for  turning  the 
parts  of  the  victim  in  the  fire  ;  the  ninnE  ,  or  censers  for  burning 
incense,  and  other  instruments  of  brass,  Exod.  27:  3.  38:  3. 

Between  the  altar  and  the  Tabernacle,  a  little  to  the  South, 
stood  a  circular  laver,  "1^3 ,  which,  together  with  its  base,  ]3 , 
was  made  of  the  brazen  ornaments,  which  the  women  had  present- 
ed for  the  use  of  the  Tabernacle,  and  was  thence  called,  1T>!S 
n'^n: ,  Exod.  30:  18.  40:  7.  The  priests,  when  about  to  perform 
their  duties,  washed  their  hands  in  this  laver. 

§  330.  The  Golden  Candlestick. 

The  Golden  Candlestick,  tt*T?3J3 ,  was  placed  in  the  first 
apartment  of  the  Tabernacle,  on  the  South  side.  It  stood  on  a  base 
*J*V ,  from  which  the  principal  stem  siaj^ ,  arose  perpendicularly. 
On  both  sides  of  it,  there  projected  upwards,  in  such  a  way  as  to 
describe  a  curved  line,  three  branches,  trap .  They  arose  from 
the  main  stem,  at  equal  distances  from  each  other,  and  to  the  same 
height  with  it.  The  height  in  the  whole,  according  to  the  Jewish 
Rabbins,  was  Jive  feet,  and  the  breadth,  or  the  distance  between 
the  exteriour  branches,  three  and  a  half.  The  main  stem  together 
with  the  branches  were  adorned  with  knops,  flowers,  and  other  or- 
naments of  gold. 

The  seven  extremeties  of  the  main  stem  and  branches  were 
employed,  as  so  many  separate  lamps,  all  of  which  were  kept  burn- 
ing in  the  night,  but  three  only  in  the  day,  Exod.  30:  8.  Lev.  24: 
4.  Antiq.  III.  8,  3. 

The  priest,  in  the  morning,  put  the  lamps  in  order  with  his 


§  331.   OF  THE  TABLE  OF  SHEW-BREAD. 


421 


golden  snuffers,  C^rtpV^  ,  and  carried  away  the  tilth,  that  might 
have  gathered  upon  them,  in  golden  vessels  made  for  that  purpose, 
fpfinw .  The  weight  of  the  whole  candlestick  was  a  talent  or  one 
hundred  and  twenty  five  pounds,  Exod.  25:  31—40.  27:  20.  37:  17 
—24.  Lev.  24:  1—4.  Num.  4:  9. 

§  331.  Of  the  Tadle  of  Shew-Bread. 

In  the  first  apartment  of  the  Tabernacle  also,  on  the  North 
6ide,  was  a  Table,  |nbl|i ,  made  of  acacia  wood  ;  two  cubits  long, 
one  broad,  and  one  and  a  half  high,  and  covered  over  with  laminae 
of  gold.  The  top  of  the  leaf  of  this  table  was  encircled  with  a  bor- 
der, or  rim  of  gold.  The  frame  of  the  table,  immediately  below 
the  leaf,  was  encircled  with  a  piece  of  wood,  rn2  Dtt ,  of  about  four 
inches  in  breadth,  around  the  edge  of  which  there  was  a  rim  or 
border,  *i]r,  the  same,  as  around  the  leaf.  A  little  lower  down,  but 
at  equal  distances  from  the  top  of  the  Table,  there  were  four  rings 
of  gold,  fastened  to  the  legs  of  it,  through  which  staves  covered 
with  gold,  were  placed,  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  it,  Exod.  25:  23 
—28.  37:  10—16. 

The  rings  here  mentioned,  inT  nisaLJ ,  were  not  found  in  the 
table  of  shew-bread,  which  was  afterwards  made  for  the  Temple, 
nor  indeed  in  any  of  the  sacred  furniture,  where  they  had  previous- 
ly been,  except  in  the  Ark  of  the  covenant. 

Twelve  unleavened  loaves  were  placed  upon  this  table,  which 
were  sprinkled  over  with  frankincense,  and,  it  is  stated  in  the 
Alexandrine  version,  (Lev.  24:  7.)  with  salt  likewise.  They  were 
placed  in  two  piles,  one  above  another,  were  changed  every  sabbath 
day  by  the  priests,  and  were  called  £ppi  fch;:  the  bread  of  the  face, 
because  it  was  exhibited  before  the  face  or  throne  of  Jehovah, 
fitnyftti  Dfrb  the  bread  arranged  in  order,  and  Tftn  tlftb  the  per- 
ptluaYbread  'Xw.  24:  6,  7.  1  Chron.  23:  29. 

Wine  was  placed  upon  the  table  in  bowls,  some  larger,  rn^jpp , 
and  some  smcdler,  rn©3 ,  also  in  a  sort  of  vessels,  that  were  cover- 
ed, rn&p,  and  in  cups,  ,  which  were  employed  in  pouring  in 
and  taking  out  the  wine  from  the  other  vessels,  Exod.  25:  29,  30. 
37:  10—16.  40:  4,  24.  Lev.  24:  5—9.  Num.  4:  7. 


422     §  333.   ARK  OF  THE  COVENANT  IN  THE  HOLY  OF  HOLIES. 


§  332.  The  Altar  of  Incense. 

The  altar  of  incense,  rnbp  ^lttpfc  h3TX3 ,  was  situated  be- 
tween the  Table  of  shew-bread  and  the  golden  candlestick,  to- 
wards the  veil,  which  enclosed  the  interiour  apartment  of  the 
Tabernacle,  or  the  Holy  of  holies.  It  was  constructed  of  shittim 
or  acacia  wood,  a  cubit  long  and  broad,  and  two  high.  It  was  or- 
namented at  the  four  corners,  and  overlaid  throughout  with  lami- 
nae of  gold.  Hence  it  was  called  the  golden  altar,  int  h2t73  ,  also 
the  interiour  altar,  WIS!!  ft2T» ,  in  contradistinction  from  the  altar 
for  the  victims,  which  was  in  the  large  court. 

The  upper  surface  of  this  altar,  33  ,  was  encircled  by  a  border, 
,and  on  each  of  the  two  sides,  were  fastened  at  equal  distances, 
two  rings  for  the  admission  of  the  rods  of  gold,  by  which  it  was 
carried.  Incense  was  offered  on  this  altar  daily,  morning  and 
evening,  a  description  of  which  is  given  in  Exod.  30:  34 — 37. 
comp.  Exod.  30:  1—10.  37:  25—29.  40:  5,  26.  Josephus,  Antiqui- 
ties, HI.  6,  8.  Jewish  War,  V.  3:  5. 

§  333.  Ark  of  the  Covenant  in  the  Holy  of  Holies. 

The  Ark  of  the  Covenant,  n^SUn  "p^tt ,  miSJtt  jVlflt,  V  at^oj- 
Tog  irjg  dw&qxtjQ)  was  deposited  in  that  part  of  the  Tabernacle, 
called  the  Holy  of  holies,  a  place  so  secluded,  that  the  light  of  day 
never  found  an  entrance  within  it.  It  was  a  box  of  an  oblong 
shape,  made  of  shittim  wood,  a  cubit  and  a  half  broad  and  high, 
and  two  cubits  long,  and  covered  on  all  sides  with  the  purest  gold. 
It  was  ornamented  on  its  upper  surface  with  a  border  or  rim  of  gold, 
and  on  each  of  the  two  sides,  at  equal  distances  from  the  top,  were 
two  gold  rings,  in  which  were  placed,  (to  remain  their  perpetually,) 
the  staves  of  gold,  by  which  the  Ark  was  carried,  and  which  contin- 
ued with  it,  after  it  was  deposited  in  the  Temple.  It  was  so  situated 
in  the  Holy  of  holies,  that  the  ends  of  the  rods  touched  the  veil, 
which  separated  the  two  apartments  of  the  Tabernacle,  Exod.  25: 
10—15.  37:  1—9.  IK.  8:  8. 

The  lid  or  cover  of  the  Ark,  rn*S3,  IXaoirioiov,  enl&ijfAU,  was 
of  the  same  length,  and  breadth,  and  made  of  the  purest  gold. 

Over  it,  at  the  two  extremeties,  were  two  Cherubim,  with 


§  334.   RESPECTING  THE  HOLT  LAND. 


423 


their  faces  turned  towards  each  other,  and  inclined  a  little  to  the 
lid,  [otherwise  called  the  mercy-seat.]  Their  wings,  which  were 
spread  out  over  the  top  of  the  ark,  formed  the  throne  of  God,  the 
king,  while  the  ark  itself  was  his  footstool. 

There  was  nothing  within  the  ark,  excepting  the  two  Tables  of 
stone,  on  which  were  inscribed  the  ten  fundamental  laws  of  the 
Jewish  religion  and  commonwealth. 

A  quantity  of  manna  was  laid  up  beside  the  ark,  in  a  a  vase  of 
gold,  n::2:£,  Exod.  17:  32,  36;  also  the  rod  of  Aaron,  Num.  17: 
10.  and  a  copy  of  the  Books  of  Moses,  Deut.  31:  26. 

Note.  It  is  stated,  in  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  that  the  al- 
tar of  incense  was  placed  in  the  interiour  apartment  of  the  Taber- 
nacle or  Holiest  of  all,  and  that  the  rod  of  Aaron,  and  the  vase  of 
manna  were  deposited  within  the  ark  of  the  covenant.  The  wri- 
ter of  this  Epistle,  (even  supposing  Paul  was  not  the  author  of  it,) 
gives  far  too  decided  indications  of  his  erudition,  to  permit  us  to 
suppose,  that  he  was  ignorant  of  the  statements  in  Exod.  16:  33, 
34.  Num.  17:  10.  and  1  K.  8:  9.  The  assertions,  therefore,  to 
which  we  have  referred,  are  to  be  considered  the  errours  of  the 
person,  who  translated  the  Epistle  from  the  Hebrew  into  the 
Greek. 

§  334.  Respecting  the  Holy  Land. 

The  camps  of  the  Hebrews  participated,  in  some  degree,  in 
that  sacredness,  which  attached  itself  to  the  tabernacle,  Deut.  23: 
13 — 15.  Lev.  13:  46.  This  idea  of  consecration  and  holiness  be- 
came connected  afterwards  with  the  country  of  the  Hebrews  itself, 
which  had  formerly  been  consecrated  to  the  true  God  by  the  patri- 
archs in  the  erection  of  altars,  and  was  now  the  residence  of  the 
only  true  religion,  Exod.  15:  16.  2  Mace.  1:  7. 

The  more  recent  Jews  assigned  different  degrees  of  holiness, 
etc.  to  different  regions,  the  highest  to  the  countries  occupied  by 
Moses  and  Joshua,  and  the  least  to  the  regions,  subdued  by  David. 
As  to  all  other  lands  and  districts,  they  considered  them  profane, 
the  very  dust  of  which  would  contaminate  a  Jew,  Matt.  10:  14. 
Acts  13:  51.  18:  6.  That  place  or  town  was  considered  peculiar- 
ly holy,  the  most  so  of  any  other,  in  which  the  Tabernacle  was  fix- 


424 


§335.   OF  JERUSALEM  THE  HOLY  CITY. 


ed  and  the  Ark  of  the  covenant.  For  instance,  Gilgal,  and  after- 
wards Skiloh,  a  city  situated  on  a  pleasant  mountain,  twenty  three 
miles  north  of  Jerusalem,  in  the  tribe  of  Ephraim,  Josh.  18:  1,  8,  9. 
Judg.  20:  i.  1  Sam.  1:  3—24.  2:  14.  3:  3—21.  4:  3,  4, 13—18.  7: 
5.  10:  17. 

The  tabernacle,  during  the  reign  of  Saul,  was  removed  to  Nob, 
between  Arimathaea  and  Joppa,  six  and  a  quarter  miles  north  of 
Jerusalem,  and  was  afterwards  conveyed  to  Gibeon,  1  Chron.  16: 
39—43.  2  Chron.  1:  2—6,  13.  1  K.  3:  5—9.  The  ark  of  the  co- 
venant was  taken,  in  the  time  of  Eli,  from  the  tabernacle,  and  car- 
ried into  the  army,  was  captured  by  the  Philistines,  and  afterwards 
sent  back  to  the  city  of  Kirjathjearim,  situated  on  the  boundary  be- 
tween Judah  and  Benjamin,  and  nine  miles  west  of  Jerusalem, 

1  Sam.  6:  20.  7:  2.  It  remained  there,  till  it  was  carried  back 
nearly  seventy  years  after,  to  mount  Zion  by  David,  2  Sam.  6:  1 — 
20.  1  Chron.  13:  1—4.  15:  1—16.  It  was  at  last  removed  by 
Solomon  into  the  temple,  1  K.  8:  1—9.  2  Chron.  5:  2—20. 

§  335.  Of  Jerusalem,  the  Holy  City. 

After  this  time,  viz.  the  erection  of  the  temple,  and  the  re- 
moval of  the  ark  into  it,  Jerusalem  was  called  the  city  of  God, 
IWtfjiHT!  T^j  the  holiest  dwelltng-place  of  the  most  High, 
"P"1-?.  ^3S^7a  ttjilp  ;  and  the  holy  city,  fij^'p  "Typj  Ps.  46:  3.  Is.  48: 

2  Dan.  9:  24. ;  by  which  last  title,  it  is  mentioned  on  the  coins  of 
the  Maccabean  age  ;  and  it  is  thus  called  throughout  the  East,  at 
the  present  day,  by  the  Mohamedans. 

It  was  situated  on  the  southern  boundary  of  the  tribe  of  Ben- 
jamin, in  latitude  31°  50',  Josh.  15:  8.  18:26—28.  Judg.  1:  21. 
It  is  thirty  seven  miles  distant  from  the  Mediterranean,  and  twenty 
three  from  the  Jordan.    See  Reland's  Palestine,  P.  I.  B.  II.  p.  423. 

The  holy  city  was  situated  on  three  hills,  and  was  bounded  on 
three  sides,  by  valleys,  viz.  on  the  East,  West,  and  South,  but  on 
the  North,  there  was  merely  a  steep  declivity.  The  most  lofty  of 
these  hills  was  Zion,  otherwise  called  the  city  of  David. 

The  hill  of  Moria  was  situated  to  the  East  of  Zion,  and  was 
separated  from  it  by  a  deep  valley  intervening.  Upon  this  hill,  the 
Temple  was  built. 

There  was  a  third  hill  of  less  elevation,  than  either  of  those, 


§  335.   OF  JERUSALEM  THE  HOLY  CITY. 


425 


which  have  been  mentioned,  situated  to  the  North  and  separated 
from  Moria  and  Zion  by  a  valley.  It  has  been  named  in  modern 
times  Acra. 

In  the  time  of  Christ,  there  was  a  suburb  to  the  North  of  the 
city,  called  fiz&da,  Nn'irj  mmvqtioUq,  which  was  at  length 

enclosed  with  walls  by  king  Agrippa. 

Both  Zion  and  Acra  had  walls  of  their  own,  distinct  from  the 
great  city  wall,  and  the  hill  of  Moria  was  encircled  likewise  by  the 
wall  of  the  temple.  The  circumference  of  the  city,  in  the  time 
of  Josephus,  was  about  four  miles  and  an  eighth,  Jewish  War,  V. 
4,  3. 

At  the  bottom  of  Mount  Moria,  to  the  South  east,  flowed  the 
fountain  Siloam  or  Siloe,  hVr  Is.  8:  6.  Neh.  3:  15.  John  9:  7,  11. 
Luke  13:  4 ;  the  only  fountain,  whose  waters  gladdened  the 
city. 

On  the  borders  of  this  stream  were  the  gardens  of  the  Kings, 
and,  so  late  as  the  time  of  Jerome,  the  valley  through  which  it 
passed,  was  rendered  delightful  by  shady  groves.  See  his  Com- 
mentary on  Matt.  x.  This  commentator  observes  further,  in  his 
remarks  on  Jeremiah  xiv.  and  Isaiah  8:  6,  that  Siloe  does  not  flow 
regularly,  but  only  on  certain  days  and  hours,  when  it  bursts  forth 
through  the  crevices  of  the  earth,  and  from  rocky  caves,  with 
much  violence  and  with  surprising  noise.  The  hill  Ophel  ap- 
pears to  have  been  not  far  from  this  stream,  Josephus,  Jewish  War, 
V.  4,  1. 

Both  the  valley,  which  separates  the  city  on  the  East  from 
the  much  more  lofty  mount  of  Olives,  and  the  winter-torrent,  which 
flows  through  it,  were  called  by  the  common  name  of  Cedron, 
■jinip  Kedpolv,  Josephus,  Jewish  War,  V.  6,  1. 

To  the  South  of  the  city  is  the  valley  of  the  son  of  Hinnom, 
EiSt"!  I'D.  1$  ,  in  which  was  the  place  called  Tophet,  npn  ,  rendered 
famous  on  account  of  the  immolation  of  children,  which  was  wit- 
nessed there.  To  the  West,  is  the  valley  of  Gihon,  "pfP-j,  which 
is  less  deep,  however,  than  that  of  Hinnom,  1  K.  1:  33, 38.  2  Chron. 
33:  14.  32:  30. 

The  approach  of  an  army  to  the  city,  from  either  of  these 
three  vallies,  was  difficult.  It  was,  therefore,  commonly  attacked 
on  the  North. 

Golgotha  or  Calvary,   in    Syriac  Nnbi^bi ,    in  Chaldaic 
54 


426 


§  336.  MOUNT  MORIAH. 


Kfc&t&J  and  n3riiVa  ,  was  situated  out  of  the  city,  Matt.  27:  33.  Mark 
15:  22.  John  19:  17.  According  to  Eusebius  and  Jerome,  it  was 
to  the  North  of  Zion.  Hence  the  hill,  which  is  now  situated  in 
the  middle  of  the  city  of  Jerusalem,  and  on  which  is  shown  to  the 
pilgrim  the  pretended  tomb  of  the  Sav  iour,  cannot  be  the  place, 
where  he  was  buried.  What  is  said  in  opposition  to  this  conclu- 
sion, viz.  that  the  city  as  it  now  exists,  is  built  in  a  different  place 
from  what  it  was  formerly,  can  be  admitted  only  so  far  as  this,  that 
the  hill  of  Zion  and  Bezetha  are  excluded  from  it,  but  it  does  not 
prove  that  the  city  has  extended  North  and  West,  more  than  it  did 
originally,  and  thereby  taken  in  the  hill  of  Calvary,  which  could 
not  be  well  done,  on  account  of  the  vallies.  This  statement  in 
respect  to  Calvary  solves  some  difficulties  in  the  account  of  the  re- 
surrection of  Christ. 

Many  of  the  gates  of  the  city  are  indeed  mentioned,  but  the 
situation  of  almost  all  of  them  is  difficult  to  be  precisely  ascer- 
tained. 

§  3S0.    Mount  Moriaii. 

Mount  Moriah,  on  which,  agreeably  to  the  last  wishes  of  king 
David,  the  Temple  was  erected,  about  the  year  592  after  the  de- 
parture of  the  Hebrews  from  Egypt,  was  an  abrupt  ascent,  the 
summit  of  which  was  so  small,  that  it  did  not  extend  base  sufficient 
for  the  courts  and  appendages  of  the  sacred  edifice,  Josephus, 
Jewish  War,  V.  5,  1.  It  was  with  the  view  to  remedy  the  evil, 
which  was  thus  occasioned,  by  giving  a  greater  extent  to  this  em- 
inence, that  Solomon  raised  a  wall  of  square  stones,  along  the  val- 
lies, which  encircled  it,  and  filled  up  the  intervening  space  be- 
tween the  wall  and  the  acclivity  of  the  hill  with  earth,  Josephus 
Antiquities,  XV.  11,2. 

After  the  Captivity,  the  Hebrews  continued  gradually  to  in- 
crease the  extent  of  this  hill  for  many  ages ;  they  moved  back 
the  wall  on  the  North,  and  on  the  South  and  West  also  erected 
wails  of  immense  square  stones  from  the  lowest  parts  of  the  val- 
lies, so  as  at  last  to  render  the  top  of  the  hill  a  furlong  square. 
The  smallest  altitude  of  the  walls  was  four  hundred  and  fifty  feet, 
the  greatest,  viz.  in  the  southern  direction,  six  hundred. 

Josephus,  who  makes  these  statements,  is  not  always  consistent 


$  337.  OF  THE  TEMPLE  OF  8CLOMON. 


427 


with  himself;  but,  on  this  point,  we  do  not  wish  at  present  to  en- 
ter into  a  discussion.  Compare  the  history  of  the  Jewish  War,  V. 
5,  1.  with  the  same  Work  I.  21,  1.  V.  5,6.  and  Jewish  Antiquities, 
VIII.  3,  9.  XV.  11,  3.  XX.  9,  7. 

§  337.  Of  the  Temple  of  Solomon. 

The  summit  of  Moriah,  the  extent  of  which  had  been  increased, 
as  has  already  been  seen,  by  a  wall  built  around,  and  which  was 
encircled  on  the  Eastern,  and  probably  on  all  sides  with  a  gallery 
or  portico,  was  divided  into  the  great  or  exteriour  court,  'iSffJIi 
n:i^^hrr,  and  the  interiour  court,  nWrBii  l^hrt  otherwise  called 
the  court  before  the  temple  WWI  *Stfe  i#k  *"i£ftn  ,  called  also  the 
court  of  the  priests,  d^nbn  K.  6:  36.  7:  12.  2  K.  23:  12. 

2  Chron.  4:  9.  20:  5.  Ez'eL  40:  28. 

Whether  these  two  courts  were  separated  from  each  other 
by  a  wall,  or  merely  by  a  sort  of  latticed  fence  or  trellis,  does  not 
clearly  appear,  for  the  description  of  the  temple,  as  it  is  given  in 
1  K.  6:  I— 38.  7:  13—51.  and  2  Chron.  3:  1—4,  22.  is  a  very  con- 
cise one.  This,  however,  is  evident  in  respect  to  this  subject, 
that  the  new  court,  so  called,  fttZJlfrlH  ^l&rffi  fl  mentioned  in  2  Chron. 
20:  5.  was  not  a  third  court,  but  the  second  or  interiour  one,  newly 
repaired. 

There  were  various  buildings,  and  apartments,  niD'i3V  ,  in  which 
provisions  were  kept,  also  the  vases  and  other  utensils,  which  be- 
longed to  the  temple  ;  and  some  of  which,  were  occupied  like- 
wise by  the  priests  and  Levites,  while  they  were  employed  there, 
in  the  fulfilment  of  their  sacred  duties,  1  Chron.  9:  26,  33.  23:  28. 
28:  12.  2  Chron.  31:  12.  Jer.  35:  2,  4.  36:  10. 

The  altar  in  the  interiour  court  or  the  court  of  the  priests  was 
built  of  unhewn  stones,  for  Moses  expressly  forbade  any  others  to 
be  used ;  it  was  covered,  like  that  in  the  tabernacle,  with  brass, 
although  it  was  not  built  with  the  same  dimensions,  it  being  twen- 
ty cubits  long  and  broad,  and  ten  high,  2  Chron.  4:  1,  10. 

The  vases,  and  other  utensils,  belonging  to  this  altar,  were 
much  more  numerous,  than  in  the  tabernacle,  1  K.  7:  40 — 47. 
The  very  large  brazen  laver,  called  the  molten  sea  pETO  CP ,  was 
an  hemisphere,  ten  cubits  in  diameter,  five  deep,  and  thirty  in  cir- 
cumference.    It  could  contain  three  thousand  baths,  and  was 


428  §  338.  THE  SANCTUARY  OF  SOLOMONS  TEMPLE. 


adorned  in  its  upper  edge  with  figures,  that  resembled  lilies  in 
bloom.  But,  although  it  held  the  large  number  of  baths,  which 
have  been  mentioned,  it  was  commonly  supplied  with  only  two 
thousand,  2  Chron.  4:  3—5.  1  K.  7:  26. 

It  was  enriched  with  various  ornamental  figures,  and  rested  on 
the  back  of  twelve  oxen,  fhree  facing  to  the  North,  and  three  to  the 
East,  and  the  others  in  the  opposite  directions. 

There  were,  in  addition  to  the  brazen  sea,  ten  smaller  brazen 
lavcrs  n£>rn  rnT3  ,  which  were  also  set  off*  with  various  ornaments, 
five  on  the  North,  and  five  on  the  South  side  of  the  court.  They 
rested  on  bases  and  wheels  of  brass,  were  each  four  cubits  in  cir- 
cumference, and  held  forty  baths.  The  flesh  of  the  victims,  that 
were  sacrificed,  was  washed  in  these  lavers,  1  K.  7:  27 — 39.  2 
Chron.  4:  6. 

§  338.  The  Sanctuary  of  Solomon's  Temple. 

The  sanctuary,  n^3:,  ^"TT  ,  PT3  6  vaog;  was  sixty  cu- 

bits long,  twenty  broad,  and  thirty  high,  with  the  exception  of  the 
part  called  the  sanctissimum  or  Most  Holy,  the  height  of  which 
was  only  twenty  cubits  ;  so  that  there  remained  a  room  above  it  of 
ten  cubits  in  height. 

The  windows,  CEDN  fcp'J  ^inVft  appear  to  have  been  latticed, 
1  K.  6:  2—4. 

In  front  of  the  sanctuary,  was  the  porch  ngovctog,  Ebntf ,  an 
hundred  and  twenty  cubits  high,  twenty  broad  from  North  to  South, 
and  ten  long  from  East  to  West,  1  K.  6:  3.  2  Chron.  3:  4. 

Two  columns  of  brass  were  erected  near  the  entrance  of  this 
Porch  ;  each  twelve  cubits  in  circumference.  The  one  to  the 
North  was  called  "pD"1  Jachin  ;  the  other,  which  was  to  the  South, 
was  called  Trz  Boaz.  The  height  of  the  shafts  of  these  columns 
was  eighteen  cubits;  of  the  capitals,  ni nnb ,  five  cubits  ;  and  of 
the  base,  thirteen  cubits,  making  the  whole  altitude  thirty  six. 

If  in  1  K.  25:  17.  the  capitals  are  said  to  be  only  three  cu- 
bits in  height,  the  reason  of  it  probably  was,  that  their  altitude 
had  been  diminished,  in  the  repairing,  at  some  time,  of  the  Tem- 
ple. These  pillars  were  profusely  ornamented  with  carved  rep- 
resentations of  leaves,  pomegranates,  etc.  were  hollow  within,  and 


§  338.   THE  SANCTUARY  OF  SOLOMON^  TEMPLE. 


429 


the  brass  of  which  they  were  made,  was  a  hand's  breadth  in  thick- 
ness, 1  K.  7:  15—20.  2  Chron.  3:  15—17. 

A  gallery  extended  along  the  sides  of  the  sanctuary,  with  the 
exception  of  the  Eastern,  which  was  three  stories  high,  was  con- 
structed of  beams  and  planks,  and  to  which  there  was  an  ascent  on 
the  South  side,  by  a  flight  of  winding  stairs,  tPj}^,  1  K.  6:  5,  6,  8. 
The  sanctuary  itself  was  constructed  of  square  stones,  but  was  cov- 
ered with  boards  of  cedar,  within  and  without,  in  which  a  variety 
of  ornamental  figures  were  carved  out,  and  which  was  over-laid 
with  laminae  of  gold.  The  passage  into  the  Porch,  noovuog,  was 
very  lofty  and  broad,  but  it  was  merely  an  open  entrance,  without 
any  door.  The  entrance  into  the  sanctuary,  on  the,  contrary,  was 
closed  by  a  valve  or  folding  door,  made  of  the  oleaster  or  wild  ol- 
ive, which  was  ornamented  with  specimens  of  carved  work  in  the 
shape  of  cherubim,  palms,  and  flowers,  was  covered  with  gold,  and 
turned  on  golden  hinges,  1  K.  6:  33 — 35. 

The  door,  that  opened  into  the  sanctissimum  or  Holy  of  Holies, 
which  was  a  pentagon  in  point  of  form,  was  adorned  and  enrich- 
ed, in  the  same  way,  with  that  of  the  sanctuary,  IK.  6:  31,  32. 
Both  doors  were  cohered  with  a  veil  of  linen,  wrought  with  embroi- 
dery, 2  Chron.  3:  14. 

Within  the  sanctuary  was  the  altar  of  incense,  overlaid  with 
gold,  ten  tables,  also  overlaid  with  gold,  and  ten  golden  candle- 
sticks, five  of  each  on  the  North,  and  five  on  the  South  side.  On 
these  tables  were  placed  not  only  twelve  loaves,  but  also  an  hundred 
golden  cups.  The  other  vessels  of  the  sanctuary  likewise  were 
more  numerous,  than  in  the  tabernacle,  1  K.  7:  48 — 50.  2  Chron. 
4.  19—22. 

The  ark  of  the  covenant  was  deposited  in  the  Holy  of  holies. 
Its  position  was  such,  that  the  staves,  by  which  it  was  carried,  and 
which  were  somewhat  long,  touched  the  veil ;  from  which  circum- 
stance it  may  be  inferred,  that  the  door  of  this  apartment  stood 
open,  1  K.  8:  8.  2  Chron.  5:  9. 

Near  the  ark,  were  two  cherubim,  made  of  the  wood  of  the 
wild-olive,  and  covered  with  gold.  Each  of  which  was  ten  cubits 
high,  and  each  extended  one  of  its  wings  over  the  ark,  to  the  mid- 
dle of  it,  and  the  other  to  the  wall,  1  K.  6:  23—28.  2  Chron.  3: 
10—13. 


430 


539.   OF  THE  TEMPLE  OF  ZERUBBABEL. 


Note  1.  The  description  of  the  Temple  of  Solomon,  which  is 
given  in  the  Books  of  Kings  and  Chronicles,  is  silent  on  many 
points,  which,  in  the  age,  in  which  those  books  were  written, 
could  be  learnt  without  difficulty  from  other  sources.  In  various 
places  also,  the  account  appears  to  have  suffered  from  the  care- 
lessness of  transcribers.  Hence  the  statements,  in  1  K.  vi — vit. 
and  2  Chron.  ui — iv.  do  not  every  where  agree.  It  will,  there- 
fore, be  readily  seen,  that,  it  is  not  possible  to  give,  in  every  re- 
spect, a  perfect  idea  of  this  edifice.  When  viewed,  as  the  work 
of  very  early  times,  and  in  reference  to  the  notions,  which  then 
prevailed,  Solomon's  temple  may  be  considered  magnificent,  but  it 
ought  not  to  be  compared  with  more  recent  specimens  of  archi- 
tecture. 

Note  II.  Cherubim,  tPSn"D,  were  figures  of  a  wonderful 
form,  which  sustained  the  chariot  of  thunders  or  throne  of  God. 
They  had  four  faces,  and  as  many  wings  and  hands ;  and  their 
feet,  which  projected  down  straight,  had  hoofs,  like  an  ox,  Ezek.  l. 
Cherubim  of  such  a  form  could  not  be  fully  represented  on  em- 
broidered work,  and  it  would  seem,  from  the  account,  which  is  giv- 
en of  them,  that  the  golden  cherubim,  which  spread  their  wings 
over  the  ark  of  the  covenant,  were  different  in  shape  from  those, 
which  have  now  been  described.  Perhaps,  therefore,  this  class  of 
beings  existed  in  different  forms.  The  meaning  of  these  symbolic 
representations,  I  have  explained  in  my  treatise  on  Hermeneutics, 
§  20.  p.  59,  60. 

§  339.  Of  the  TexMPLe  of  Zerubbabel. 

This  Temple  was  commenced  under  the  direction  of  Zerubba- 
bel, after  the  return  of  the  Jews  from  the  Babylonish  Captivity, 
in  the  year  535  before  Christ.  The  work  had  no  sooner  been  be- 
gun, than  it  experienced  an  interruption  of  fifteen  years,  but  was 
resumed  again  in  the  year  520  before  Christ,  and  completed  in  the 
year  515,  Ezek.  3:  8,  9.  4:  4—24.  5:  1—6,  21. 

According  to  the  decree,  which  was  given  by  Cyrus,  (Ezra  6: 
3,  4.)  its  height  and  breadth  were  sixty  cubits  each  ;  and  we 
may,  therefore,  suppose  the  length,  which  was  either  never  men- 
tioned, or  has  fallen  out  from  the  text,  to  have  been,  (in  order 
to  maintain  the  proportion,)  120  or  ISO  cubits.    But  the  old  men, 


§  340.   OF  THE  TEMPLE  OF  HEROD. 


431 


who  had  Jived  to  see  the  foundations  laid,  predicted,  that  it  would 
be  inferiour  to  the  Temple  of  Solomon,  Ezra  3:  \%  Hag.  2:  1 — 9. 
To  how  great  an  extent,  their  anticipations  turned  out  to  be  true, 
there  is  nothing  stated,  which  will  enable  us  precisely  to  deter- 
mine. 

This,  however,  is  clear,  that  its  treasures,  which  arose  from 
the  annual  contribution  of  a  half-shekel  by  every  Jew,  wherever 
he  might  be,  and  from  the  presents  of  proselytes  and  the  heathen, 
became  immense,  Antiq.  XIV.  12,  1.  XX.  9.  7.  Jewish  War,  I.  6,8. 
It  was  by  the  aid  of  these  treasures,  that  the  immense  walls,  which 
have  been  mentioned,  around  the  bottom  of  mount  Moriah,  were 
erected,  Jewish  War,  V.  5,  1. 

But  in  this  Temple,  there  was  only  one  candlestick,  and  one 
golden  table.  The  Ark  of  the  covenant,  the  sacred  oil,  the  Urim  and 
Thummim,  and  the  sacred  fire  were  gone  ;  also  that  singular  cloud 
the  Shekinah,  fr^'ij'j  which  anciently  was  seen  over  the  Taber- 
nacle and  had  afterwards  filled  the  Temple,  2  Chron.  7,  1 — 3. 
1  K.  8,  10—12.  2  Chron.  5:  13—14»  6:  1. 

The  Maccabean  princes  built  a  tower,  which  they  called  Baris, 
on  the  North  side  of  this  edifice.  Herod  rebuilt,  enlarged,  and 
adorned  it,  and  named  it  Antonia,  in  honour  of  Mark  Antony, 
Antiq.  XV.  11,4.  Alexander  Jannaeus  separated  the  court  of  the 
Priests  by  a  wooden  trellis  from  the  court  of  the  Israelites,  Antiq. 
XIII.  13,  5. 

§  340.  Of  the  Temple  of  Herod. 

Herod,  by  successively  renewing  the  parts  of  the  Temple, 
rendered  it  extremely  magnificent.  He  began  the  work  in  the 
16th  year  before  Christ,  and  finished  it,  in  a  great  measure,  in 
the  eighth  year ;  but  additions  continued  to  be  made  to  the  Tem- 
ple, till  the  year  64  Anno  Domini,  John  2:  20.  Josephus,  Antiqui- 
ties, XV.  11,  1.  5.  6.  XX.  9,  7.  Jewish  War,  I.  21,  1. 

The  Temple,  as  it  appeared  after  having  been  subjected  to  the 
labours  of  Herod,  had  three  courts  or  open  areas,  each  one  of 
which  was  situated  above  the  other. 

The  first  court  was  enclosed  by  that  outer  wall,  which  has 
been  described,  and  which  was  raised  from  the  base  of  the  mount. 
In  the  middle  of  this  court  was  an  ascent  of  four  steps,  which  led 


432 


§  341.   OF  THE  GATES  OF  HEROD*S  TEMPLE. 


to  an  enclosure  of  stone.  On  the  gates,  that  opened  through  this 
enclosure,  and  on  the  columns  contiguous,  were  inscriptions  in 
Hebrew,  Latin,  and  Greek,  which  interdicted,  under  penalty  of 
death,  any  further  entrance,  to  the  unclean  and  the  Gentiles.  Im- 
mediately back  of  this  wall,  succeeded  an  ascent  of  fourteen  steps 
into  a  level  space  ten  cubits  broad,  which  was  succeeded  by  an- 
other ascent  of  five  steps  to  the  gates  of  the  second  wall,  which 
was  forty  cubits  high  outside,  and  twenty  five  within.  This  wall 
enclosed  the  court  of  the  Israelites,  while  the  first  court  in  re- 
ference to  the  inscriptions,  which  have  been  mentioned,  was  called 
the  court  op  the  Gentiles. 

Between  the  court  of  the  Israelites,  and  that  of  the  Gentiles, 
on  the  East  side,  was  the  court  of  the  Hebrew  women,  which  was 
separated  from  the  court  of  the  Israelites  by  a  wall  so  low,  as  to 
permit  its  occupants  to  see  the  men,  while  they  themselves  re- 
mained unseen.  The  entrance  into  the  court  of  the  women  was 
through  two  gates,  the  one  on  the  North,  the  other  on  the  South 
side. 

The  quadrangular  area,  immediately  around  the  altar  and  the 
Sanctuary,  was  called  the  court  of  the  Priests  ;  it  was  surroun- 
ded by  a  low,  but  elegant  enclosure,  so  that  the  people  had  an  op- 
portunity of  looking  into  it,  while,  at  the  same  time,  they  were  not 
permitted  to  enter,  Josephus,  Antiquities,  XV.  11.  5.  Jewish  War, 
V.  5,  2—6. 

§341.  Of  the  Gates  of  Herod's  Temple. 

The  largest  Gate  was  situated  in  the  outer  wall,  on  the  Eas- 
tern side.  It  was  called  the  Beautiful,  -&vqo.  cJp«/a,  (Acts  3:  2,) 
and  was  splendidly  ornamented  with  Corinthian  brass,  which  was 
reckoned  preferable  either  to  silver  or  gold,  Pliny,  N.  H.  XXXIV. 
1,3,  7. 

It  equalled  the  Sanctuary  in  height,  which  in  the  highest  place, 
was  more  than  an  hundred  cubits.  The  folds  of  this  gate  were 
fifty  cubits  high  and  forty  broad,  and  were  covered  with  plates  of 
gold  and  silver.  The  ascent  to  it  was  from  the  valley  of  Cedron 
over  many  steps,  Josephus,  Jewish  War,  V.  5,  3. 

To  the  South  of  the  Temple,  there  was  a  valley  four  hundred 
cubits  deep.    There  was  a  gate,  nevertheless,  in  that  direction, 


§  342.   PORCHES  IN  THE  TEMPLE  OF  HEROD. 


433 


leading  from  the  wall  into  the  lower  part  of  the  city,  which  stretch- 
ed along  through  the  valley  towards  the  East,  in  such  a  way,  that 
the  wall  of  the  city  joined  itself  to  the  eastern  wall  of  the  temple, 
Antiquities,  XV.  11.  5. 

On  the  West  side,  two  Gates  led,  by  numerous  steps,  into  the 
valley  below,  which  ran  in  a  Southern  direction,  and  was  filled 
with  houses.  There  were  two  other  Gates  on  the  Western  side 
of  the  temple  beside  these  ;  one  of  which  connected  the  temple, 
by  means  of  a  bridge  over  the  valley,  with  mount  Zion,  and  the 
other  conducted  into  the  lower  part  of  the  city,  Josephus,  Antiqui- 
ties, XV.  11,  5.  Jewish  War,  V.  5,  3. 

On  the  North,  there  was  no  Gate,  but  the  tower  antonia  was 
connected  with  the  temple  by  means  of  a  covered  passage.  This 
tower  was  so  situated,  as  to  command  it,  and  was  accordingly 
made  the  station  for  a  cohort  of  Roman  soldiers.  Compare  Acts 
21:31—34.  Josephus,  Antiquities,  XV.  11,4.  Jewish  War,  V. 
5,  3. 

On  the  North  and  South  sides  of  the  inner  wall,  there  were 
six  Gates,  three  on  each  side,  which  faced  each  other.  On  the 
Eastern  side,  there  was  a  Gate,  which  corresponded  to  the  one 
called  the  Beautiful  in  the  first  wall,  and  two  Gates,  already  men- 
tioned, led  into  the  court  of  the  women.  The  Western  side  of 
the  inner  wall,  which  was  contiguous  to  the  sanctuary,  had  no 
Gate,  Josephus,  Antiquities,  XV.  11,5.  Jewish  War,  V.  5,  3. 

All  these  Gates  had  folds,  were  thirty  cubits  high,  and  fifteen 
broad  ;  the  thresholds  and  the  posts,  as  well  as  the  Gates,  were 
covered  with  silver  and  gold.  They  were  all  surmounted  with  a 
sort  of  turret,  which  increased  the  height  to  forty  cubits.  There 
was  a  vacant  space  left  around  the  Gates  of  thirty  cubits  in  extent, 
where  the  people  were  in  the  habit  of  assembling,  Jewish  War, 
V.  5,  3. 

§  342.  Porches  in  the  Temple  of  Herod. 

A  triple  porch  extended  around  the  Southern  wall  of  the 
court  of  the  Gentiles,  but  the  Porches  in  the  other  directions,  that 
is  to  say,  which  were  contiguous  to  the  Northern,  Eastern,  and 
Western  sides  or  walls  of  this  court,  were  merely  double.  The 
Porches,  in  the  court  of  the  Israelites,  were  double  likewise. 

55 


434       <§,  342.  porches  in  the  temple  of  herod. 


Each  double  porch  rested  on  a  triple,  and  each  triple  porch  on 
a  quadruple  row  of  columns,  the  last  row  being  contiguous  to  the 
wall. 

The  columns,  (which  were  Corinthian  in  respect  to  architec- 
ture,) were  hewn  out  of  white  marble,  and  were  twenty  five  cubits 
in  height,  but  the  whole  altitude,  including  pedestals,  capitals,  cor- 
nice, and  roof,  did  not  fall  short  of  fifty  cubits. 

The  columns  were  so  large,  that  three  men  could  scarcely  ex- 
tend their  arms  around  them.  The  roof,  which  was  flat,  was  con- 
structed of  cedar  wood. 

Each  of  these  porches  was  thirty  cubits  broad,  and  fifty  high  ; 
with  this  exception,  viz.  that  the  middle  one  on  the  South  side 
was  forty  five  broad  and  an  hundred  high,  from  the  roof  of  which, 
one  could  hardly  look  down  into  the  valley  below,  five  hundred  cu- 
bits deep,  without  experiencing  dizziness.  It  is  this  porch,  with- 
out doubt,  which  is  called,  in  Matt.  4:  5.  nregvyiov  tov  uqov,  the 
pinnacle  of  the  temple.  Compare  Matt.  4:  5.  with  Strabo  p.  805, 
Antiquities,  XV.  11,  5.  Jewish  War,  V.  5,  2. 

The  eastern  porch  in  the  court  of  the  Gentiles  was  called  Solo- 
mon's, John  10:  23.  Acts  5:  12.  Jewish  War,  V.  5,  1. 

All  the  porches  were  paved  with  marble  of  various  colours, 
Josephus,  Jewish  War,  V.  5,  2.  The  porches  in  the  court  of  the 
Gentiles  were  resorted  to  by  money  changers,  and  those,  who 
sold  animals,  that  were  destined  for  the  altar,  Matt.  21:  12 — 16. 
John  2:  12 — 22.  Jerusalem  Talmud,  Gemara,  Jom  tob.  p.  61.  and 
Chagiga  p.  78,  1.  In  this  court,  (that  of  the  Gentiles,)  appear  to 
have  been  repositories,  of  which  we  are  informed  by  Josephus, 
(Jewish  War,  VI.  5,  2.)  in  which  the  treasures,  utensils,  and  sup- 
plies, etc.  of  the  temple  were  kept.  But  these  repositories  are  to 
be  distinguished  from  the  treasury,  mentioned  in  Mark  12:  41.  into 
which  the  gifts  of  the  temple  were  cast. 

The  Talmudists  state,  that  there  were  thirteen  such  treasu- 
ries, different  ones  being  allotted  for  the  reception  of  different  ar- 
ticles. They  further  state,  that  they  were  situated  in  the  court  of 
the  women,  and  that  they  were  coffers  or  boxes,  which,  in  point  of 
shape  resembled  a  horn,  the  gifts  of  the  temple  being  thrown  into 
them. 

It  may  be  inferred  from  the  nature  of  the  case,  no  less  than 
from  the  fact  of  Josephus'  incidentally  mentioning  subterranean 


§  343.   OF  THE  SANCTUARY. 


435 


chambers,  that  there  were  probably  other  apartments  in  these 
courts,  of  which  the  knowledge  has  not  come  to  us. 

The  altar  for  victims  was  constructed  of  unhewn  stones,  fif- 
teen cubits  high,  and  fifty  in  length  and  breadth,  and  the  corners  of 
it  projected  upwards,  like  horns.  The  ascent  to  it  was  on  the  South 
side,  Josephus,  Jewish  War,  V.  5,  6. 

§  343.  Of  the  Sanctuary. 

The  Sanctuary  or  Temple  strictly  so  called,  6  vaog,  was  con- 
structed of  white  marble,  was  higher  than  the  court  of  the  priests, 
and  was  approached  by  an  ascent  of  twelve  steps.  The  porch  of 
the  Sanctuary  or  pronaos  was  an  hundred  cubits  high,  and  as  many 
broad.  The  open  space,  which  served  as  an  entrance  into  it,  and 
which  was  destitute  of  folds  or  door  of  any  sort,  because,  as  Jose- 
phus informs  us,  it  was  a  symbol  of  the  visible  heaven,  was  seventy 
cubits  high  and  twenty  five  broad. 

The  interiour  of  the  Porch  was  ninety  cubits  high,  fifty  from 
North  to  South,  and  twenty  from  East  to  West ;  so  that  on  the 
North  and  South,  there  was  room  for  recesses  or  chambers  of  almost 
twenty  cubits  in  extent. 

The  entrance,  which  opened  into  the  Sanctuary,  was  fifty-five 
cubits  high  and  sixteen  broad.  Over  it  was  the  figure  of  a  vine  in 
gold  of  the  size  of  a  man,  and  loaded  with  golden  clusters.  This 
entrance  was  closed  by  an  embroidered  veil,  Josephus,  Jewish 
War,  V.  5,  4.  Antiquities.  XV.  11,  3.  It  was  in  the  Porch  of  the 
Temple,  that  Judas  cast  down  his  thirty  pieces  of  silver,  Matt.  27: 
5. 

The  Sanctuary  itself  was  twenty  cubits  broad,  sixty  long, 
and  sixty  high.  It  was  surrounded  on  three  sides,  with  a  struc- 
ture, three  stories  high,  making  an  altitude  of  forty  cubits.  It 
equalled  the  Porch  or  ngovctog  pronaos,  in  breadth,  into  the  two 
chambers  of  which,  there  was  an  entrance  from  it.  On  the  flat 
roof  of  the  Sanctuary  were  erected  long,  sharp  rods  of  iron,  covered 
with  gold,  Josephus,  Jewish  War,  V.  5,  5 — 6. 

From  the  Sanctuary,  which,  as  has  been  remarked,  was  sixty 
cubits  high,  although  only  twenty  broad,  we  enter  the  sanc- 
tissimum  or  Holy  of  holies,  which  was  twenty  cubits  in  length, 
twenty  broad,  and  twenty  high,  so  that  there  were  two  stories 


436 


§  344.   ORIGIN  OF  SYNAGOGUES. 


above,  each  of  twenty  cubits.  In  the  Sanctuary,  was  the  golden 
candlestick,  the  golden  table,  and  the  altar  of  incense,  but  in  the 
most  Holy  place,  there  was  nothing  deposited.  The  walls  within 
and  without,  we  are  under  the  necessity  of  supposing,  were  covered 
with  gold  ;  and  it  was  separated  from  the  Sanctuary  by  an  embroid- 
ered veil,  Josephus,  Jewish  War,  V.  5,  5. 

§  344.  Origin  of  Synagogues. 

Although  the  sacrifices  could  not  be  offered,  except  in  the 
Tabernacle  or  the  Temple,  all  the  other  exercises  of  religion  were 
restricted  to  no  particular  place.  Accordingly  we  find,  that  the 
praises  of  God  were  sung,  at  a  very  ancient  period,  in  the  Schools 
of  the  prophets,  and  those,  who  felt  any  particular  interest  in  reli- 
gion, were  assembled  by  the  Seers,  on  the  Sabbath,  and  the  New- 
moons,  for  prayers  and  religious  instruction,  1  Sam.  10:  5 — 11.  19: 
18—24.  2  K.  4:  23. 

During  the  Babylonish  Captivity,  the  Jews,  who  were  then  de- 
prived of  their  customary  religious  privileges,  were  wont  to  collect 
around  some  prophet  or  other  pious  man,  who  taught  them  and 
their  children  in  religion,  exhorted  to  good  conduct,  and  read  out 
of  the  sacred  Books,  Ezek.  14:  1.  20:  I.  Dan.  6:  11.  compare  Neh. 
8:  18.  These  assemblies  or  meetings  became,  in  progress  of  time, 
fixed  to  certain  places,  and  a  regular  order  was  observed  in  them. 
Such  was  the  origin  of  Synagogues. 

§  345.  Of  the  Structure,  etc.  of  Synagogues. 

In  speaking  of  Synagogues,  it  is  worthy  to  be  noticed,  that 
there  is  nothing  said  in  respect  to  the  existence  of  such  buildings 
in  Palestine,  during  the  reign  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes.  They  were, 
therefore,  first  erected  under  the  Maccabean  princes,  and  not  long 
after  were  much  multiplied ;  but  in  foreign  countries,  they  were 
much  more  ancient,  Josephus,  Jewish  War,  VII.  3,  3. 

Whether  this  statement  be  true  beyond  a  question,  or  whether 
some  be  inclined  to  make  an  objection  to  it,  it  is,  nevertheless, 
certain,  that,  in  the  time  of  the  Apostles,  there  were  Synagogues, 
wherever  there  were  Jews.  They  were  built  in  imitation  of  the 
Temple  of  Jerusalem  with  a  court  and  Porches,  as  is  the  case 


§  345.   OF  THE  STRUCTURE  OF  SYNAGOGUES. 


437 


with  the  Synagogues  in  the  East  at  the  present  day.  Tn  the  centre 
of  the  court,  is  a  chapel,  supported  by  four  columns,  in  which, 
on  an  elevation  prepared  for  it,  is  placed  the  Book  of  the  law,  roll- 
ed up.    This,  on  the  appointed  days,  is  publicly  read. 

In  addition  to  the  Chapel,  there  is  erected  within  the  court,  a 
large,  covered  hall  or  vestry,  into  which  the  people  retire,  when 
the  weather  happens  to  be  cold  and  stormy,  and  each  family  has 
its  particular  seat,  Delia  Valle's  Travels,  P.  IV.  Epistle  5.  p.  195. 
comp.  Talmud,  succoth  51,  2. 

The  uppermost  seats  in  the  Synagogue,  i.  e.  those,  which  were 
nearest  the  Chapel,  where  the  sacred  Books  were  kept,  were  es- 
teemed peculiarly  honourable,  Matt.  23:  6.  James  2:  3. 

The  proseuchae,  Tcgoosvxai,  are  understood  by  some  to  be 
smaller  Synagogues,  but  by  others  are  supposed  to  be  particular 
places  under  the  open  sky,  where  the  Jews  assembled  for  religious 
exercises.  But  Josephus,  in  his  account  of  his  own  Life,  §54, 
calls  the  proseucha  of  Tiberius,  a  large  house,  which  held  very 
many  persons. 

We  infer,  therefore,  that  ngoafvxv  is  the  same  with  zonog  or 
oiaog  Trig  7i(jo(Jtv%rig,  VIZ'  anV  place  °f  worship,  answering  to  the 
Aramean  phrase,  f^Ua  2"P2  ,  which  is  used  for  Synagogue.  They 
were  distinguished  from  Synagogues  on  the  ground  merely,  that 
they  were  not  buildings  especially  set  apart  for  divine  worship,  Acts 
16,  13,  16.  Philo  de  Legat.  ad  Caium.  p.  1011.  Juvenal,  Satire, 
III.  14. 

The  apostles  preached  the  Gospel  in  Synagogues  and  proseu- 
chae, and  with  their  adherents  performed  in  them  all  the  religious 
services.  When  excluded,  they  imitated  the  Jews  in  those  places, 
where  they  were  too  poor  to  erect  these  buildings,  and  held  their 
religious  meetings  in  the  houses  of  individuals.  Hence  we  not  only 
hear  of  Synagogues  in  houses  in  the  Talmud,  but  of  Churches  in 
houses  in  the  New  Testament,  Rom.  16:  5.  I  Cor.  16:  19.  Col.  4: 
15.  Phil.  2.  Acts  2:  46.  5:  42. 

The  apostles  sometimes  hired  a  house,  in  which  they  performed 
religious  services  and  taught  daily,  Acts  19:  9.  20:  9. 

Note.  means  literally  a  convention  or  assembly, 

but  by  metonymy,  was  eventually  used  for  the  place  of  assembling; 
in  the  same  way,  that  exxh}olut  which  means  literally  a  calling  to- 


438  §  346.   ON  THE  ANTIQUITY  OF  THE  SABBATH. 

gether,  or  convocation,  signifies  also  at  the  present  time  the  place 
of  convocation.  Synagogues  were  sometimes  called  by  the  Jews 
Schools,  but  they  were  careful  to  make  an  accurate  distinction  be- 
tween such,  and  the  Schools,  properly  so  called,  the  tFSj'Tifi  ,  or 
sublimcr  Schools,  in  which  the  Talmud  was  read,  while  the  Law 
merely  was  read  in  the  Synagogues,  which  they  placed  far  behind 
the  Talmud. 


CHAPTER  III. 


OF  SACRED  SEASONS. 


§  346.  On  the  Antiquity  of  the  Sabbath. 

In  speaking  of  sacred  seasons,  it  will  readily  occur,  that,  of  the 
periods  of  time  which  may  thus  be  denominated,  the  Sabbath, 
rG'ii ,  finssj  odfiftazov,  (jd(3pctTcc,  is  especially  worthy  of  attention. 
It  may  be  remarked,  that  the  Greek  and  Hebrew  words,  here  men- 
tioned, are  applied  in  some  instances,  to  other  periods  of  time,  set 
apart  for  the  purposes  of  religion  or  recreation,  but  are  generally, 
and,  more  especially,  used  in  reference  to  the  seventh  day  of  the 
week. 

Whether  the  practice  of  consecrating  the  Sabbath  originated 
from  what  is  stated  in  Gen.  2:  1 — 3.  is  a  question,  which,  while  it 
has  been  defended  by  some,  has  been  disputed  by  others,  on  the 
ground,  that  there  is  no  express  mention  of  it,  previous  to  the  time 
of  Moses.  But  in  regard  to  this  point,  viz.  the  origin  and  antiquity 
of  the  Sabbath,  I  proceed  to  state, 

I.  As  we  find,  by  an  examination  of  the  Mosaic  Laws,  that  the 
greatest  part  of  the  ordinances,  which  are  sanctioned  by  that  Le- 


$  346.   ON  THE  ANTIQUITY  OF  THE  SABBATH.  439 

gislator,  existed  in  previous  times,  we  have  a  right  to  say,  the  proba- 
bility is,  that  this  was  the  case  in  respect  to  the  Sabbath  also. 

II.  What  we  should,  therefore,  naturally  expect  in  this  case,  is 
rendered  more  probable  by  the  expressions,  used  in  Exod.  20:  8 
— 11,  where  the  command  runs  thus  ;  Remember  the  Sabbath  day, 
to  keep  it  holy.  [For  these  expressions  are  of  such  a  nature  as 
evidently  to  imply,  that  the  consecration  of  the  seventh  day,  al- 
though it  might  have  been  omitted  for  a  time  during  their  resi- 
dence in  Egypt,  was  not  a  new  thing  to  the  Israelites,  and  that 
they  understood,  how  the  day  should  be  kept  or  sanctified,  and 
were  able  to  do  it,  if  they  had  a  disposition  to.] 

III.  This  view  in  respect  to  the  Sabbath  is  further  confirmed  by 
the  circumstances,  that  we  are  no  where  told,  what  things  are  to 
be  done  and  what  are  to  be  omitted  on  that  day  ;  which  implies, 
that  the  duties  connected  with  it  were  known  from  custom. 

IV.  There  is  mention  made  of  the  sanctification  of  the  Sab- 
bath, before  the  formal  promulgation  of  the  Law  concerning  it  from 
Mount  Sinai,  Exod.  16:  22—30. 

V.  A  week  occurs  under  its  appropriate  name  S^SO ,  as  far 
back  as  Gen.  29:  27,  and  we  further  find  that  a  definite  period  of 
seven  days  occurs  in  Gen.  7:  4,  10.  8:  10,  12;  which  implies,  that 
one  day  of  the  seven  was  marked  by  some  distinction. 

VI.  As  the  very  nature  of  the  case  compels  us  to  believe,  that 
the  doctrines  of  the  Creator  and  the  creation  could  not  have  exist- 
ed at  so  early  a  period,  as  they  did,  without  a  revelation  ;  so  there 
is  far  from  being  any  improbability  or  inconsistency  in  considering 
Gen.  1:  1.  2:  2,  3,  as  a  simultaneous  revelation  in  regard  to  the 
Sabbath. 

VII.  Finally,  that  this  was  the  case,  is  hinted  in  Exod.  20:  8 
— 11  ;  and  furthermore,  it  is  on  this  ground  only,  viz.  that  the 
Sabbath  was  consecrated  previous  to  the  time  of  Moses,  or,  in  other 
words,  existed  from  creation,  that  we  are  able  to  account  for  the 
fact,  that  very  many  nations,  who,  it  is  certain,  did  not  take  the 
practice  from  the  Mosaic  Laws,  have,  in  some  way  or  other,  dis- 
tinguished that  day,  Josephus  against  Apion,  II.  39. 


440 


§  347.   ON  THE  DESIGN  OF  THE  SABBATH. 


§  347.  On  the  Design  of  the  Sabbath. 

The  design  of  the  Sabbath,  as  mentioned  in  Exod.  20:  8 — 11 
and  in  31:  12 — 17,  where  there  is  a  repetition  of  the  statement, 
made  in  Gen.  2:  1 — 3,  was  to  exhibit  a  symbolic  acknowledgment, 
that  God  was  the  Creator  of  the  universe,  and  that  He  alone  is 
worthy  to  be  and  ought  to  be,  worshipped.  Hence  the  same  pun- 
ishment was  attached  to  a  violation  of  this  Institution,  that  there 
was  to  an  open  defection  from  the  true  God,  viz.  death,  Exod.  35: 
2.  Num.  15:  32—36. 

In  addition  to  this  general  object,  there  was  another  of  a  sub- 
ordinate kind,  viz.  that  men,  especially  slaves,  might  rest,  and  be 
refreshed,  and  might  be  led  to  rejoice  in  the  goodness  of  God,  who 
gave  them  this  season  of  suspension  from  their  toils,  Exod.  23: 
12. 

That  the  Sabbath,  as  some  maintain,  was  consecrated  in  com- 
memoration of  the  deliverance  from  Egyptian  servitude,  is  no 
where  asserted ;  and  the  most,  that  can  be  contended  for  on  this 
point,  is,  that  the  Jews  are  exhorted  to  remember  the  sufferings, 
they  endured  in  that  land,  in  order  that,  prompted  by  reminiscen- 
ces of  this  kind,  they  might  the  more  willingly  allow  the  rest  of  the 
Sabbath  to  their  servants  and  to  their  cattle,  Deut.  5:  14,  15. 

The  statement,  which  is  made  in  Exod.  31:  13 — 17,  and  Ezek. 
20:  20,  21,  viz.  that  the  Sabbath  is  the  sign  of  a  covenant  between 
God  and  the  Israelites,  means  merely  this,  that  God,  as  creator,  had 
a  claim  on  the  worship  of  the  Jews,  that  he  was  disposed  to  exact 
such  worship,  and  that  they  had  promised  to  render  it. 

Note.  The  more  recent  Jews  distinguished  certain  Sabbaths 
by  particular  names.  The  Sabbath,  for  instance,  immediately 
preceding  the  Passover,  was  denominated  the  great  Sabbath,  (John 
19:  31.  comp.  Orach,  chajjim  p.  430,  and  Schulchan  Aruch  p.  33, 
2 ;)  because  the  Israelites,  while  in  Egypt,  had  witnessed  on  that 
day  a  great  miracle.  Indeed  any  Sabbath,  which  was  immediately 
followed  by  one  of  the  principal  festivals,  was  denominated  great. 

Another  kind  of  Sabbath  is  called  the  second  first,  odpflazov 
devT£Q0TiQ0)T0v.  It  is  worthy  of  remark,  that  the  Sabbath,  which 
is  thus  named  in  Luke  6:  1,  the  second  first,  is  called  in  Matthew 


§  348.   THINGS  TO  BE  OMITTED  ON  THE  SABBATH  DAY.  441 


12;  1.  and  in  Mark  2:  23,  simply  the  Sabbath.  What  this  second- 
Jirst  Sabbath  is,  is  somewhat  difficult  to  be  explained. 

The  majority  of  critics  suppose,  it  was  that,  which  immediate- 
ly succeeded  the  second  day  of  the  Passover.  For,  since  the  Jews 
numbered  their  days  from  the  Passover  to  the  Pentecost,  (Deut. 
16:  9.)  the  first  Sabbath  after  the  second  day  from  the  Passover, 
seems  to  have  been  properly  enough  termed  secundo-primum,  the 
second-Jirst.  The  word  aafiparov,  in  the  phrase  [teratv  aafipuzov, 
(Acts  13:  42.)  is  nothing  else  than  the  weak  itself,  which,  as  has 
been  elsewhere  observed,  is  sometimes  designated  by  the  customa- 
ry[Greek  word  for  Sabbath. 

§  348.  Concerning  those  things  which  were  to  be  omftted 
on  the  Sabbath. 

The  name  of  the  Sabbath  itself,  ttiMO,  which  signifies  rest,  is 
an  intimation,  that  the  labours,  in  which  men  ordinarily  engaged, 
shall  be  intermitted  on  that  day  ;  and  we  very  frequently  meet 
with  express  commands  to  that  effect,  Exod.  20:  10.  31:  14 — 17. 
35:  1 — 3.  Deut.  5:  12 — 14.  A  particular  specification,  however, 
or  enumeration  of  what  might,  and  what  might  not  be  done,  is  no 
where  found,  and  we  can  only  say,  that,  before  the  promulgation 
of  the  law  on  mount  Sinai,  the  gathering  of  Manna  was  one  of  those 
things,  upon  which,  we  are  assured,  labour  could  not  be  expended, 
and  that,  subsequently  to  its  promulgation,  the  making  of  a  fire, 
was  another,  Exod.  16:  22—30.  35:  3.  Num.  15:  32,  36.  What 
other  things  there  were,  which  were  expressly  prohibited,  we  have 
no  means  of  ascertaining. 

We  are  at  liberty  to  say,  nevertheless,  on  the  other  hand, 

I.  That  the  use  of  arms  was  not  interdicted,  as  the  more  recent 
Jews  supposed,  1  Mace.  2:  31,  et  seq. 

II.  The  healing  of  the  sick  also  was  not  forbidden,  nor  the  tak- 
ing of  medicines,  as  was  dreamt  by  some  of  the  Jewish  teachers  in 
the  time  of  Christ,  and  by  some  of  the  writers  in  the  Talmud,  nor, 
in  truth,  a  journey  or  walk  of  more  than  a  thousand  geometrical 
paces,  nor  the  plucking  of  a  few  ears  of  corn  to  appease  one's  hun-, 
ger,  nor  the  performance  of  any  acts  of  necessity,  as  feeding  cat- 
tle, or  plucking  them  from  the  ditch,  if  they  had  fallen  into  one, 

56 


442    §  348.  THINGS  TO  BE  OMITTED  ON  THE  SABBATH  DAY. 


Matt.  12:  1—15.  Luke  6:  1—5.  13:  10—17.  Mark  3:  2.  John  5: 
2—18.  9:  1—34. 

The  Talmudists,  (Shabbath  VII.  2.)  reckoned  up  thirty  six  dif- 
ferent instances  of  labour,  which  were  interdicted  on  the  Sabbath, 
and  among  others,  that  of  making  or  kneading  dough.  This  ac- 
counts for  the  circumstance  of  the  Jews  considering  it  a  crime  in 
the  Saviour,  that  he  mingled  his  spittle  with  the  dust,  and  anoint- 
ed the  eyes  of  the  blind  man,  John  9:  1 — 34. 

III.  Furthermore,  certain  duties  of  a  religious  nature  were 
not  prohibited,  such  as  circumcision  on  the  eighth  day,  the  slaught- 
ering and  burning  of  victims,  and  the  labours  in  general,  which 
were  connected  with  the  observances,  practised  in  the  tabernacle 
and  temple,  Lev.  6:  8,  et  seq.  Num.  28:  3,  et  seq.  Matt.  12:  2. 
John  7:  23. 

In  consequence  of  the  circumstance,  that  the  kindling  of  a  fire 
was  interdicted  on  the  Sabbath,  whatever  cooking  was  necessary 
in  making  preparation  for  the  supper  of  Friday  evening,  was  to 
be  attended  to  before  sunset.  Hence  the  afternoon  of  that  day 
(Friday)  was  denominated  rj  nccQaoxfvrj,  the  preparation,  and,  in 
the  Aramean,  (xctT  elo%riv,  by  way  of  distinction  or  emphasis,) 
ttni^Hy  the  evening. 

On  the  noon  of  the  Sabbath,  the  Jews  took  a  slight  dinner,  as 
at  other  times,  but  they  deferred,  till  after  sunset,  the  preparations 
for  supper. 

IV.  There  was  no  law  in  respect  to  the  Sabbath,  which  com- 
manded the  observance  of  what  may  be  termed  an  Ante-Sabbath  ; 
which  the  Jews  after  the  Captivity  were  in  the  habit  of  commenc- 
ing a  number  of  hours  before  the  setting  of  the  sun.  As,  however, 
the  provisions  for  the  Sabbath  were  to  be  prepared  at  this  time,  the 
pro-sabbathum  or  Ante-Sabbath  may  be  considered,  as  a  necessa- 
ry result  of  the  law,  which  rendered  it  necessary  to  make  such  pre- 
paration, but  it  was  too  scrupulously  defined  and  insisted  on  by  the 
more  recent  Jews,  Mark  15:  42. 


§  349.  THINGS  PERMITTED  ON  THE  SABBATH.  443 


§  349.  Concerning  those  things,  which  were  permitted  to  be 
done  on  the  sabbath. 

The  duties,  that  were  appropriate  to  the  Sabbath,  appear  to 
have  been  learnt  from  custom.  Hence  there  were  no  precepts 
on  the  subject,  with  the  exception,  that  the  priests,  beside  the  daily 
victims,  were  to  offer  up  on  that  day  two  other  lambs  of  a  year  old, 
together  with  two  tenth  deals  of  flour  mingled  with  oil,  and  a  drink- 
offering,  and  were  also  to  change  the  shew-bread,  Lev.  24:  8.  Num. 
28:  9,  10. 

From  the  general  design  of  the  Sabbath,  and  from  Gen.  2: 
3,  where  God  is  represented  as  blessing  the  seventh  day,  i.  e.  pro- 
nouncing it  joyful  and  propitious,  it  is  evident,  that  the  day  was 
to  be  considered  a  cheerful  one,  that  the  people  were  to  con- 
template, with  emotions  of  a  glad  and  grateful  kind,  on  God  as 

THE  CREATOR  AND  GOVERNOUR  OF  THE  UNIVERSE,  which  IS  intimat- 
ed also  in  Is.  58:  13.  Acordingly  sorrow  on  the  Sabbath  day  was 
an  indication  of  some  great  calamity,  Hos.  2:  11.  Lam.  2:  6.  1 
Mace.  1:  41. 

The  Hebrews,  therefore,  spent  the  Sabbath  in  rest  and  in  a 
decent  cheerfulness,  and  did  not  deem  it  inconsistent  with  its  sa- 
credness,  to  dance,  sing  songs,  and  play  on  instruments  of  music, 
Exod.  15:  20,  21.  32:  6,  7.  2  Sam.  6:  14.  Ps.  68:  25—27.  149:  3. 
150:  4.  [By  consulting  these  passages,  it  will  appear,  that  the 
songs,  music,  and  dances  here  mentioned,  were  of  a  religious  na- 
ture, or  were  expressive  of  religious  emotions.]  In  a  word,  they 
spent  the  Sabbath,  as  far  as  the  external  acts  were  concerned,  near- 
ly in  the  same  way,  that  other  nations  spend  their  festival  days. 

It  was  peculiar,  however,  to  the  Hebrews,  to  gather  on  this 
day  around  their  prophets,  and  to  receive  instructions  from  them, 
2  K.  4:  23.  Religious  parents  were  in  the  habit  of  instructing 
their  children,  on  this  day  in  particular,  in  the  docrine  of  God, 
as  the  creator  and  governour  of  all  things  ;  and  in  the  wonderful 
providences  both  of  mercy  and  punishment,  which  he  had  shown  ; 
and  those,  who  were  not  far  distant,  visited  the  Tabernacle  or  Tem- 
ple. 


444 


^  351.   Or  THE  YEAR  OF  JUBILEE. 


§  350.  Concerning  the  Sabbatic  Year. 

As  a  period  of  seven  days  was  completed  by  the  Sabbath,  so 
was  a  period  of  seven  years  by  the  Sabbatic  year,  |ir)S*3  n:*J ,  n:ui 
rtBJTCJ.  It  seems  to  have  been  the  design  of  the  Sabbatic  year 
to  afford  a  longer  opportunity,  than  would  otherwise  be  enjoyed, 
for  impressing  on  the  memory  the  great  truth,  that  God  the  crea- 
tor is  alone  to  be  worshipped. 

The  commencement  of  this  year  was  on  the  first  day  of  the 
seventh  month  or  Tishri  ( October.)  It  is  proper  to  remind  the 
reader,  that  we  have  already,  in  a  former  section,  (79,)  remarked 
on  the  subject  of  the  ground  being  left  fallow  during  this  year.  See 
Exod.  23:  10,  11.  Lev.  25:  1—7.  26:  33—35. 

During  the  continuance  of  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles  this  year, 
the  Law  was  to  be  publicly  read  for  eight  days  together,  either 
in  the  Tabernacle  or  Temple,  Deut.  31:  10 — 13.  Debts,  on  ac- 
count of  there  being  no  income  from  the  soil,  were  not  collected, 
Deut.  15:  1,2.  They  were  not,  however,  cancelled,  as  was  imag- 
ined by  the  Talmudists  ;  for  we  find  in  Deut.  15:  9,  that  the  He- 
brews are  admonished  not  to  deny  money  to  the  poor  on  account 
of  the  approach  of  the  Sabbatical  year,  during  which  it  could  not 
be  exacted,  but  nothing  further  than  this  can  be  educed  from  that 
passage.  Nor  were  servants  manumitted  on  this  year,  but  on 
the  seventh  year  of  their  service,  Exod.  21:  2.  Deut.  15:  12.  Jer. 
34:  14. 

§  351.  Of  the  Year  of  Jubilee. 

The  Jubilee,  bii 11 ,  followed  seven  Sabbatic  years,  i.  e.  was  on 
the  50th  year,  Lev.  25:  8 — 11,  Josephus,  Antiquities  III.  12,3. 

Philo  DE  CAR1TATE  p.  404.  DE  SEPTENARIO  p.  1178,  1188. 

To  this  statement  the  Jews  generally,  their  Rabbins,  and  the 
Caraites  agree,  and  say  further,  that  the  argument  of  those,  who 
maintain,  that  it  was  on  the  49th,  for  the  reason,  that  the  omission 
to  till  the  ground  for  two  years  in  succession,  viz.  the  49th  and 
50th,  would  produce  a  famine,  is  not  to  be  attended  to.  It  is 
not  to  be  attended  to,  simply  because  these  years  of  rest,  being 
known  long  beforehand,  the  people  would  of  course  lay  up  pro- 


$  351.   ON  THE  YEAR  OF  JUBILEE. 


445 


vision  for  them.  It  may  be  remarked  further  in  reference  to  this 
point,  that  certain  trees  produced  their  fruits  spontaneously,  par- 
ticularly the  fig  and  sycamore,  which  yield  half  the  year  round,  and 
that  those  fruits  could  be  preserved  for  some  months  ;  which  ex- 
plains at  once,  how  a  considerable  number  of  the  people  might  have 
obtained  no  inconsiderable  portion  of  their  support.  We  have  al- 
ready remarked,  in  a  preceding  section,  that  the  observance  of  the 
Sabbatic  year,  so  far  as  the  cultivation  of  the  soil  was  concerned, 
was  not  always  practised. 

The  return  of  the  year  of  Jubilee  was  announced  on  the  tenth 
day  of  the  seventh  month  or  Tishri  ( October,)  being  the  day  of 
propitiation  or  atonement,  by  the  sound  of  trumpet,  ni^Eld,  "pp. 
Vni^,  Lev.  25:  8—13.  27:  24.  Num.  36:  4.  Is.  61:  1,  2.  Beside  the 
regulations,  which  obtained  on  the  Sabbatic  year,  there  were  oth- 
ers, which  concerned  the  year  of  Jubilee  exclusively. 

I.  All  the  servants  of  Hebrew  origin,  on  the  year  of  Jubilee, 
obtained  their  freedom,  Lev.  25:  39 — 46.  comp.  Jer.  34:  7,  et  seq. 

II.  All  the  fields  throughout  the  country,  and  the  houses  in 
the  cities  and  villages  of  the  Levites  and  priests,  which  had  been 
sold  on  the  preceding  years,  were  returned  on  the  year  of  Jubilee 
to  the  sellers,  with  the  exception  of  those,  which  had  been  conse- 
crated to  God,  and  had  not  been  redeemed  before  the  return  of  said 
year,  Lev.  25:  10,  13—17,  24^^  .27:  16—21. 

III.  Debtors,  for  the  most  part,  pledged  or  mortgaged  their 
land  to  the  creditor,  and  left  it  to  his  use,  till  the  time  of  payment, 
so  that  it  was  in  effect  sold  to  the  creditor,  and  was,  accordingly, 
restored  to  the  debtor  on  the  year  of  Jubilee.  In  other  words,  the 
debts  for  which  land  was  pledged,  were  cancelled;  the  same,  as 
those  of  persons,  who  had  recovered  their  freedom,  after  having 
been  sold  into  slavery,  on  account  of  not  being  able  to  pay.  Hence 
it  usually  happened  in  the  later  periods  of  Jewish  history,  as  we 
learn  from  Josephus,  that,  at  the  return  of  Jubilee,  there  was  a  gen- 
eral cancelling  of  debts,  Antiquities  III.  12,  3. 


44G     §  352.  NEW  MOONS  AND  feast  of  the  new  year. 


§  352.  New  Moons  and  Feast  of  the  New  Year. 

In  order  to  exclude  any  opportunity  for  the  exercise  of  the  super- 
stitions of  the  Gentiles,  who  sacrificed  to  the  Moon,  it  is  commanded 
in  Num.  10:  10.  and  28:  11 — 14.  that,  on  the  New  Moons,  (v£&n 
tFDlh ,)  in  addition  to  the  daily  sacrifices,  two  bullocks  should  be 
offered  to  God,  a  ram,  and  seven  sheep  of  a  year  old,  together  with 
a  meal-offering,  and  a  libation.  These  were  to  constitute  the  burnt 
offering,  and  a  goat,  the  sin  offering. 

The  return  of  the  New-rnoons  was  announced  by  the  sound- 
ing of  the  silver  trumpets,  nYlSkSn Num.  10:  10.  28:  11 — 14;  and 
in  this  way  provision  was  made  for  keeping  up  a  knowledge  of  the 
end  and  commencement  of  each  month.  The  kings,  it  appears, 
after  the  introduction  of  the  monarchical  form  of  government,  were 
in  the  habit  of  offering  up  sacrifices  at  the  return  of  the  New-moons, 
1  Sam.  20:  5,  24 — 27.  and  those  persons,  whose  piety  led  them  to 
seek  for  religious  instruction,  visited,  on  those  occasions,  the  pro- 
phets, 2  K.  4:  23.  Labour  was  not  interdicted  on  the  day  of  the 
New-moon.  As  the  New-moon,  however,  of  the  seventh  month  or 
Tishri  ( October)  was  the  commencement  of  the  civil  year,  it  was 
observed,  as  a  festival,  and  was  announced  by  the  sound  of  trum- 
pets. Hence  it  is  called  the  day  of  "  trumpet  blowing"  rii,:intt  , 
and  also  "  the  memorial  of  blowing  of  trumpets"  Lev.  23:  24.  Num. 
29:  1—6. 

Beside  the  sacrifices,  common  to  other  New-moons,  a  bullock 
was  then  offered,  a  ram,  seven  lambs  of  a  year  old,  a  meal-offering 
of  flower  and  oil,  and  a  libation  of  wine  for  the  burnt  offering,  Num. 
29:  2—9. 

Note.  The  days  of  the  New-moon  were  not  ascertained  by 
astronomical  calculation,  as  the  Rabbins  assert,  but  were  the  days, 
on  which  the  New-moon  first  made  its  appearance,  as  is  maintained 
by  the  Caraites.  This  is  evident  from  the  fact,  that  Moses  did  not 
regulate  his  chronology  on  astronomical  principles,  but  by  the  as- 
pect of  the  earth,  the  return  of  the  seasons,  &/C. 

Further  ;  the  Talmudists  speak  of  the  signs  of  the  appearance 
of  the  New-moon,  and  it  is  clear,  that  neither  Philo  nor  Josephus 
knew  any  thing  of  the  distinction  between  the  astronomical  and 


§  354.   CONCERNING  THE  PASSOVER. 


447 


the  apparent  new-moon.  Still  the  author  of  the  Book  of  Kings  ap- 
pears to  have  made  use  of  the  astronomical  calculation,  who  speaks 
of  the  27th  day  of  the  twelfth  month  in  Babylon,  while  Jeremiah, 
who  was  in  Palestine,  calls  the  same  day,  the  25th,  2  K.  25:  27. 
Jer.  52:  31.  The  modern  Jews,  in  reference  to  what  is  stated  in 
1  Sam.  20:  27,  observe  the  return  of  the  New-moon  for  two  days 
in  succession. 

§  353.  Of  the  great  Festivals  in  General. 

The  Passover,  the  Pentecost,  and  the  feast  of  Tabernacles, 
were  festivals,  instituted  for  the  purpose  of  commemorating  the 
wonderful  kindness  of  God.  The  Pentecost  continued  only  for 
one  day,  the  Passover  seven,  and  the  feast  of  the  Tabernacles 
eight,  but  the  first  and  the  last  only,  in  both  cases,  were  properly 
considered  festival  days,  in  which  no  employment  further  than 
was  necessary  to  prepare  food,  was  permitted,  Exod.  12:  16.  Lev. 
23:  7. 

At  the  return  of  the  three  great  festivals,  all  the  adult  Jews 
made  their  appearance,  either  at  the  tabernacle  or  temple,  with 
presents,  which  were  taken  from  the  second  tythes,  the  first- 
lings of  the  second  product  of  the  flocks,  and  the  second  first-fruits. 
They  offered  sacrifices,  feasted  ;  and  with  songs,  music,  and  dan- 
ces, rejoiced  in  God,  as  a  being,  wonderful  for  his  mercies. 

The  word  itself,  which  is  usually  employed  to  designate  festi- 
vals, viz.  ah,  if  its  original  signification  be  consulted,  is  an  intima- 
tion, that  dancing  was  practised  on  such  occasions,  Exod.  23:  17. 
Lev.  23:  38.  Num.  29:  39.  Deut.  12:  18.  14:  26.  16:  11—17.  26: 11. 

§  354.  Concerning  the  Passover. 

The  festival  of  the  Passover  was  instituted,  for  the  purpose 
of  preserving  among  the  Hebrews  the  memory  of  their  liberation 
from  Egyptian  servitude,  and  of  the  safety  of  their  first-born  on 
that  night,  when  the  first  born  of  the  Egyptians  perished,  Exod. 
12  :  It  was  celebrated  for  seven  days,  viz.  from  the  15th  to  the 
21st  of  the  month  Abib  or  Nisan  (April,)  Exod.  12: 1—28.  23:  15. 
Lev.  23:  4—8.  Num.  28:  16—25.  Deut.  16:  1—8. 

During  the  whole  of  this  period,  the  people  ate  unleavened 


448 


$  354.   CONCERNING  THE  PASSOVER. 


bread.  It  was  for  this  reason,  that  the  festival  is  sometimes  called 
the  feast  of  unleavened  bread,  n'l£7an  J\h  ,  tOQxri  tmv  aCv/xcov,  Exod. 
12:  18.  13:  6,  7.  23:  15.  Lev.  23:  6.  Num.  28:  17.  If  in  Deut. 
16:  8.  only  six  days  of  unleavened  bread  are  mentioned,  the  reason 
is,  that  the  first  day,  being  considered  a  separate  festival,  is  not  in- 
cluded. On  the  eve  of  the  14th  day,  the  leaven  was  removed,  so 
that  nothing  might  be  seen  of  it  during  the  week,  a  circumstance, 
in  respect  to  which  the  Jews  are  very  scrupulous,  even  at  the  pre- 
sent time,  1  Cor.  5:  7. 

Hence  not  only  the  15th,  but  the  14th  also  of  the  month  Abib 
may  with  propriety,  as  it  is  in  some  instances,  in  the  Bible,  be  term- 
ed the  first  day  of  unleavened  bread,  since  the  leaven  was  removed 
on  the  14th  before  evening.  Josephus  has  accordingly  assigned 
eight  days,  Antiq.  II.  15,  1.  and  seven,  Antiq.  III.  10,  5.  IX.  13, 
3.  to  the  feast  of  the  Passover,  when  in  reality  there  were  but  seven. 
On  the  10th  day  of  the  month  Abib,  the  master  of  a  family  sepa- 
rated a  ram  or  a  goat  of  a  year  old,  (Exod.  12,  1 — 6,)  which  he 
slew  on  the  14th  day  between  the  two  evenings,  tTSl*!?  "p^,  before 
the  altar,  Deut.  16:  2,  5,  6.  The  priest  sprinkled  the  blood  upon 
the  bottom  of  the  altar ;  but  in  Egypt,  when  the  event  occurred, 
which  was  the  origin  of  the  Passover,  the  blood  was  sprinkled  on 
the  post  of  the  door,  Exod.  12:  7. 

The  ram  or  the  kid,  which  was  properly  called  nDDjKftCD, 
nuance,  or  protection,  was  roasted  whole,  with  two  spits  thrust 
through  it,  the  one  length-wise,  the  other  transversely,  crossing 
the  longitudinal  one  near  the  fore  legs  ;  so  that  the  animal  was, 
in  a  manner  crucified.  The  oven,  in  which  it  was  roasted,  is  the 
one  described  §  140.  no.  II.  Pesachim.  c.  3.  John  19:  36.  comp. 
§  142. 

Thus  roasted,  it  was  served  up  with  a  salad  of  wild,  and 
bitter  herbs,  E^n/lfa ,  and  with  the  flesh  of  other  sacrifices,  which 
occur  in  Deut.  16:  2 — 6.  under  the  word  n0£ .  Not  fewer  than 
ten,  nor  more  than  twenty  persons,  were  admitted  to  these  sacred 
feasts,  which  were  at  first  eaten  in  Egypt,  with  loins  girt  about, 
with  shoes  upon  the  feet,  and  with  all  the  preparations  for  an  im- 
mediate journey  ;  but  this  was  not  the  case  at  any  subsequent 
period.  The  command,  however,  not  to  break  a  bone  of  the 
offering,  which  was  given  in  consequence  of  the  people  going  in 


§  354.   CONCERNING  THE  PASSOVER. 


449 


such  haste  (as  they  might  otherwise  have  been  delayed,)  was  ever 
afterwards  observed  among  the  Jews,  John  19:  36. 

The  ceremonies,  practised  at  the  eating  of  the  Paschal  supper, 
appear  to  have  been  nearly  the  same  with  those,  which  are  prac- 
tised among  the  Jews  at  the  present  day,  and  which  are  related 
in  the  Jewish  Book,  entitled  HDS  V?  IrTjatt  1DD.  Compare  1  Cor. 
11:  26.  These  ceremonies  were  exemplified  in  part  in  the  last 
supper  of  the  Saviour,  where  mention  is  made  of  the  blessing  on 
the  bread  and  wine,  which  is  prescribed  in  the  Book  just  referred 
to,  Matt.  26:  26. 

The  master  of  the  family,  after  the  Paschal  supper  is  prepared, 
breaks  the  bread,  having  first  blessed  it,  and  divides  it  to  all,  who 
are  seated  round  him,  so  that  each  one  may  receive  a  part,  who 
has  liberty,  if  he  chooses,  to  dip  it  before  eating  into  a  vessel  of 
sauce. 

The  third  cup  of  wine,  which  is  drunk  on  this  occasion,  is  pro- 
perly termed  the  cup  of  benediction,  m^SH  0*13,  Matt.  26:  27. 
1  Cor.  10:  16.  After  this,  songs  of  praise  are  sung,  viz.  Psalms 
115 — 118;  after  which  another  cup  is  drunk,  Mark  14:  26,  and, 
if  the  guests  have  a  disposition  to  repeat  Psalms  120 — 137,  another 
also.    The  wine  is  mingled  with  water. 

On  the  second  day  of  the  Passover,  i.  e.  on  the  16th  day  of  the 
month  Abib,  a  sheaf  of  barley  was  offered  up,  also  a  lamb  of  a  year 
old  for  a  burnt  offering,  also  a  meal-offering  and  a  libation. 

This  ceremony  was  the  introduction,  prescribed  by  Law,  to 
the  harvest,  Lev.  23:  1 — 14.  On  every  day  of  the  Paschal  week, 
there  were  offerings  more  than  usual,  and  victims  were  immolated 
for  sin,  Num.  28:  16—25. 

Note.  In  the  Latin  Church,  the  general  opinion  is,  that  the 
Saviour,  in  his  last  supper,  ate  the  Passover  supper ;  though  some 
suppose,  that  he  anticipated  the  usual  time  by  a  day,  i.  e.  they 
suppose,  that  he  followed  in  this  instance,  the  practice  of  the 
Sadducees,  who  calculated  the  return  of  the  New-moon  astro- 
nomically, which  would  bring  this  festival  a  day  earlier,  than  it 
would  otherwise  happen ;  an  opinion,  which  we  have  already 
shown  to  be  inadmissible.  We  would  now  merely  add  in  refer- 
ence to  this  opinion,  that  all  the  arrangements  of  a  religious  na- 
ture, which  had  any  reference  to  the  Temple,  were  made  in 

57 


450  §  356.  OF  THE  FEAST  OF  TABERNACLES. 

accordance  with  the  opinions,  that  prevailed  among  the  Pharisees  ; 
and,  furthermore,  that  the  discourse  in  Matt.  26:  1—19.  Mark  14: 
12 — 18.  Luke  22:  7 — 14,  is  concerning  the  customary  day  of  the 
Passover. 

The  Greek  Church,  on  the  contrary,  contend,  that  the  last 
supper  of  the  Saviour  was  not  the  Paschal  supper,  and  that  in  in- 
stituting the  Eucharist,  he  made  use  of  leavened  bread.  Some  in- 
dividuals in  the  Latin  Church  agree  in  this  opinion,  excepting  that 
they  suppose  unleavened  bread  to  have  been  used  on  the  evening  of 
the  13th  day  of  the  month  Abib,  and  that  consequently  the  Saviour, 
in  instituting  the  Eucharist  on  that  evening,  made  use  of  bread  of 
that  kind. 

§  355.  Concerning  the  Pentecost. 

An  enumeration  of  forty  nine  days  from  the  16th  of  Abib  or 
the  2d  day  of  the  Passover,  introduced  us  to  the  Pentecost,  nevtri- 
noatt],  i.  e.  the  fiftieth.  It  is  also  called  the  feast  of  Weeks, 
rny*Q*$ii  ah  ,  from  the  circumstance,  that  it  followed  a  succession 
of  seven  weeks,  Exod.  34:  22.  Lev.  23:  15,  16.  Num.  28:  26.  Deut. 
16:  10.  Acts  2:  1. 

It  was  a  festival  of  thanks  for  the  harvest,  and  is,  accordingly 
called  "VXp  ah,  the  feast  of  the  harvest.  And  it  wAs  for  the  same 
reason,  that  two  loaves  made  of  new  meal,  and  the  tenth  part  of 
an  epha  of  grain  were  offered,  as  the  first  fruits,  Lev.  23:  17. 
Num.  28:  26.  Hence  the  Pentecost  is  sometimes  called  the  day  of 
the  frst  fruits,  fip^aanj  Num.  28:  26.  There  were  likewise,  on 
the  return  of  this  festival,  many  holocausts,  besides  an  offering  for 
sin,  Lev.  23:  18—20.  Num.  28:  27—31. 

In  the  days  of  the  Apostles,  as  we  are  expressly  informed  by 
Josephus  himself,  many  Jews  from  foreign  countries  came  to  Jeru- 
salem on  this  joyful  occasion,  Jewish  War,  II.  3,  I.  comp.  Acts  2: 
5—13. 

§  356.  Of  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles. 

The  feast  of  Tabernacles,  pftS&H  ah  togzt]  aitrjpojv,  oxyvonr)- 
yla,  was  celebrated  from  the  15th  to  the  23d  of  the  seventh  month, 
vi2.  Tishri  ( October.)    The  23d  or  eighth  day  was  the  one,  which 


§  356.   OF  THE  FEAST  OF  TABERNACLES. 


451 


was  most  particularly  distinguished,  as  a  festival,  Lev.  23:  34 — 42. 
Num.  29:  12,  35.  Deut.  16:  12—15.  Neh.  8:  IS.  2  Mace.  10:  6. 
John  7:  2,  37. 

It  was  instituted  in  memory  of  the  journey  through  the  Arabi- 
an wilderness.  The  Jews,  therefore,  during  its  continuance,  dwelt 
in  booths,  as  they  did  in  their  journey  from  Egypt,  Lev.  23:  42,  43. 
It  was  also  a  festival  of  thanks  in  honour  of  the  vintage  and  the 
gathering  in  of  the  fruits,  and  was,  therefore,  called  the  feast  of  the 
gathering  ?]DNtl  It},  Exod.  23:  16.  34:  22. 

The  Hebrews  during  this  feast  carried  about  the  fruits  of  the 
choicest  trees,  or  as  the  later  Jews  interpret  the  words  -*nn  yspnS, 
citrons,  also  the  branches  of  palms,  willows,  and  other  trees,  that 
bore  a  thick  foliage.  The  Caraites  suppose,  it  was  of  such  branches 
that  they  were  in  the  habit  of  constructing  their  booths,  Lev.  23: 
40.  with  which,  however,  it  appears,  that  they  mingled  the  branch- 
es of  olives,  myrtles,  wild-olives,  etc.  Neh.  8:  15.  2  Mace.  10:  7. 
Josephus,  Antiquities,  XIV.  13,  5. 

The  Feast  of  tabernacles  was  a  season,  which  witnessed  the 
most  marked  and  decided  indications  of  joy.  Hence  it  is  denomi- 
nated by  Josephus  (Antiq.  VIII.  4,  1.  XI.  5,  5.)  and  by  Philo  de 
septenario  p.  1195,  the  greatest  [ityioir],  and  by  the  Talmudists, 
by  way  of  distinction  Jhn,  the  feast.  It  was  not  unknown  to  Plu- 
tarch, Sympos.  L.  IV.  c.  5. 

More  public  sacrifices  were  directed  to  be  offered  on  this  fes- 
tival, than  on  the  others,  as  will  be  seen  by  consulting  Num.  29: 
12—39.  comp.  Deut.  16:  14,  15.  Lev.  23:  38—40.  Num.  29:  39. 

To  these  ceremonies,  the  more  recent  Jews  have  added  a  num- 
ber of  others. 

I.  They  undertake  to  assert,  (founding  their  opinion  in  this 
case  on  Isaiah  12.  3.)  the  existence  of  the  following  practice. 
The  priests  went  every  morning  during  the  eight  days  of  the  feast, 
and  drew  three  logs  of  water  in  a  golden  vessel  from  the  foun- 
tain of  Siloe.  They  then  carried  the  water  with  great  and  joyful 
solemnity  through  the  water-gate  to  the  temple,  and  poured  it  out 
to  the  South  West  of  the  altar,  the  Levites,  in  the  mean-while, 
playing  on  instruments  of  music,  and  singing  the  Psalms  113 — 118. 
Some  of  the  Talmudists  assert,  that  this  ceremony  was  a  symbol 
of  rain,  others  of  joy,  others  of  the  effusion  of  the  Holy  Spirit. 


452  §  357.   OF  THE  DAY  OF  PROPITIATION. 

Compare  John  7:  37,  also  Wetstein's  New  Testament,  Vol.  I.  888, 
889. 

II.  Another  ceremony,  if  we  may  believe  the  Jews,  to  whom 
we  have  referred,  was  this.  In  the  court  of  the  women,  lights  were 
burnt  during  every  evening  of  the  feast,  in  four  candlesticks  of  gold, 
said  to  be  fifty  cubits  high  ;  while  the  priests  and  Levites,  standing 
on  the  fifteen  steps  of  the  inner  court,  sung  the  songs  of  degrees, 
viz.  Psalms  120 — 134.  They  accompanied  these  songs  with  in- 
struments, and  the  chief  men  of  the  nation  were,  at  the  same  time, 
dancing  in  the  women's  court,  with  burning  torches  in  their 
hands,  while  the  women  looked  on  from  a  retired  apartment,  that 
was  surrounded  by  a  sort  of  latticed  enclosure. 

Furthermore,  the  Jews,  during  every  day  of  the  feast,  holding 
in  the  left  hand  a  citron,  in  the  right,  a  bundle,  nb^b ,  of  branches, 
viz.  one  branch  of  the  palm-tree,  and  two  branches  of  willow  and 
myrtle,  passed  around  the  altar  and  shouted  aloud  with  a  solemn 
voice,  ttJ—jjpaJiSn  ,  Hosanna,  Hosanna.  On  the  seventh  day,  this 
ceremony  was  repeated  seven  times  in  memory  of  the  conquest  of 
Jericho.  Hence  it  happens,  that  this  feast  is  called  the  great 
Hosanna.    Compare  2  Mace.  10:  17. 

§  357.  Of  the  Day  of  Propitiation. 

The  fifth  day  before  the  Feast  of  tabernacles,  viz.  the  10th  day 
of  the  7th  month  or  Tishri  ( October)  was  the  day  of  atonement 
or  propitiation,  tn~pS3il  ficfr.*  Lev.  16:  1—34.  Exod.  23:  26— 30. 
Num.  29:  1 — 11.  It  was  a  day  of  fasting,  and  the  only  one  during 
the  whole  year,  on  which  food  was  interdicted  from  evening  to 
evening,  Lev.  23:  27—29.  25:  9. 

The  high  priest  himself  conducted  the  sacred  services  of  this 
day,  and  the  ceremonies  now  to  be  mentioned,  which  differed 
from  those  on  other  occasions,  were  performed  by  him  alone. 
When  he  had  washed  himself  in  water,  put  on  his  white  linen 
hose  and  coat,  and  adjusted  his  girdle,  he  conducted  to  the  altar, 
with  the  sacerdotal  mitre  on  his  head,  a  bullock,  destined  to  be 
slain  for  the  sins  of  himself  and  his  family  ;  also  two  goats  for  the 
sins  of  the  people,  the  one  of  which  was  selected  by  lot  to  be 
sacrificed  to  God,  rpr^b;  the  other  was  permitted  to  make  an  un- 


§  357.   OF  THE  DAY  OF  PROPITIATION. 


453 


molested  escape,  b*NT3>b  ,  Lev.  16:  6 — 10.  Compare  the  Arabic 
word  Jjr'J^ 

Presently  he  slew  the  bullock  for  his  own  sins,  and  the  goat, 
which  had  been  selected  by  lot  for  that  purpose,  for  the  sins  of 
the  people.  He  then  filled  a  censer  with  burning  coals  from  the 
altar,  and  putting  two  handfuls  of  incense  into  a  vase,  he  bore 
them  into  the  sanctissimum  or  Holy  of  holies.  Having  here  poured 
the  incense  upon  the  coals,  he  returned,  took  the  blood  of  the 
bullock  and  the  goat,  and  went  again  into  the  Most  holy  place. 

With  his  finger  he  first  sprinkled  the  blood  of  the  bullock,  and 
afterwards,  of  the  goat  upon  the  lid  of  the  Ark  of  the  Covenant, 
and  seven  times  also  he  sprinkled  it  upon  the  floor  before  the 
Ark. 

He  then  returned  from  the  Most  holy  into  the  Holy  place  or 
Sanctuary,  and  besmeared  the  horns  of  the  golden  altar,  which 
was  there  placed,  with  the  blood  of  the  bullock  and  the  goat,  and 
scattered  the  blood  seven  times  over  the  surface  of  the  altar. 

This  was  done,  as  we  are  informed,  as  an  expiation  for  the  un- 
cleanness  and  the  sins  of  the  children  of  Israel,  Lev.  16:  11 — 19. 

The  high  priest  then,  going  out  into  the  court  of  the  Taber- 
nacle, placed  both  hands  with  great  solemnity  on  the  head  of  the 
scape-goat  bTitjyb ;  a  symbolic  representation,  that  the  animal 
was  loaded  with  the  sins  of  the  people.  It  was  then  delivered  to 
a  man,  who  led  it  away  into  the  wilderness,  and  let  it  go  free,  to 
signify  the  liberation  of  the  Israelites  from  the  punishment  due  to 
their  sins.  But  the  goat,  which  was  slain  for  the  sins  of  the  peo- 
ple, and  the  bullock,  slain  for  those  of  the  high  priest,  were  de- 
signed to  signify,  that  they  were  guilty,  and  that  they  merited 
punishment ;  and  were  to  be  burnt  whole,  beyond  the  limits  of  the 
camp  or  the  city,  Lev.  16:  20—22,  26—28. 

At  length  the  high  priest,  putting  off  his  white  vestments,  and 
assuming  the  splendid  robes  of  his  office,  sacrificed  a  holocaust  for 
himself  and  the  people,  and  then  offered  another  sin-offering,  Lev. 
16:  23—25.  Num.  29:  7—11. 

The  Jews  assert,  that  the  high  priest  went  into  the  Holy  of 
holies  a  third  time  for  the  purpose  of  bringing  away  the  censer, 
but  this  was  not  necessary,  for  he  might  have  taken  it  away  when 
he  returned  the  second  time  with  the  blood.    That  he  went  into 


454  §  358.   CONCERNING  OTHER  FASTS. 

the  sanctissimum  only  twice  is  expressly  asserted  by  Philo  de 
legat.  ad  Caium.  The  assertion  in  Lev.  16:  34,  and  Exod.  30:  10, 
viz.  that  the  high  priest  entered  once  has  reference  merely  to  the 
one  day  in  the  year,  for  it  is  evident,  that  he  could  not  perform 
all  the  duties,  which  devolved  upon  him,  by  entering  once  only  on 
that  day. 

§  358.  Concerning  other  Fasts. 

The  Hebrews,  in  the  earlier  periods  of  their  history,  were  in 
the  habit  of  fasting,  whenever  they  had  met  with  any  adverse  oc- 
currences, Judg.  20:  26.  1  Sam.  7:  6.  31:  13.  2  Sam.  3:  35.  Is.  58: 
3 — 12.  But  it  was  not  till  about  the  time  of  the  Captivity,  that 
they  introduced  anniversary  fast  days.  The  days,  to  which  we 
allude,  were,  as  follows  : 

I.  The  17th  day  of  the  fourth  month,  viz.  Tammuz  or  July. 
This  fast  was  instituted,  in  memory  of  the  capture  of  Jerusalem, 
Jer.  52:  6,  7.  Zech.  8:  19. 

II.  The  ninth  day  of  the  fifth  month,  Ab  or  August,  in  memory 
of  the  burning  of  the  Temple,  Zech.  7:  3.  8:  19. 

III.  The  third  day  of  the  seventh  month,  Tishri  or  October, 
in  memory  of  the  death  of  Gedaliah,  Jer.  40:  4.  Zech.  7:  5.  8:  19. 

IV.  The  tenth  day  of  the  tenth  month,  Tebeth,  or  January,  in 
memory  of  the  commencement  of  the  attack  on  Jerusalem,  Zech. 
8:  19. 

The  prophet  Zechariah,  in  reference  to  inquiries  which  were 
made  of  him,  asserted,  that  these  mournful  occasions  were,  at  some 
future  time,  to  be  converted  into  festivals  of  joy,  but  the  Jews,  not- 
withstanding, have  ever  continued  to  observe  them,  as  fasts,  Zech. 
8:  19. 

Note.  It  is  yet  a  matter  of  uncertainty,  what  the  meaning 
was  of  that  effusion  of  waters  on  the  fast-day,  which  is  mentioned 
in  1  Sam.  7:  6,  7.  Perhaps  it  was  done,  as  a  symbol,  (a  trace 
of  which  may  still  be  considered,  as  current  in  the  East,  in  the 
shape  of  certain  tropical  expressions,)  to  denote  that  fullness  or 
over-flowing  of  heart,  with  which  the  Jews  were  now  desirous 
of  giving  themselves  up  to  God.  Of  the  expressions,  to  which  we 
refer,  it  will  be  sufficient  to  say  in  this  connexion,  "  that  the  offer- 


§  360.   FESTIVAL  OF  THE  PURIFICATION  OF  THE  TEMPLE.  455 

ing  of  water"  etc.  is  used  tropically  to  denote  generosity,  or  a  free, 
liberal-minded  act  or  character. 

§  359.  Of  the  Feast  of  Purim. 

This  festival  was  introduced  by  Mordecai  in  the  reign  of  Xer- 
xes, to  commemorate  the  deliverance  of  the  Jews  from  the  cruel 
designs  of  Haman.  It  was  celebrated  on  the  14th  or  15th  day  of 
the  last  month,  viz.  Adar  or  March,  and  was  called  Purim,  a  Per- 
sian word,  which  signifies  let ;  because  Haman  ascertained  in  this 
way,  (by  lot,)  the  day,  on  which  the  Jews  were  to  be  destroyed, 
Est.  3:  7.  9:  26. 

It  was  also  called  for  reasons,  which  will  be  obvious  to  every 
one,  MordecaVs  day,  rj  MuQdo%aixri  ijptQcc,  2  Mace.  15:  36. 

It  is  stated  by  the  Talmudists,  that  some  of  the  Jews  were  op- 
posed to  the  celebration  of  this  festival,  which  will  be  easily  cred- 
ited, when  it  is  remembered,  that  it  resembled  the  festivals  of 
Bacchus. 

The  Book  of  Esther  was  read  in  the  synagogues  on  the  occa- 
sion, and  whenever  the  name  of  Haman  occurred,  all  clapped  their 
hands,  and  struck  with  their  fists  and  with  mallets  on  the  benches, 
and  cried  out,  "  Let  his  memory  perish" 

Anciently,  the  Jews,  on  the  return  of  this  festival,  were  in  the 
habit  of  erecting  crosses  on  their  houses,  in  memory  of  Haman's 
crucifixion  ;  but  these  having  been  interdicted,  (Cod.  Theodos.  Tit. 
12.  c.  2.)  they  substituted  some  other  sign  in  their  stead.  They 
send  messes  of  meat  to  each  other,  etc.  and  spend  the  day  in  the 
utmost  conviviality. 

§  360.  On  the  Festival  Encaenia,  otherwise  called  the  fes- 
tival of  the  Purification  of  the  Temple. 

The  Temple  was  profaned  by  Antiochus  Epiphanes  in  the 
year  167,  and  was  purified  in  the  year  164  before  Christ.  Its  de- 
dication at  the  time  of  its  being  purified,  was  celebrated  eight  days 
with  many  sacrifices,  beginning  at  the  25th  of  the  month  Kislev 
or  December.  This  dedication  was  converted  into  an  anniversary, 
which  was  called  by  various  names,  viz.  encaenia,  tyxcthtct ;  the 
days  of  the  dedication  of  the  altar,  at  yp*$mi  iyxcuviapou  tov 


456 


§  361.   OF  THE  JEWS  AS  A  HOLY  PEOPLE. 


■&voiaoxriQiov ;  and  likewise  the  purification  of  the  temple,  xa#a- 
Qioftog  Tov  i6Qov,  1  Mace.  4:  52 — 59.  2  Mace.  10:  1—8.  John  10: 
22.  It  is  mentioned  by  Josephus,  Antiq.  XII.  7,  6,  7.  by  the 
name  grcora,  because  the  Jews  lighted  their  houses  with  many  can- 
dles on  those  days,  as  indications  of  the  return  of  peace  and  joy. 
Consult  Josephus  contra  Apion.  II.  39. 


CHAPTER  IV. 


OF  SACRED  PERSONS. 


§  361.  Of  the  Jews,  considered  as  a  Holy  people. 

The  posterity  of  Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob  were  selected  and 
set  apart  to  preserve  and  transmit  the  true  religion.  They  were, 
in  this  way,  consecrated  to  God,  and  on  this  ground,  were  called 
Holy  tPUiilp ,  and  were  considered,  as  sustaining  the  relation  of 
priests  to  the  Supreme  Being,  and  as  being  entitled  to  be  called  a 
sacerdotal  nation  or  nation  of  priests,  Exod.  19:  6.  Lev.  11:  44,  45. 
19:  2.  20:  26.  Deut.  7:  6.  14:  2,  21.  26:  19.  28:  9. 

Being  thus  set  apart  or  sanctified,  it  was  very  frequently  urg- 
ed upon  them  to  maintain  a  purity  of  heart  and  conduct,  corres- 
ponding with  their  calling  and  the  title  which  they  bore,  and  as 
they  were  called  a  Holy  people,  to  be  the  possessors  of  holiness. 
[Accordingly  we  find  such  exhortations  addressed  to  them,  as  the 
following;  sanctify  yourselves,  therefore,  and  be  ye  holy ,  for  I  am 
the  Lord,  your  God.  And  ye  shall  keep  my  statutes,  and  do  them ; 
I  am  the  Lord,  which  sanctify  you."]  Lev.  19:  2.  20:  7,  8,  26.  11: 
45.  Exod.  20:  20,  21.  etc. 

But  the  more  recent  Jews,  inflated  with  the  title  of  Holy  peo- 


§  362.   PERSONS  EMPLOYED  IN  RELIGIOUS  DUTIES.  457 

pie,  despised  and  hated  all  other  nations,  and  denominated  them 
profane,  and  sinners,  Eph.  2:  14,  15.  I  Thess.  2:  15,  16.  comp.  Taci- 
tus, Hist.  V.  5.  Matt.  9:  10,  11.  Luke  5:  8.  Gal.  2:  15—17. 

The  Holiness  of  the  Jewish  nation,  as  the  word  is  to  he  un- 
derstood in  its  original  application,  i.  e.  their  separation  and  conse- 
cration to  the  worship  of  the  true  God,  was  a  thing,  that  continued 
or  was  perpetual,  although  it  was  often  the  case,  that  there  ex- 
isted at  the  same  time  a  great  corruption  of  morals.  This  ac- 
counts for  the  fact,  that  the  Rabbins  sometimes  denominate  the 
most  wicked  of  the  Hebrew  kings  holy.  That  is  to  say,  they  give 
such  a  sense  to  the  term,  as  to  make  the  words  holy  and  Israelite 
mean  the  same  thing. 

This  appellation  came  at  length  into  use  among  Christians, 
who  are  denominated  by  the  Apostles,  not  only  disciples,  natirjiui, 
not  only  brethren,  ddelqoi^  and  those  who  are  in  the  same  way,  i.  e. 
partakers  in  the  same  religious  feelings,  but  are  likewise  frequently 
denominated  holy  or  saints,  ayioi,  Acts  9:  41.  26:  10.  Rom.  1:  7. 
8:  17.  12:  13.  15:  25,  26.  16:  %  etc. 

§  362.   Of  Persons  officially  employed  in  discharging  re- 
ligious DUTIES. 

We  have  spoken,  in  another  place,  of  the  Levites,  as  being  the 
servants  of  God  in  a  civil  or  political  capacity,  i.  e.  the  servants  of 
God,  considered,  as  the  king  or  ruler  of  the  state.  We  shall  speak 
of  them  here,  as  his  servants  or  ministers  in  the  public  ordinances 
of  religion.  The  Levites  were  a  class  of  persons,  substituted  in  the 
place  of  theirs*  born,  who  were  originally  priests  by  birth,  but  in 
the  age  of  Moses  yielded  their  right  in  this  respect,  and  were  ever 
after  to  be  redeemed  from  serving  at  the  altar,  Num.  3:  5 — 13,  40 — 
51.  8:  16—19. 

From  this  tribe,  (that  of  Levi,)  Aaron  and  his  posterity  were 
consecrated  to  the  priesthood,  to  whom  a  nearer  access  was  given 
to  the  throne  of  God  in  the  Holy  of  holies,  which,  in  truth,  is  in- 
timated in  the  usual  name  for  priests,  viz.  ]nb,  [a  word,  which  is 
applied  to  men,  who  have  access  to  the  king,  for  instance  to  the 
sons  of  David,  2  Sam.  8:  18.  comp.  1  Chron.  18:  17.  etc.] 

The  rest  of  the  Levites  performed  those  religious  duties, 
which  were  of  an  inferiour  kind,  but  for  the  more  menial  em- 
58 


458     §  363.  THE  SERVANTS  ALLOTTED  TO  THE  SANCTUARY. 

ployments,  such  as  bringing  water  and  splitting  wood,  they  were 
allowed  servants,  who  were  assigned  for  the  labours  of  the  Sanc- 
tuary. 

The  high  priest  sustained  the  highest  office  in  the  tribe,  and 
ranked,  as  the  head  both  of  priests  and  Levites.  Separate  duties 
were  allotted  to  all  these,  viz.  to  the  menial  servants,  the  Levites, 
the  priests,  and  the  high  priest,  and  the  duties  of  one  were  not  al- 
lowed to  interfere  with  those  of  another. 

§  363.  Of  the  Servants  who  were  allotted  to  the  Sanctuary. 

With  respect  to  the  servants,  who,  subsequently  to  the  time  of 
Moses,  were  employed  about  the  Sanctuary,  and  later  still  were 
occupied  in  performing  the  menial  offices,  connected  with  the 
Temple,  it  may  be  remarked,  that  they  had  their  origin,  as  a 
separate  class  in  the  community,  from  a  religious  practice  among 
the  Hebrews,  viz.  of  devoting  by  a  vow  themselves,  a  son,  or  a  ser- 
vant to  services  of  such  a  kind.  It  was  in  reference  to  this  prac- 
tice, that  the  law  was  enacted,  which  is  recorded  in  Lev.  27:  1 — 
8,  and  which  fixed  the  price,  at  which  a  person,  who  had  thus  de- 
voted himself,  might  be  redeemed. 

In  the  time  of  Joshua,  the  number  of  the  persons,  who  were 
employed  in  the  capacity  of  servants  in  performing  the  religious 
ceremonies,  was  increased  by  the  accession  of  the  Gibeonites,  the 
Beerothites,  the  Kephirites,  and  the  inhabitants  of  Kirjath-jearim,  who 
were  compelled  to  labour  in  the  same  menial  occupations,  Jos.  9: 
23 — 29.  Their  number  was  increased  likewise  in  the  age  of  David 
and  Solomon. 

After  the  Captivity  they  constituted  a  very  considerable  class 
of  the  people,  and  were  called,  (by  an  honourary  name,  that  was 
anciently  applied  to  the  Levites,)  Nethenims,  tWEO ,  (the  same 
with  CPwinU,)  a  word,  which  signifies  given  or  devoted,  i.  e.  to  the 
service  of  the  Temple  and  Sanctuary,  Num.  3:  9.  8:  17,  19.  18:  6. 
Their  employment,  however  it  may  have  been  esteemed  original- 
lv,  was  eventually  considered  so  respectable,  that  we  find  them, 
after  the  Captivity,  mentioned  immediately  after  the  Levites,  and 
as  it  would  seem,  placed,  in  a  measure,  above  the  other  Israelites, 
Ezra  2:  54,  58.  8:  20.  Neh.  10:  29.  11:3. 


§  305.  OF  THE  DUTIES  OF  THE  LEVITES. 


459 


§  364.  Of  the  Consecration  of  the  Levites. 

The  Levites  were  solemnly  separated  from  the  rest  of  the  Is- 
raelites, and  qualified  for  their  official  duties  by  a  singular  rite. 

I.  Having  washed  and  shaved  the  whole  body,  they  brought  a 
bullock  with  a  meal-offering  and  oil  to  the  altar  for  a  holocaust,  and 
another  bullock  for  a  sin-offering. 

II.  They  were  then  sprinkled  with  water  by  Moses. 

III.  The  leading  men  of  the  Israelites  laid  their  hands  upon 
them,  and  by  this  ceremony  substituted  them  in  their  own  place, 
or  in  that  of  their  first  born. 

IV.  The  Levites,  in  the  presence  of  the  priests,  prostrated  them- 
selves before  God  or  the  sacred  Tabernacle,  in  signification,  that 
they  offered  themselves  to  his  service. 

V.  Finally,  they  placed  their  hands  upon  the  bullocks,  and  then 
slew  them. 

With  these  ceremonies,  the  Levites  and  their  posterity  were 
set  apart  to  the  service  of  God,  of  the  priests,  and  of  the  taber- 
nacle, Num.  8:  5 — 22.  comp.  Acts  13:  2,  3.  They  were  not  oblig- 
ed by  law  to  wear  any  particular  sort  of  dress.  There  was  this 
exception,  however,  viz.  that  the  musicians  and  singers,  in  the 
time  of  David  and  Solomon,  and  also  those,  who  bore  the  Ark  of 
the  Covenant,  were  clothed  in  a  robe  of  white  linen,  1  Chron.  15: 
27.  2  Chron.  5:  12.  comp.  Josephus,  Antiquities,  VIII.  3.  8.  XX. 
9.  6. 

§  365.  Of  the  Duties  of  the  Levites. 

It  was  the  duty  of  the  Levites,  to  render  such  assistance  to 
the  priests  as  was  required,  to  keep  guard  round  the  tabernacle, 
and  subsequently  round  the  temple.  In  the  journey  through  the 
Arabian  wilderness,  it  fell  to  them  to  transport  the  different  parts 
of  the  tabernacle,  and  the  various  sacred  untensils,  that  pertain- 
ed to  it.  It  was  their  duty,  furthermore,  to  see,  that  both  the 
tabernacle  and  the  temple  were  kept  clean,  and  to  prepare  sup- 
plies for  the  Sanctuary,  such  as  wine,  oil,  incense,  etc.  They 
had  the  care  of  the  sacred  revenues,  and  subsequently  to  the 
time  of  David,  were  required  to  sing  in  the  temple  and  to  play 


4C0 


§  365.   OF  THE  DUTIES  OF  THE  LEV1TES. 


upon  instruments ;  and,  in  the  more  recent  periods  of  the  Jewish 
state,  it  fell  to  them  likewise  to  slay  the  victims  for  the  altar,  in  as 
much  as  the  Hebrews  having  for  a  time  discontinued  it,  had  be- 
come unskilful  in  the  performance  of  this  service.  There  were  al- 
so certain  civil  offices,  which  they  were  required  to  perform,  but 
these  do'not  come  into  consideration  here. 

The  Levites,  in  consequence  of  their  descent  from  the  three 
sons  of  Levi,  viz.  Kohath,  Gershon,  and  Merari,  were  divided  into 
three  families.  These  families  bore  separate  and  distinct  parts 
of  the  tabernacle  and  of  the  furniture,  which  belonged  to  it,  dur- 
ing the  march  of  their  countrymen  through  the  Arabian  desert. 
This  laborious  service  was  exacted  from  them,  from  the  thirteenth 
to  the  fiftieth  year  of  their  age.  But  from  twenty  five  to  thirty,  and 
subsequently  to  the  fiftieth  year,  the  employments,  which  they 
were  expected  to  attend  to,  were  of  a  less  arduous  nature,  such 
as  keeping  watch,  and  the  like,  Num.  3:  1—36.  4:  1,  30,  35,  42, 
46 — 49.  8:  23 — 26.  It  appears,  that,  in  later  times,  they  com- 
menced the  performance  of  the  less  difficult  duties  at  a  still  earlier 
period,  viz.  at  twenty  years  of  age,  1- Chron.  23:  24,  27.  2  Chron. 
31:  17.  Ezra  3:  8. 

After  the  erection  of  the  temple  in  Palestine,  as  the  Levites  had 
much  less  to  do  than  previously  to  that  time,  David  divided  the 
thirty  eight  thousand  of  them  into  four  classes,  as  follows.  Twen- 
ty four  thousand  were  assigned  as  assistants  to  the  priests,  four 
thousand  were  employed  as  porters,  four  thousand  were  musicians, 
and  six  thousand  judges  and  genealogists,  1  Chron.  23:  3 — 5,  24 — 
32.  24:  20—31.  26:  1—28. 

The  7fiusicians,  who  were  subjected  to  a  minor  division  into 
twenty  four  classes,  performed  the  services,  which  were  allotted  to 
them  alternately.  One  class  was  employed  a  week,  and  then  its 
place  was  occupied  by  another. 

The  stations,  that  were  guarded  by  the  men,  whose  business  it 
was  to  watch  the  temple,  were  not  all  occupied  by  the  same  num- 
ber, some  being  guarded  by  six,  some  by  four,  and  others  by  two 
persons  only.  They  were  relieved  every  sabbath  day  by  others 
taking  their  place,  1  Chron.  26:  17—19.  2  Chron.  23:  4.  2  K.  11: 
5.  The  different  classes  and  ranks  of  Levites  had  their  appropri- 
ate heads  or  overseers. 


$  366.  OF  THE  PRIESTS. 


461 


§  366.  Of  the  Priests. 

The  posterity  of  the  sons  of  Aaron,  viz.  Eleazar  and  Ithamar, 
(Lev.  10:  1 — 5.  I  Chron.  24:  1,  2.)  had  so  increased  in  number  in 
the  time  of  David,  that  they  were  divided  into  twenty  four  class- 
es, which  officiated  a  week  at  a  time  alternately.  Sixteen  classes 
were  of  the  family  of  Eleazar,  and  eight  of  the  family  of  Itha- 
mar. 

Each  class  obeyed  its  own  prefect  or  ruler.  The  class  Joja- 
rib  was  the  first  in  order,  and  the  class  Abia  was  the  eighth,  1  Mace. 
2:  1.  Luke  1:  2.  1  Chron.  24:  3—19.  This  division  of  the  priest- 
hood was  continued  as  a  permanent  arrangement,  after  the  time 
of  David,  2  Chron.  8:  14.  31:  2.  35:  4,  5.  Indeed,  although  only 
four  classes  returned  from  the  Captivity,  the  distinction  between 
them,  and  also  the  ancient  names  were  still  retained,  Ezra  2:  36 — 
39.  Neh.  7:  39 — 42.  12:  1.  Josephus,  de  vita  sua  §  1.  and  Anti- 
quities, VII.  14,  7. 

The  first-born  succeeded  Aaron  in  the  high  priesthood. 

Josephus  (Antiquities,  V.  11.  5.  VIII.  1.  3.)  asserts,  that  Eli, 
the  high  priest,  was  not  of  the  posterity  of  Eleazar,  the  first-born  of 
Aaron,  but  of  the  family  of  Ithamar,  and  that  Solomon  took  this 
office  away  from  Abiathar,  a  descendant  of  Ithamar,  and  conferred 
it  upon  Zadok,  who  descended  from  Eleazar,  1  K.  2:  26,  27.  But 
it  does  not  appear,  whether  the  sources,  from  which  Josephus  drew 
his  information,  be  entirely  worthy  of  credit. 

After  the  Captivity,  the  posterity  of  Eleazar  succeeded  to  this 
office  by  hereditary  right,  till  the  time  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes, 
who  sold  it  to  the  highest  bidder. 

In  the  year  152  before  Christ,  Alexander,  the  king  of  Syria, 
conferred  the  office  of  high  priest  on  the  heroic  general  Jonathan, 
who  belonged  to  the  class  Jojarib,  1  Mace.  10:  18 — 20 ;  whose 
brother  Simon  was  afterwards  created  by  the  Jews  both  prince  and 
high  priest,  1  Mace.  14:  35—47. 

His  posterity,  who  at  the  same  time  sustained  the  office  of  kings, 
occupied  the  station  of  high  priest,  till  the  time  of  Herod,  who  took 
the  liberty  to  change  the  incumbents  in  that  office  at  his  pleasure  ; 
a  liberty,  which  the  Romans  ever  after  exhibited  no  restraint  in  ex- 
ercising. 


462     §  367.    CONSECRATION  OF  PRIESTS  AND  HIGH  PRIEST. 

A  vice-high  priest,  (one,  who  might  take  his  place  on  occa- 
sions,) is  not  mentioned  in  the  Scriptures  under  the  name,  which 
is  assigned  to  such  a  personage  by  the  later  Jews,  viz.  fao  i  but  is 
made  known  to  us  by  the  phrase  tt2ttjjan  "jnis  the  second  priest, 
Jer.  52:  24.  comp.  1  K.  4:  4.  Tt  seems  quite  necessary  in  truth, 
when  it  is  recollected,  that  it  was  incumbent  on  the  high  priest  to 
enter,  on  the  day  of  propitiation,  into  the  Holy  of  holies,  and  to 
perform  other  duties,  which  it  was  not  lawful  for  any  other  per- 
son to  perform,  that  some  one  should  he  duly  qualified  to  take  his 
place  in  case  of  unexpected  sickness  or  uncleanness,  Josephus, 
Antiquities,  XVII.  6.  4. 

§  367.  The  Consecration  of  the  Priests  and  of  the  High- 
priest. 

Aaron,  the  High  priest,  was  set  apart  to  his  office  by  the  same 
ceremonies,  with  which  his  sons,  the  priests,  were,  with  this  excep- 
tion, that  the  former  was  clothed  in  his  robes,  and  the  sacred  oil 
was  poured  upon  his  head,  Exod.  29:  5 — 9.  Lev.  8:  2.  The  other 
ceremonies  were,  as  follows  : 

The  priests,  all  of  them,  with  their  bodies  washed,  and  clad  in 
their  appropriate  dress,  assembled  before  the  altar;  where  a  bullock, 
two  rams,  unleavened  bread,  and  wafers  of  two  kinds  in  baskets, 
were  in  readiness. 

When  they  had  placed  their  hands  upon  the  head  of  the  bul- 
lock, he  was  slain  by  Moses,  as  a  sin-offering.  He  besmeared  the 
horns  of  the  altar  with  the  blood,  poured  the  remainder  of  it 
round  its  base,  and  placed  the  parts,  which  were  to  compose 
the  sacrifice,  on  its  top.  The  remaining  parts  of  the  animal 
were  all  burnt  without  the  camp,  Exod.  29:  10 — 14.  Lev.  8:  2 — 3, 
14—17. 

They,  in  like  manner,  placed  their  hands  on  the  head  of  one 
of  the  rams,  which  was  also  slain  by  Moses  for  a  whole  burnt  of- 
fering, the  blood  was  sprinkled  around  the  altar,  and  the  parts  of  the 
ram  were  separated  and  burnt  upon  it,  Exod.  29:  15 — 18.  Lev.  8: 
18 — 21.  The  other  ram,  when  the  priests  had  lain  their  hands  up- 
on him,  was  likewise  slain  by  Moses,  for  the  sacrifice  of  consecra- 
tion. He  besmeared  with  the  blood  the  tip  of  the  right  ear  of  the 
priests,  the  thumb  of  the  right  hand,  and  the  great  toe  of  the 


§  368.  dress  or  the  priests. 


463 


right  foot.  The  rest  of  the  blood  he  sprinkled  in  part  upon  the 
bottom  of  the  altar,  and  a  part  he  mingled  with  the  consecrated  oil, 
and  sprinkled  on  the  priests  and  their  garments. 

He  anointed  the  high  priest,  by  pouring  a  profusion  of  oil  upon 
his  head  ;  whence  he  is  called  rl^jjfttt  the  anointed,  Lev.  4:  3,  5,  16. 
6:  15.  Ps.  133:  2.  Certain  parts  of  the  sacrifice,  viz.  the  fat,  the 
kidneys,  the  haunches,  "  the  caul  above  the  liver,"  and  the  right 
shoulder,  also  one  cake  of  unleavened  bread,  a  cake  of  oiled  bread, 
and  a  wafer  were  placed  by  Moses  upon  the  hands  of  the  priests, 
that  they  might  offer  them  to  God. 

This  ceremony  was  called  "filling  the  hands  an  expression, 
which  accordingly  in  a  number  of  passages  means  the  same,  as 
consecrating.  Consult  Exod.  3*2:  29.  Lev.  16:  32.  1  Chron.  29:  5. 
All  the  parts,  which  have  been  mentioned,  as  being  placed  in  the 
hands  of  the  priests,  were  at  last  burnt  upon  the  altar.  Of  the  re- 
maining parts  of  the  animal  sacrificed,  the  breast  was  assigned  to 
Moses,  but  the  others,  together  with  the  unleavened  bread  and 
wafers,  fell  to  the  priests  and  were  eaten  in  the  Sanctuary.  If 
any  thing  remained,  it  was  burnt  on  the  following  day,  Exod.  29: 
19—34.  Lev.  8:  22—36. 

This  ceremony,  whirh  continued  for  eight  days,  forever  sep- 
arated the  priests  from  all  the  other  Israelites,  not  excepting  the 
Levites :  so  that  there  was  subsequently  no  need  of  any  further 
consecration,  either  for  themselves,  or  their  posterity,  Exod.  29: 
35—37.  Lev.  10:  7,  compare  Rom.  1  :  h  Eph.  3:3.  Acts  13: 
2,  3. 

That  the  ceremonies  of  inauguration  or  consecration,  however, 
were  practised  at  every  new  accession  of  an  high-priest  to  his  of- 
fice, seems  to  be  hinted  in  the  following  passages,  viz.  Exod.  29: 
29.  Lev.  16:  32.  21:  10.  Num.  20:  26—28.  35:  25. 

§  368.  Concerning  the  Dress  of  the  Priests. 

It  was  not  customary  for  the  priests  to  wear  the  sacerdotal 
dress,  except  when  performing  their  official  duties,  Exod.  28:  4 — 
43.  Ezek.  42:  14.  44:  19.  The  description  of  the  dress  of  the 
priests,  which  is  given  in  the  twenty  eighth  chapter  of  Exodus,  is 
quite  defective,  as  many  things  are  passed  in  silence,  apparently 


464        §  36S.   CONCERNING  THE  DRESS  OF  THE  PRIESTS. 

for  the  reason,  that  they  were  at  that  time  sufficiently  well  known, 
without  being  expressly  stated. 

Some  additional  information  is  communicated  to  us  by  Jose- 
phus,  (Antiquities,  III.  7.  1 — 3.)  but  the  dress  of  the  priests,  as  he 
describes  it,  may  have  been  in  some  respects  of  recent  origin.  It 
was,  as  follows, 

I.  A  sort  of  hose,  made  of  cotton  or  linen,  *D  ",D35tt,  which  was 
fastened  round  the  loins,  and  extended  down  so  as  to  cover  the 
thighs,  Lev.  6:  10.  Ezek.  44:  18. 

II.  A  tunic  of  cotton,  MJftD ,  which  extended,  in  the  days 
of  Josephus,  down  to  the  ankles.  It  was  furnished  with  sleeves, 
and  was  fabricated  all  of  one  piece,  without  being  sewn,  Exod.  28: 
39,  41.  29:  5.  Josephus,  Antiquities,  III.  7,  2.  comp.  John  19:  23. 

III.  The  girdle,  .  According  to  Josephus,  it  was  a  hand's 
breadth  in  width,  woven  in  such  a  manner  as  to  exhibit  the  ap- 
pearance of  serpents'  scales,  and  ornamented  with  embroidered 
flowers  in  purple,  dark  blue,  scarlet,  and  white.  It  was  worn  a 
little  below  the  breast,  encircled  the  body  twice,  and  was  tied  in 
a  knot  before.  The  extremities  of  the  girdle  hung  down  nearly 
to  the  ankle.  The  priest,  when  engaged  in  his  sacred  functions, 
in  order  to  prevent  his  being  impeded  by  them,  threw  them  over 
his  left  shoulder,  Exod.  39:  27—29. 

IV.  The  mitre  or  turban,  StpQatJ  ,  was  originally  acuminated  in 
its  shape,  was  lofty,  and  was  bound  upon  the  head,  Exod.  28:  8,  40. 
29:  9.  Lev.  8:  13.  See  §  126. 

In  the  time  of  Josephus,  the  shape  of  the  mitre  had  become 
somewhat  altered  ;  it  was  circular,  was  covered  with  a  piece  of  fine 
linen,  and  sat  so  closely  on  the  upper  part  of  the  head,  for  it  did 
not  cover  the  whole  of  the  head,  that  it  would  not  fall  off,  when  the 
body  was  bent  down.    This  kind  of  mitre  was  called  in  Hebrew, 

The  Hebrew  priests,  like  those  of  Egypt  and  other  nations, 
performed  their  sacred  duties  with  naked  feet ;  a  symbol  of  rev- 
erence and  veneration,  Exod.  3:  5.  Josh.  5:  15. 


§  370.   DRESS  OF  THE  HIGH  PRIEST. 


465 


§  3G9.  Of  the  Duties  of  the  Priests. 

Not  only  a  descent  from  the  family  of  Aaron,  (Ezra  2: 62.  Neh. 
7:  64.  Life  of  Josephus  §  1.  Josephus  against  Apion  1.  7.)  but  al- 
so a  freedom  from  all  bodily  defects,  was  requisite,  in  order  to  a 
person's  being  qualified  for  the  exercise  of  the  sacerdotal  office. 
Lev.  21:  16,  17. 

The  priests  were  commanded  to  abstain,  when  performing  the 
sacred  duties,  which  devolved  upon  them,  from  wine  and  every 
inebriating  drink,  Lev.  10:  8 — 11. 

In  the  ages,  immediately  succeeding  their  original  consecration 
to  God,  the  priests  entered  upon  their  office  at  thirty  years  of  age, 
but  in  later  periods,  at  twenty,  Num.  4:  3.  2  Chron.  31:  17. 

Each  class  assigned  by  lot  to  every  individual  of  the  class  his 
duties  for  the  day.  One,  for  instance,  burnt  incense,  another  on 
the  Sabbath  day  changed  the  Shew-bread,  another  tended  the  fire 
on  the  altar  for  burnt-offerings,  etc.  Luke  1:  9. 

§  370.  Dress  of  the  High  Priest. 

Some  of  the  articles  of  dress,  which  were  worn  by  the  high- 
priest,  were  very  simple  ;  for  we  are  informed,  (Lev.  16:4,23.) 
that,  when,  on  the  day  of  propitiation,  he  entered  the  Holy  of  holies, 
he  was  clad  with  a  tunic,  girdle,  mitre,  etc.  made  wholly  of  linen. 

Other  articles  of  his  dress,  which  were  as  follows,  were  very 
splendid. 

I.  The  meil,  b"^Z2  ( mantle  or  outer  garment.)  This  garment 
was  likewise  worn  by  the  more  wealthy  of  the  laity.  (See  the 
122d  section.)  The  colour  of  this  garment,  when  intended  for  the 
high  priest,  was  blue,  and  the  hem  at  the  bottom  was  embroider- 
ed with  pomegranates  in  purple  and  scarlet.  Between  the  pome- 
granates, were  suspended  small  bells  of  gold,  which  occasioned  a 
tinkling  sound,  when  the  wearer  of  the  mantle  walked,  Exod.  28: 
31—35.  39:  5.  comp.  the  Travels  of  Hasselquist,  p.  55,  73. 

II.  The  ephod,  This  article  of  dress  was  worn  by  lay- 
men also,  as  well  as  by  the  high  priest.  (See  the  122d  section.) 
The  sacred  Ephod,  the  one  made  for  the  high  priest,  differed 
from  the  others,  in  being  fabricated  of  cotton,  which  was  coloured 

59 


466 


§  370.   DRESS  OF  THE  HIGH  PRIEST. 


with  crimson,  purple,  and  blue,  and  in  being  ornamented  with 
gold.  In  the  time  of  Josephus,  it  was  a  cubit  of  the  larger  size 
in  length,  and  was  furnished  with  sleeves.  Where  it  crossed  the 
shoulders,  it  was  adorned,  in  conformity  to  the  command  of  Moses, 
with  two  onyx  stones,  on  which  the  names  of  the  twelve  tribes, 
(six  on  each,)  were  engraved,  Exod.  28:  6,  7. 

III.  The  pectoral  or  breast-plate,  lUjfl  .  It  was  square,  be- 
ing about  ten  inches  each  way,  and  was  made  double  in  such  a  way, 
as  to  form  inside  a  sort  of  bag  or  pouch,  Exod.  39:  9.  The  exter- 
nal part  of  the  Pectoral  was  set  with  four  rows  of  precious  stones,  on 
which  were  seen  the  names  of  the  twelve  tribes.  In  the  Ephod, 
(in  which  there  was  a  square  space  left  open,  sufficiently  large  for 
the  admission  of  the  Pectoral,)  were  four  rings  of  gold,  to  which 
four  others  at  the  four  corners  of  the  Pectoral  corresponded.  The 
Pectoral  was  confined  to  the  Ephod  by  means  of  ribands  of  dark 
blue,  which  passed  through  these  rings ;  and  was  suspended  from 
the  shoulders  by  chains  of  gold,  which  were  fastened  to  the  upper 
corners.  It  was  confined  to  the  body  by  the  same  girdle,  which 
went  round  the  Ephod. 

Some  account  of  Urim  and  Thummim. 

The  Urim  and  Thummim,  by  the  aid  of  which  the  high  priest 
sought  responses  from  God,  was  deposited  in  the  Pectoral.  But 
what  the  Urim  and  Thummim  was,  is,  nevertheless,  a  matter  of 
uncertainty,  and  has  been  the  source  of  various  conjectures  from 
different  learned  men. 

The  ornament,  called  .dXiy&tia,  which  was  worn,  suspended 
from  the  neck,  by  the  presiding  judge  in  Egypt,  and  which  was 
adorned  with  gems,  (Diodor.  Sic.  I.  75.)  affords  no  light  on  the 
subject. 

The  most  probable  opinion  is,  that  Urim  and  Thummim,  [fi^K, 
t^an1]  ,  light  and  justice,  Septuag.  drjXwaig  xui  aXrj&eia,]  was  a  sa- 
cred lot,  1  Sam.  14:  41,  42.  There  were  employed  perhaps,  in  de- 
termining this  lot,  three  precious  stones,  on  one  of  which  was  en- 
graven "JS ,  Yes ;  on  the  other,  a?  ,  No ;  the  third  being  destitute 
of  any  inscription.  The  question  proposed,  therefore,  was  always 
to  be  put  in  such  a  way,  that  the  answer  might  be  direct,  either 
Yes  or  No,  provided  any  answer  was  given  at  all.  These  stones 
were  carried  in  the  purse  or  bag,  formed  by  the  lining  or  inte- 


§  370.   DRESS  OF  THE  HIGH  PRIEST. 


467 


riour  of  the  Pectoral,  and  when  the  question  was  proposed,  if  the 
high-priest  drew  out  the  stone,  which  exhibited  Yes,  the  answer 
was  affirmative  ;  if  the  one,  on  which  No  was  written,  the  answer 
was  negative  ;  if  the  third,  no  answer  was  to  be  given,  Josh.  7:  13 — 
21.  I  Sam.  14:  40 — 43.  28:  6.  The  remarks,  which  are  made  in 
these  passages  respecting  the  sacred  lot,  are  very  concise.  It  would 
seem,  from  the  expressions,  which  are  employed  in  Exod.  28:  30. 
that  Urim  and  Thummim  was  more  ancient,  than  the  time  of  Moses, 
and  it  appears,  furthermore,  that  it  was  never  resorted  to,  subse- 
quently to  the  time  of  David. 

IV.  The  mitre,  nB3SE» .  The  mitre  of  the  high  priest  was 
the  same,  as  far  as  respected  its  form,  with  that  of  the  other  priests, 
Exod.  28:  4,  40.  29:  5.  There  might  perhaps  have  been  a  small 
difference  to  this  effect,  that  the  mitre  of  the  former  was  a  little 
higher,  than  that  of  the  others,  Exod.  39:  27,  28.  In  truth  this 
agrees  with  what  Josephus  states,  (Antiquities,  III.  7.  6.)  viz.  that 
the  mitre  of  the  high  priest  was  surmounted  with  something,  which 
resembled  a  second  mitre,  the  colour  of  which  was  purple  and  white 
intermixed. 

Over  the  forehead  of  the  high  priest,  a  plate  of  gold,  iTTTIj 
was  fastened  to  the  mitre  by  a  blue  fillet.  It  was  inscribed  with 
the  words,  FnrPj?  Sfoft'i  h°ty  to  ^e  Lord;  a  device,  which  convey- 
ed the  symbolic  instruction,  that  the  high  priest  bore  the  iniquity 
of  those,  who  were  in  any  way  deficient  in  their  gifts  and  offerings, 
Exod.  28:  36—38.  29:  6.  39:  31. 

Josephus  informs  us,  that,  in  the  time  of  our  Saviour,  the  mi- 
tre was  encircled  with  a  triple  crown  of  gold,  which  was  added  to 
it  by  the  Maccabean  priests,  who  were  priests  and  princes,  at  the 
same  time. 

Note.  Remarks  of  Michaelis  on  Urim  and  Thummim. 

["  That  in  making  distributions  of  property,  and  in  cases  of 
disputes  relative  to  meum  and  tuum,  recourse  was  had  to  the  lot,  in 
default  of  any  other  means  of  decision,  will  naturally  be  supposed. 
The  whole  land  was  partitioned  by  lot ;  and  that,  in  aftertimes,  the 
lot  continued  to  be  used,  even  in  courts  of  justice,  we  see  from 
Prov.  16:  33.  18:  18 ;  where  we  are  expressly  taught  to  remem- 
ber, that  it  is  Providence  which  maketh  the  choice,  and  that  there- 
fore we  ought  to  be  satisfied  with  the  decision  of  the  lot,  as  the 


468 


§371.   WERE  PRIESTS  AND  LEVITES 


will  of  God.  It  was  for  judicial  purposes,  in  a  particular  manner, 
that  the  sacred  lot,  called  Urim  and  Thummim  was  employed  ; 
and  on  this  account,  the  costly  embroidered  pouch,  in  which  the 
priest  carried  this  sacred  lot  on  his  breast,  was  called  the  judicial 
ornament. 

"  I  cannot  here  enter  into  a  philological  and  antiquarian  inquiry 
concerning  Urim  and  Thummim,  because  it  would  be  too  extensive, 
particularly  considering  how  much  it  has  already  been  the  subject 
of  controversy.  Those  who  wish  to  know  my  sentiments  upon  it, 
in  a  few  words,  will  find  them  in  my  Note  upon  Exod.  28:  30  ;  and 
the  passage  whence  I  have  principally  deduced  the  explanation  there 
given,  in  1  Sam.  14:  41.  of  the  Hebrew  original. 

"  But  was  this  sacred  lot  used  likewise  in  criminal  trials?  Yes  ; 
only  to  discover  the  guilty,  not  to  convict  them  :  for  in  the  only  two 
instances  of  its  use  in  such  cases,  which  occur  in  the  whole  Bible, 
viz.  in  Josh.  7:  14 — 18.  and  1  Sam.  14:  37 — 45.  we  find  the  con- 
fessions of  the  two  delinquents,  Achan  and  Jonathan,  annexed.  It 
appears  also,  to  have  been  used  only  in  the  case  of  an  oath  being 
transgressed,  which  the  whole  people  had  taken,  or  the  leader  of 
the  host  in  their  name  ;  but  not  in  the  case  of  other  crimes ;  for 
an  unknown  murder,  for  example,  was  not  to  be  discovered  by  re- 
course to  the  sacred  lot."  Commentaries  on  the  Laws  of  Moses, 
Art.-304.] 

§  371.  On  the  question,  whether  Priests  and  Levites  were 
public  teachers. 

The  priests  and  Levites,  while  the  government  continued  a 
theocracy,  were  ministers  both  to  the  church  and  the  state,  but 
they  were  not,  like  the  priests  under  the  Gospel,  teachers  of  the 
people.  Not  being  instructers  of  the  people  in  the  ordinary  sense 
of  the  terms,  they  were  not  required  to  dwell  in  the  cities  and  vil- 
lages occupied  by  the  rest  of  the  community,  but  dwelt  in  cities  of 
their  own  ;  a  circumstance,  which  of  itself  proves,  that  they  were 
not  public  instructers. 

While  we  say,  they  were  not  teachers  of  the  people  in  the  or- 
dinary sense  of  the  terms,  we  are  willing  to  admit,  that  they  were 
their  teachers  in  the  following  respect.  They  had  the  superin- 
tendence of  the  ceremonies  and  regulations,  which  respected  the 


PUBLIC  TEACH  ERS  t 


469 


instituted  mode  of  worship ;  they  appointed  the  festival  days ; 
guarded  against  sacrifices  being  offered  to  other  gods  than  Jeho- 
vah ;  saw,  that  no  unlawful  victims  were  presented  and  no  illegal 
ceremonies  employed  ;  determined  what  was  clean  and  what  un- 
clean ;  and,  furthermore,  in  the  character  of  civil  judges,  decided 
what  was  agreeable  to  the  Law,  and  what  was  not. 

The  passages,  in  which  they  are  represented,  as  teaching  the 
people,  (for  instance,  Deut,  33:  10,  and  Mai.  2:  6 — 9,)  have  re- 
ference to  such  duties,  as  have  now  been  hinted  at.  Compare  Mi- 
cah  3:  11.  Hosea  4:  6,  and  2  Chron.  15:  13. 

If  it  be  objected  to  the  ground,  which  we  take  on  this  ques- 
tion, that  king  Jehoshaphat  sent  out  on  a  certain  time,  Levites 
for  the  express  purpose  of  teaching  the  people  in  religion,  (2  Chron. 
17:7 — 9;)  the  answer  is,  it  is  true;  but  it  was  nevertheless,  an 
extraordinary  and  solitary  instance. 

After  the  Captivity,  we  do  indeed  find  them  once  called  upon 
to  render  into  the  Aramaen  dialect  the  passages  of  the  Law, 
which  had  been  publicly  read  in  the  Hebrew,  but  we  do  not  find 
them  addressing  the  people  themselves,  Neh.  8:  7.  Respecting 
those,  who  sung  Psalms  in  the  Temple,  it  may  be  remarked,  that 
they  were  in  truth  the  instruments  of  communicating  salutary  in- 
struction to  their  hearers,  but  they  were  very  unlike  the  public 
teachers  in  the  Church  at  the  present  time. 

Furthermore,  the  priests,  by  the  sacred  ceremonies,  which 
they  performed,  revived  religious  principles  in  the  minds  of  the 
people,  but  this,  certainly,  did  not  constitute  them  public  teachers 
of  religion,  in  the  customary  sense  of  the  words. 

The  prophets  were  much  more  like  the  pastors  of  churches 
or  ministers  of  the  present  day,  but  still  they  differed  from  them 
in  many  respects.    For  instance, 

I.  They  were  the  immediate  messengers  from  God,  and  came 
with  a  more  exalted  authority. 

II.  They  had  the  liberty  of  expressing  their  sentiments  on  civil, 
as  well  as  on  religious  matters. 

III.  Their  communications  were  made  only  to  the  more  inform- 
ed part  of  the  people. 

IV.  They  did  not  instruct  at  stated  periods,  but  were  teachers 
extraordinary ,  who  taught  according  to  the  exigency  of  the  times. 

Those  prophets,  who  collected  assemblies  on  the  Sabbaths  and 


470 


§  372.  OFFICERS  IN  THE  SYNAGOGUES. 


New-moons,  approached  the  nearest  of  any  to  the  religious  teach- 
ers under  the  Christian  dispensation. 

§  372.  Officers  in  the  Synagogues. 

The  mode  of  conducting  religious  instruction  and  worship  at 
the  present  day  in  Christian  churches,  is  derived  for  the  most 
part  from  the  practices,  which  anciently  prevailed  in  Synagogues. 
And  still  there  were  no  regular  teachers  in  them,  who  were  offi- 
cially qualified,  to  pronounce  discourses  before  the  people ;  al- 
though there  were  interpreters,  ]£:pF>,  fJ3:jnn73  ,  who  rendered  in- 
to the  vernacular  tongue,  viz.  the  Hebraeo-aramean ,  the  sections, 
which  had  been  publicly  read  in  the  Hebrew. 

The  Synagogue  preacher,  ■jwb")'!,  whose  business  it  is  in  conse- 
quence of  his  office  to  address  the  people,  is  an  official  personage, 
that  has  been  introduced  in  later  times ;  at  least  we  .find  no  men- 
tion of  such  an  one  in  the  New  Testament.  On  the  contrary,  in 
the  time  of  Christ,  the  person,  who  read  the  section  for  the  Sab- 
bath, or  any  other  person,  who  was  respectable  for  learning  and 
had  a  readiness  of  speech,  addressed  the  people,  Luke  4:  16 — 21. 
Acts  13:  5,  15.  15:  21.  Matt.  4:  23. 

The  other  persons,  who  were  employed  in  the  services  and 
government  of  the  Synagogue,  in  addition  to  the  one,  who  read 
the  Scriptures,  and  the  person,  who  rendered  them  into  the  ver- 
nacular tongue,  were  as  follows, 

I.  The  ruler  of  the  Synagogue,  aQ%iovvayo)yoq,  nD:Sri  ^Nl  , 
who  presided  over  the  assembly,  and  invited  readers  and  speakers, 
unless  some  persons,  who  were  acceptable,  voluntarily  offered 
themselves,  Mark  5:  22,  35—38.  Luke  8:  41.  13:  14,  15.  Acts  13: 
15. 

II.  The  elders  of  the  Synagogue,  E^p.?  ,  Ttgeopuiegoi,.  They 
appear  to  have  been  the  counsellors  of  the  Head  or  Ruler  of  the 
Synagogue,  and  were  chosen  from  among  the  most  powerful  and 
learned  of  the  people,  and  are  hence  called  dgxiovvaycoyoi,  Acts 
13:  15.  The  council  of  Elders  not  only  took  a  part  in  the  man- 
agement of  the  internal  concerns  of  the  Synagogue,  but  also  punish- 
ed transgressors  of  the  public  Laws,  either  by  turning  them  out  of 
the  Synagogue,  or  decreeing  the  punishment  of  thirty-nine  stripes, 
John  12:  42.  16:  2.  2  Cor.  11:  24. 


§  372.   OFFICERS  IN  THE  SYNAGOGUES. 


471 


III.  The  collectors  of  alms,  n^nJS  "W^a  ,  dcdxovoi,  deacons.  Al- 
though every  thing,  which  is  said  of  them  by  the  Jews,  was  not 
true  concerning  them  in  the  time  of  the  Apostles,  there  can  be  no 
doubt,  that  there  were  such  officers  in  the  Synagogues  at  that  time, 
Acts  6:  1,  et  seq. 

IV.  The  servants  of  the  Synagogue,  ,  VTirjgtTrjg,  Luke  4:  20  ; 
whose  business  it  was  to  reach  the  Book  of  the  Law  to  the  person, 
who  was  to  read  it,  and  to  receive  it  back  again,  and  to  perform 
other  services.  The  ceremonies,  which  prevail  in  the  Synagogues 
at  the  present  day,  in  presenting  the  Law,  were  not  observed  in  the 
time  of  our  Saviour. 

V.  The  messenger  or  legate  of  the  Synagogue,  -02 12  IrpbttJ . 
This  was  a  person,  who  was  sent  from  Synagogues  abroad,  to 
carry  alms  to  Jerusalem,  Philipp.  2:  25.  1  Cor.  16:  1 — 4.  This 
name,  (messenger  of  the  Synagogue,)  was  applied  likewise  to  any 
person,)  who  was  commissioned  by  a  Synagogue,  and  sent  forth  to 
propagate  religious  knowledge,  Acts  14:  4.  Rom.  16:  7.  2  Cor.  8: 
23.  The  person  likewise  was  denominated  the  messenger,  ctyyelog, 
uyytlog  ztjg  ixxXijaiag,  etc.  who  was  selected  by  the  assembly  to 
recite  for  them  the  prayers ;  the  same  that  is  called  by  the  Jews 
of  modern  times  the  Synagogue-singer  or  cantilator,  Rev.  2:  1,  8, 
12,  18.  3:  1,  7,  14.  Vitringa  de  synagoga  vet.  Lib.  III.  P.  I.  c. 
1,  et.  2.  P.  II.  6.  1—3. 

Note.  The  Jews  anciently  called  those  persons,  who,  from 
their  superiour  erudition,  were  capable  of  teaching  in  the  Syna- 
gogue, tTDSns ,  shepherds  or  pastors.  They  applied  the  same 
term,  at  least  in  more  recent  times,  to  the  elders  of  the  Synagogue, 
and  also  to  the  collectors  of  alms  or  deacons. 

The  ground  of  the  application  of  this  term  in  such  a  way,  is  as 
follows.  The  word  opns  is,  without  doubt,  derived  from  the 
Greek  word  nvQvog,  bread  or  a  fragment  of  bread,  and,  as  it  is  used 
in  the  Targums,  it  corresponds  to  the  Hebrew  verb  nsn  to  feed. 
It  is  easy  to  see,  therefore,  how  the  word  &3^S  might  be  applied 
to  persons,  who  sustained  offices  in  the  Synag  ogue  in  the  same 
way  that  ny-)  is  applied  to  kings,  etc. 

In  the  time  of  Christ,  however,  learned  men  generally  were 
called  by  this  name,  (tPDa^B  ,)  pastors  ;  in  allusion  to  the  senti- 
ment, which  prevailed  among  the  Stoics,  viz.  that  wise  or  learn- 
ed men  alone  were  true  kings.    Comp.  Philo  De  Agricult.  p.  150. 


472 


CHAPTER  V. 


OF  SACRED  THINGS. 


§  373.  On  the  Question,  "What  is  a  Sacrifice  ? 

A  sacrifice  is  that,  which  is  offered  directly  to  God,  and  is  in 
some  way  destroyed  or  changed,  which  is  done,  as  far  as  respects 
the  flesh  employed  in  the  sacrifice,  by  burning  it,  and  as  far  as 
concerns  the  libation,  by  pouring  it  out.  ["It  differs  from  an  ob- 
lation in  this  ;  in  a  sacrifice,  there  must  be  a  real  change  or  de- 
struction of  the  thing  offered  ;  whereas  an  oblation  is  but  a  simple 
offering  or  gift."  Calmet.] 

It  is,  accordingly,  to  be  understood,  that  neither  the  wood  ne- 
cessary for  cherishing  the  fire  of  the  altar,  nor  any  presents,  which 
might  at  any  time  be  offered  for  the  use  of  the  temple  or  sanctuary, 
are  properly  called  sacrifices,  but  jSHp,  S"I3ntt  and  TOn^Fi;  words, 
which,  it  is  true,  are  in  some  instances  applied  to  sacrifices,  but 
which  are  nevertheless,  of  broader  signification,  and  comprehend 
every  thing,  that  was  in  any  way  employed  in,  or  offered  for  sacred 
purposes. 

§  374.  On  the  Origin  of  Sacrifices. 

Sacrifices,  as  it  would  seem,  according  to  the  accounts  given 
us  in  Genesis,  were  coeval  with  the  existence  of  the  human  race, 
Gen.  4:  3—5.  8:  20.  12:  7.  13:  4.  15:  9—21.  22: 13.  Moses,  there- 
fore, merely  fixed  more  definitely,  than  had  hitherto  been  done, 
the  ceremonies,  which  were  to  be  employed,  when  sacrifices,  which 
existed  among  all  ancient  nations,  were  offered.  (Compare  Lev. 
1:2.) 

In  respect  to  the  origin  of  sacrifices,  whether  it  was  human  or 
divine,  it  must  be  admitted,  that  they  cannot  be  shown  by  clear 
and  decisive  arguments  to  have  arisen  originally  from  any  com- 


§  374.   ON  THE  ORIGIN  OF  SACRIFICES. 


473 


munications  from  God  in  regard  to  them,  since  no  express  divine 
command  to  this  effect  is  recorded,  and  since  their  origin  can  per- 
haps be  explained,  by  a  reference  to  a  principle  of  gratitude,  which 
would  prompt  men  to  offer  to  God  a  portion  of  those  gifts,  which 
they  had  received. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  is  by  no  means  clear,  that  they  were  not 
of  divine  origin,  since  the  accounts  in  the  fragmentary  documents, 
which  compose  the  eleven  first  chapters  of  Genesis,  are  very  con- 
cise, and  it  is  possible,  that  the  divine  communications,  from  which 
they  may  have  originated,  are  omitted  in  those  accounts ;  the  more 
so,  when  it  is  remembered,  that  God,  in  Gen.  15:  9.  commands 
sacrifice  to  be  offered,  and  in  other  places  approves  of  this  reli- 
gious rite.  If  it-  should  be  objected,  that  in  some  passages  sacrifi- 
ces are  represented,  as  not  being  approved  of  God,  viz.  in  Is.  1:  11 
—18.  Jer.  6:  20.  Hos.  6:  6.  Mai.  1:  10.  the  answer  is,  that  the 
discourse  in  those  passages  is  concerning  sacrifices,  as  mere  rites, 
or  efficacious  means  of  themselves,  without  taking  into  considera- 
tion the  state  of  the  mind.  Furthermore,  it  has  been  clearly  shown 
by  Ernesti,  (vindiciae  arbitrii  divini  in  religione  constitu- 
enda,)  that  it  was  not  unworthy  of  God,  and  not  at  war  with  the 
equity  of  his  character,  to  introduce  arbitrary  religious  exercises 
or  ceremonies  of  such  a  nature,  that  human  reason  itself  could  not 
object  to  them  as  improper,  and  which  suited  the  infancy  of  our 
race. 

In  defence  of  the  opinion,  that  sacrifices  were  of  divine  origi- 
nal, we  observe  further,  that  the  supposition  is  hardly  a  reasona- 
ble one,  that  all  external  worship  should  have  been  left  to  the 
mere  will  of  the  earliest  of  our  race,  who  were  such  children  in 
knowledge.  This  remark  is  especially  true,  as  far  as  concerns 
bloody  sacrifices,  or  the  slaying  of  animals  in  sacrifice,  which  was 
something  evidently  above  the  invention  of  those  early  periods. 

It  is  not,  therefore,  improbable,  although  nothing  is  expressly 
said  to  this  effect,  that  God  taught  our  first  parents  by  the  death 
of  animals,  whose  skins  were  used  as  clothing,  not  only  what  they 
themselves  deserved  on  account  of  their  sins,  but  also  gave  them 
to  understand,  that  animals  should  be  often  slain,  in  order  to  re- 
mind them  of  guilt  and  punishment.  Perhaps  the  idea  occurred 
to  them  of  itself,  when  first  called  upon  to  witness  the  sudden  and 
violent  death  of  animals. 

60 


474        $  375.   OF  THE  DIVISION  OR  KINDS  OF  SACRIFICES. 

If,  however,  these  views  be  incorrect,  if  it  were  the  fact,  that 
sacrifices  were  of  merely  human  origin,  they,  nevertheless,  had  a 
meaning.  They,  in  this  case,  resulted  from,  and  were  the  indica- 
tions of  a  grateful  and  reverential  state  of  the  mind  towards  God, 
and  were  the  means  of  acknowledging  God  in  a  solemn  manner, 
as  the  great  and  universal  ruler,  and  as  the  source  and  sustainer  of 
life,  as  well  as  all  other  things. 

§  375.  Of  the  Division  or  Kinds  of  Sacrifices. 

The  only  sacrifices,  which  are  mentioned  previously  to  the 
time  of  Moses,  are  the  whole  burntoffering,  the  thankoffering,  and 
the  sacrifice,  by  which  covenants  were  confirmed.  No  others  are 
mentioned,  and  very  little  is  said  in  respect  to  the  ceremonies,  which 
attended  these. 

Nothing  is  said,  previously  to  that  period,  of  sacrifices  for  sins 
and  trespasses,  of  libations,  of  meatofferings,  and  the  like. 

Moses  was  the  first  among  the  descendants  of  the  patriarchs, 
who  reduced  the  subject  of  sacrifices  to  some  system.  He  ac- 
commodated those,  which  had  existed  from  the  days  of  the  fa- 
thers, to  the  circumstances  of  the  times,  in  which  he  lived,  and  in- 
creased the  number  of  the  ceremonies,  which  were  attendant  upon 
them.  His  object  in  thus  doing,  was,  to  prevent  the  Hebrews  from 
being  led  astray  by  the  superiour  pomp  of  the  Gentiles  on  such 
occasions,  (who  had  already  made  sacrifices  a  systematic  part  of 
their  worship  ;)  to  impress  their  minds  the  more  deeply,  by  a  re- 
petition of  public  religious  exercises,  with  ideas  of  a  religious  na- 
ture ;  to  excite  in  the  people  a  spirit  of  gratitude  towards  God, 
and  a  disposition  to  maintain  his  commands.  It  may  be  added, 
that  the  new  relation,  which  the  people  had  now  entered  into  by  ac- 
cepting God  for  their  king,  required  an  augmentation  of  the  cere- 
monies, and  an  increase  of  the  splendour  of  their  religion. 

Some  of  the  sacrifices,  that  were  authorized  by  the  Mosaic 
ritual  were  bloody,  (slain  victims  ;)  others  were  not;  the  latter  con- 
sisted of  cakes,  wafers,  meal,  and  libations  of  wine. 

The  bloody  sacrifices  were  some  of  them  expiatory,  and  some 
of  them  thankoffering  s. 

The  expiatory  offerings  were  either  holocausts,  sacrifices  for 
ein,  or  trespass-offerings.    The  holocausts  and  sacrifices  for  siu 


§  376.  THE  PLACE  OF  SACRIFICES.  475 

were  to  be  offered  not  only  for  individuals,  but  for  the  whole  peo- 
ple. The  expiatory  sacrifices  secured  no  expiation  in  a  moral, 
but  merely  in  a  civil  point  of  view,  and  were  accepted  of  God  not 
in  his  character  of  moral,  but  political  ruler.  Sacrifices  of  this 
kind  were  slain  to  the  north  of  the  altar,  and  were  regarded,  as 
most  holy,  fi^cjjj  *tijhft .  The  person,  who  brought  the  sacrifice, 
if  it  were  an  expiatory  one,  had  no  share  in  it  himself,  Lev.  6:  18, 
22.  7:  1.  10:  17.  14:  13. 

The  thankoffering  sacrifice  was  slain  to  the  South  of  the  altar, 
and  when  the  parts,  which  were  to  be  burnt,  were  placed  upon 
the  fire,  and  the  portions,  which  pertained  to  them,  were  given  to 
the  priests,  the  rest  of  the  parts  were  allotted  to  the  person,  who 
brought  the  sacrifice ;  with  the  exception  to  be  made  in  the  case  of 
the  first-born  of  animals,  which,  when  offered,  were  given  wholly 
to  the  priests. 

Note.  The  division  of  sacrifices,  which  was  made  by  the  old 
scholastic  theologians,  viz.  into  those  of  adoration,  supplication, 
thanks,  and  expiation,  is  not  found  in  the  laws  of  Moses. 

§  376.  The  Place  op  Sacrifices. 

Sacrifices,  according  to  the  laws  of  Moses,  could  not  be  offer- 
ed, except  by  the  priests ;  and  at  no  other  place,  than  on  the  altar 
of  the  tabernacle  or  the  temple.  Furthermore,  they  were  not  to 
be  offered  to  idols,  nor  with  any  superstitious  rites.  See  Lev.  17: 
1 — 7.  Deut.  12:  15,  16.  Without  these  precautionary  measures, 
the  true  religion  would  hardly  have  been  secure. 

If  a  different  arrangement  had  been  adopted,  if  the  priests  had 
been  scattered  about  to  various  altars,  without  being  subjected  to 
the  salutary  restraint,  which  would  result  from  a  mutual  observa- 
tion of  each  other,  they  would  no  doubt  some  of  them  have  will- 
ingly consented  to  the  worship  of  idols,  and  others,  in  their  sepa- 
rate situation,  would  not  have  been  in  a  condition  to  resist  the 
wishes  of  the  multitude,  had  those  wishes  been  wrong. 

The  necessity  of  sacrificing  at  one  altar,  (that  of  the  taberna- 
cle or  temple,)  is  frequently  and  emphatically  insisted  on,  Deut. 
12:  13,  14  ;  and  all  other  altars  are  disapproved,  Lev.  26:  30.  comp. 
Josh.  22:  9 — 34.     Notwithstanding  this,  it  appears,  that,  subse- 


476 


$  377.   OF  BLOODY  SACRIFICES. 


quently  to  the  time  of  Moses,  especially  in  the  days  of  the  kings, 
altars  were  multiplied,  but  they  fell  under  suspicions,  although 
some  of  them  were  perhaps  sacred  to  the  worship  of  the  true  God. 
It  is,  nevertheless,  true,  that  prophets,  whose  characters  were 
above  all  suspicion,  sacrificed,  in  some  instances,  in  other  places, 
than  the  one  designated  by  the  laws,  1  Sam.  13:  8 — 14.  16:  1 — 5. 
1  K.  18:  21—40. 

§  377.  Of  bloodv  Sacrifices. 

The  victims,  which  alone  could  be  offered  in  sacrifice,  were 
animals  of  the  ox-kind,  sheep,  and  goats,  "jtfkln,  1^3^  ;  ^s0  turtle- 
doves, and  young  pigeons,  E^in ,  rtSi*1  ^22.  Lev.  1:  2.  5,  7.  12:  6 
— 8.  15:  29.  Num.  6:  10.  In  Lev.  14:  4—7,  the  young  pigeons 
are  spoken  of  under  the  word,  which  is  usually  applied  to  birds 
generally,  IT'iBS  . 

Some  of  these  animals  were  sacrificed  by  Abraham,  Gen.  15: 
9;  and  some  were  worshipped,  as  deities,  by  the  Egyptians,  Exod. 
8:  22.  Lev.  17:  7.  Herod.  II.  41—46.  Wild  beasts  were  not  to  be 
sacrificed  ;  a  fact,  which  suggests  an  explanation  of  the  proverbial 
expressions,  "  to  eat,  even  as  thou  eatest  the  roebuck  and  hart," 
Deut.  12:  15,  22. 

The  animals  to  be  slain  for  the  holocaust  were  males,  with  the 
exception  of  the  turtledoves  and  pigeons,  in  respect  to  which 
there  was  no  distinction  made  between  males  and  females.  In  sa- 
crifices for  sin,  bullocks,  goats,  sheep,  and  turtledoves  or  young 
pigeons  were  offered  according  to  the  ability  of  the  person,  who 
offered  them,  and  the  greater  or  less  aggravation  of  the  sin,  he 
might  have  committed.  In  sacrifices  for  trespass,  the  same  animals 
were  employed,  with  the  exception  of  bullocks. 

In  the  eucharisticcd  or  thank-offering  sacrifice,  sheep,  goats, 
and  bullocks  alone  were  slain,  turtledoves,  and  young  pigeons 
being  excluded  from  them.  All  the  victims,  excepting  the  doves 
and  pigeons,  must  not  be  less  than  eight  days  old,  nor  more  than 
three  years.  The  sheep  and  goats,  which  were  immolated,  were 
commonly  a  year  old  ;  the  bullocks  three  years  old. 

All  animals,  that  had  any  defect,  the  blind,  lame,  emasculated, 
or  sick,  were  judged  unfit  to  be  sacrificed,  because  they  indicated 


§  378.   CEREMONIES  AT  THE  OFFERING  OF  SACRIFICES.  477 

a  mind  in  the  person,  who  brought  them,  not  sufficiently  reveren- 
tial to  God,  Lev.  22:  20—24.  Mai.  Is  8. 

§  378.  Ceremonies  at  the  Offering  of  Sacrifices. 

The  ceremonies  on  such  occasions  were  as  follows ; 

I.  The  person,  who  offered  the  victim,  presented  it  before 
God,  i.  e.  led  it  before  the  altar  in  the  court,  with  its  head  turned 
towards  the  door  of  the  sanctuary  rnrp  lasb  ^"Iprt ,  M^Sl 
"7*172  VrtN,  nagaoxraaL  tro  ,  Lev.  1:  3 — 9.  3:  1.  4:  14.  comp. 
Rom.  12:  1. 

II.  The  offerer  placed  his  hand  upon  the  head  of  the  victim  ; 
a  ceremony,  which  was  practised  by  their  rulers  in  behalf  of  the 
people  generally,  when  the  latter  had  committed  any  sin,  which 
required  an  expiation  by  sacrifice.  This  ceremony,  however,  it 
is  proper  to  remark,  was  omitted  in  respect  to  the  turtledoves, 
and  the  young  pigeons,  Num.  27:  18,  23.  Lev.  4:  15.  16:  21.  comp. 
2  Chron.  29:  23.  The  victim,  by  imposition  of  hands  in  this  way, 
was  substituted  in  the  place  of  the  person,  who  brought  it  to  the 
altar,  and  suffered,  (such  was  the  symbolic  meaning  of  the  rite,) 
that  punishment,  which  said  person  already  deserved  or  would 
deserve,  in  case  of  transgression.  That  such  was  the  meaning  of 
this  rite,  viz.  substitution,  is  manifest,  not  only  in  the  case  of  him, 
who  placed  his  hand  upon  the  victim  and  confessed  his  sin,  or 
trespass,  over  it ;  not  only  in  respect  to  the  high  priest,  who  trans- 
ferred the  sins  of  the  people  to  the  scape-goat  by  a  like  imposition  of 
hands  ;  but  the  ceremony  evidently  possessed  the  same  significancy, 
when  the  Israelites  placed  their  hands  upon  the  Levites,  by  way  of 
consecrating  them  to  their  sacred  office. 

The  apostles  retained  the  custom  of  laying  on  hands  in  the 
consecration  of  ministers  to  the  service  of  the  church,  signifying 
thereby  the  separation  of  such  persons  from  the  mass  of  the  peo- 
ple, and  their  substitution  in  their  own  place. 

III.  The  victims,  which  were  sacrificed  for  the  people  gene- 
rally, were  slain  by  the  priests  and  Levites  ;  those  which  were 
sacrificed  for  individuals,  were  slain  in  ancient  tinges  by  the  per- 
sons, who  brought  them,  but,  in  more  recent  periods,  by  the  Le- 
vites, Lev.  1:5.  2  Chron.  29:  24,  34.  Ezek.  46:  24.  They  were 
slain  in  the  same  place,  where  they  stood,  when  hands  were  laid 


478     §  378.   CEREMONIES  AT  THE  OFFERING  OF  SACRIFICES. 


upon  them,  viz.  the  holocaust,  and  the  sacrifices  for  sin  and  trespass, 
to  the  North,  and  the  others,  to  the  South  of  the  altar. 

IV.  The  blood  of  the  victim  was  received  by  the  priest  in  a 
vessel  for  that  purpose,  called  p^T73  ,  and  was  scattered  at  the 
foot  and  on  the  sides  of  the  altar.  The  blood  of  sin-offerings  was 
likewise  placed  upon  the  horns  of  the  altar,  and  if  they  were  of- 
fered for  the  whole  people  or  for  the  high  priest,  it  was  sprink- 
led towards  the  veil  of  the  holy  of  holies,  and,  on  the  day  of  pro- 
pitiation, on  the  lid  of  the  ark,  and  likewise  on  the  floor  before 
the  ark.  The  blood  was  also  placed  upon  the  horns  of  the  altar 
of  incense ;  a  ceremony,  which  was  termed  by  the  more  ancient 
Jews  153  expiation,  but  by  those  of  later  times,  il^n3 ,  a  gift,  Lev. 
4:  7.  8:  15,  16.  Zech.  9:  15.  Num.  18:  17. 

V.  Anciently,  the  person,  who  brought  the  victim,  when  he 
had  slain  it,  proceeded  further,  to  flay,  and  to  cut  it  in  pieces,  but, 
in  later  times,  this  was  done,  as  has  been  already  intimated,  by 
the  priests  and  Levites.  In  the  time  of  Josephus,  there  were  ta- 
bles of  marble,  and  columns  in  the  temple,  expressly  adapted  to 
all  the  purposes  of  slaying  and  sacrificing.  It  should  be  remark- 
ed here,  that  the  sacrifices  for  sin,  and  the  holocaust  for  the  peo- 
ple and  the  high  priest,  with  the  exception  of  those  parts  destin- 
ed to  be  burnt  upon  the  altar,  were  burnt  whole,  (i.  e.  without 
being  cut  up  or  the  skin  being  taken  off,)  out  of  the  city,  in  the 
place  where  it  was  permitted,  and  was  the  practice  to  heap  ashes  to- 
gether. . 

VI.  Some  victims  were  offered  to  God,  sometimes  before  and 
sometimes  after  being  slain,  with  certain  ceremonies  of  a  singular 
nature,  which  ceremonies  at  times  were  observed  also  at  the  pre- 
sentation of  the  sacred  loaves  and  wafers,  and  other  consecrated 
gifts.  One  of  the  ceremonies,  to  which  we  allude,  was  denomi- 
nated heaving,  ntt^F)  ^"1" ;  the  other  waving,  ns^fi  ^-.^i',  [an(* 
the  offerings,  which  were  presented  in  this  way,  were,  according- 
ly, named  either  7ica?;c-ofFerings  or  wave-offerings,]  Exod.  29:  24, 
27,  28.  Lev.  7:  30,  32,  34.  8:  27.  9:  21.  10:  15.  14:  12.  23:  20. 
Num.  5:  25. 

It  is  difficult  to  say  precisely,  what  these  ceremonies  were,  or 
whether,  indeed,  there  was  any  difference  at  all  between  them, 
since  the  words,  which  express  them,  are  sometimes  interchang- 


§  378.   CEREMONIES  AT  THE  OFFERING  OF  SACRIFICES.  479 


ed  with  each  other,  Exod.  29:  24.  comp.  Exod.  29:  27.  Exod.  29: 
28.  comp.  Lev.  9:  21. 

It  is  most  probable,  that  HE^ri  means  elevation,  and  that 
ftBqJn,  on  the  contrary,  means  laying  down  or  placing  on  the 
earth.  But  as  what  was  elevated  must  have  been  let  down  again, 
these  words  may  have  been  reciprocally  used,  for  that  reason,  in 
a  sense  so  broad  as  to  express,  each  of  them,  at  times,  the  same 
ceremony.  The  ceremony  of  heaving  or  waving,  whatever  might 
have  been  its  precise  nature,  seems  to  have  signified,  that  the  gift 
or  sacrifice  was  thereby  presented,  and  was  expressive  likewise  of  a 
desire  that  it  might  be  acceptable  to  God. 

VII.  Meanwhile  the  priest  heaped  the  wood  upon  the  altar, 
placed  it  in  order,  and  set  it  on  fire.  Other  priests  presently 
brought,  and  placed  upon  the  burning  fuel,  the  parts  of  the  vic- 
tim, which  were  to  be  burnt,  viz.  the  whole  of  the  burnt  offering, 
when  it  was  brought  by  an  individual,  but  in  case  it  was  a  burnt- 
offering  for  the  people  and  the  high  priest,  or  any  other  sacrifice, 
except  the  one  just  mentioned,  only  the  fat,  lolrich  covers  the  intes- 
tines, ihjvrj-nfij  T-TN  ^rfrn;  the  fat,  which  is  above  the  in- 
testines, "»2)8*  ^ftttj  the  two  kidneys  with  the  fat  adher- 
ing to  them,  ErrlrS  I'rN  3'^nn-riijti  n^r^n;  the  smaller  lobe  of  the 
liver,  (?)  nssn  T^tt  nnnrrt;  and  th'e'fat  tail  of  the  sheep,  (?) 
Ex.  29:  13,  22.  Lev.  3:  4,  10,  15.  4:  9.  7:  3,  4.  8:  26.  9:  9,  10,  19. 
All  these  parts  of  the  sacrifice  were  prepared  with  pure  salt,  Exod. 
30:  25.  Lev.  2:  13.  comp.  Mark  9:  49. 

VIII.  The  rest  of  the  flesh,  when  the  sacrifice  was  a  thank- 
offering,  was  given  back  to  the  offerer,  who  wras  expected  to  make 
a  feast  of  it.  With  this  exception,  however,  that  the  right  shoulder 
which  was  made  a  heave-offering,  and  the  breast  which  was  made 
a  ware-offering,  were  assigned  to  the  priests. 

When  the  sacrifices  were  sin  or  trespass  offerings,  and  were 
not  made  for  the  people,  as  a  collective  body,  nor  for  the  high 
priest,  the  flesh  belonged  to  the  priests,  who  ate  it  in  the  court  of 
the  tabernacle  or  temple,  Num.  18:  10,  11,  18.  Lev.  10:  14. 


480 


§  379.  OF  BURNT  OFFERINGS. 


§  379.  Of  Holocausts  or  whole  burnt-offerings. 

Holocausts,  rf\Y$,  tikis,  were  sacrifices,  in  which  the  victims 
where  wholly  consumed.  They  were  expiatory,  were  more  ancient 
than  any  others,  and  were  for  that  reason,  held  in  special  honour. 
It  was  in  consideration  of  these  circumstances,  that  Moses  gave 
precepts  in  regard  to  this  kind  of  sacrifices  first,  Lev.  1:  3.  Philo 
DE  VICT.  p.  838. 

Holocausts  might  be  offered  by  means  of  the  Hebrew  priests 
when  brought  by  the  heathen  or  those  who  had  originated  from 
another  nation,  such  persons  being  unable  to  offer  sin  or  trespass 
offerings,  since  this  sort  of  sacrifices  had  particular  reference  to 
some  neglect  or  violation  of  the  Mosaic  Law,  by  whose  authority 
they  did  not  acknowledge  themselves  bound. 

It  was  remarked  at  the  beginning  of  the  section,  that  holocausts 
were  expiatory,  and  we  accordingly  find,  that  they  were  offered, 
sometimes,  for  the  whole  people,  for  instance,  the  morning  and  the 
evening  sacrifices  ;  and,  sometimes,  by  an  individulal  for  himself 
alone,  either  from  the  impulse  of  his  feelings,  or  in  fulfilment 
of  a  vow,  Ps.  51:  19.  66:  13,  14.  They  were  required  to  be  offer- 
ed under  certain  combinations  of  circumstances,  pointed  out  in  the 
Mosaic  laws,  viz.  by  a  Nazarite,  who  had  been  unexpectedly|ren- 
dered  unclean,  or  who  had  completed  the  days  of  his  separation, 
Num.  6:  11 — 16;  by  those  who  had  been  healed  of  leprosy  ;  \and 
by  women  after  child-birth,  Lev.  12:  6,  8. 

The  victims  immolated  at  a  holocaust  were  bullocks  of  three 
years  old,  goats  and  lambs  of  a  year  old,  turtle-doves,  and  young 
pigeons.  Not  only  the  parts,  which  were  expressly  destined  for  the 
altar,  but  also  the  other  parts  of  the  victims  were  burnt  as  was  sta- 
ted at  §  378.  V.  VII.  A  libation  of  wine  was  poured  out  upon  the 
altar.  It  was  the  practice  among  the  Gentile  nations,  (an  allusion 
to  which  occurs  in  Philip.  2:  17  and  2  Tim.  4:  6.)  to  pour  the  wine 
out  between  the  horns  of  the  victims,  which  they  immolated  to  their 
idols.  The  priest  partially  wrung  or  cut  off  the  heads  of  the  turtle- 
doves and  young  pigeons,  sprinkled  the  blood  on  the  side  of  the  al- 
tar, plucked  out  the  feathers,  and  the  crop,  and  cast  them  to  the  East 
of  the  altar  into  the  place  for  the  reception  of  ashes,  and  placed  the 
remainder,  after  having  cleft  or  broken  the  wings,  upon  the  fire, 
Lev.  1 :  3—17. 


§  380.   OF  SIN-OFFERINGS. 


481 


§  380.  Of  Sin-Offerings. 

We  have  already,  in  section  252,  spoken  of  the  distinction  be- 
tween sins  and  trespasses,  and  the  sacrifices,  which  were  appro- 
priate to  each,  as  far  as  the  subject  was  connected  with  the  civil 
laws.  We  shall,  therefore,  be  concise,  and  merely  state  a  few 
things  more,  which  have  reference  to  the  ceremonies  on  such  oc- 
casions. 

The  victims,  selected  for  the  sin-offerings,  (which,  it  may  be 
remarked  here,  are  expressed  in  Hebrew  by  the  words,  which 
usually  signify  sins,  viz.  rnNEft,  nfctBft  ,)  were  different  according 
to  the  different  situation  and  circumstances  of  the  person,  who 
made  the  sacrifice.  A  bullock  ipa  "JS  ID  ,  was  immolated  for  the 
high  priest,  and  also  for  the  people,  and  a  goat  for  the  civil  magis- 
trate. 

With  a  part  of  the  blood,  the  priests  besmeared  the  horns  of  the 
altar  of  burnt  offerings,  but  the  remainder  was  poured  down  at  its 
side,  Lev.  4:  22 — 26.  Persons  in  a  private  station  presented  for  a 
sin-offering  a  kid  or  a  lamb,  but  the  ceremonies  were  the  same,  as 
just  mentioned,  Lev.  4:  27 — 35.  Other  particulars  are  stated  in 
section  378. 

Sin-offerings  were  required  ; 

L  Of  mothers  at  childbirth.  If  the  child  were  a  son,  it  was 
forty,  if  a  daughter,  eighty  days,  before  the  completion  of  the  time 
of  her  purification.  She  then  presented,  as  her  sin-offering,  a  tur- 
tledove and  a  young  pigeon,  also  a  lamb  for  a  burnt-offering;  and 
in  case  of  poverty,  another  dove  and  pigeon,  as  a  burnt-offering  in- 
stead of  the  lamb,  Lev.  12:  6,  8.  comp.  Luke  2:  24. 

II.  They  were  required  of  lepers,  when  healed,  who  gener- 
ally offered  a  goat,  but  in  case  of  poverty  a  dove  or  young  pigeon, 
Lev.  14.  13,  19,  22,  30,  31. 

III.  Likewise  of  Nazarites  unexpectedly  contaminated,  viz.  a 
dove  or  young  pigeon,  Num.  6:  10,  11. 

61 


482 


§381.   OF  TRESPASS-OFFERINGS. 


§381.  Of  Trespass-Offerings. 

Trespass-offerings,  rnJatiSifc  Ettji* ,  were  not  required  of  the 
people  as  a  body.  They  were  to  be  offered  by  individuals,  who, 
through  ignorance,  mistake,  or  want  of  reflection,  had  neglect- 
ed some  of  the  ceremonial  precepts  of  Moses,  or  some  of  those  na- 
tural laws,  which  had  been  introduced  into  his  code,  and  sanction- 
ed with  the  penalty  of  death  ;  and  who  were  subsequently  con- 
scious of  their  errour. 

In  Lev.  5:  17.  where  the  contrary  is  asserted,  [i.  e.  where  tres- 
passes are  represented  as  errours  of  commission  instead  of  omission, 
which  is  understood  to  be  the  most  probable  distinction  in  the  Mo- 
saic laws  between  sins  and  trespasses,]  there  is  no  doubt,  that  the 
negative  particle  ttb  is  transposed,  and  that  the  reading  should  be, 
ns'tofi  ^vjjn  ftTn*  rfiSpa  bsiq  niitf  iinipy  tfc\ .  The  trespasses, 
which  could  be  expiated  by  sacrifices,  are  enumerated  in  Lev.  4:  1 
—16.  5:  1—19. 

I.  The  person,  who,  being  sworn  as  a  witness,  concealed  the 
truth,  by  keeping  silent ;  the  man,  who,  having  become  contami- 
nated without  knowing  it,  had  omitted  purification,  but  had  after- 
wards become  acquainted  with  the  fact ;  the  person,  who  had  rash- 
ly sworn  to  do  a  thing,  and  had  not  done  it ;  all  these  delinquents 
offered  a  lamb  or  kid,  or,  in  case  of  poverty,  two  doves,  or  young 
pigeons,  the  one  for  a  trespass,  the  other  for  a  sin-offering.  In 
case  the  person  was  unusually  poor,  he  was  required  to  offer  mere- 
ly the  tenth  part  of  the  ephah  of  fine  meal  without  oil  or  frankin- 
cense, Lev.  5:  1 — 16. 

II.  Whoever  appropriated  to  himself  any  thing  consecrated, 
or  any  thing  that  was  promised,  or  found,  or  stollen,  or  deposited 
in  his  possession  for  keeping  ;  whoever  swore  falsely,  or  omitted 
to  restore  the  goods,  that  belonged  to  another,  or  injured  him  in 
any  other  way,  presented  for  his  trespass  a  ram,  which  had  been 
submitted  to  the  estimation  of  the  priest,  and  not  only  made  resti- 
tution, but  allowed  an  additional  amount  of  a  fifth  part,  by  way  of 
indemnification. 

III.  He,  who  had  committed  fornication  with  a  betrothed  bond- 
maid, previously  to  her  being  redeemed  from  servitude,  offered  a 
ram  for  the  trespass,  Lev.  19:  20 — 22. 


§  383.   OF  COVENANT  SACRIFICES. 


483 


IV.  Nazaritcs,  who  had  been  unexpectedly  rendered  unclean, 
presented  a  lamb  of  a  year  old,  Num.  6:  1 1. 

V.  Finally,  lepers,  when  restored  to  health,  and  purified,  sacri- 
ficed a  ram,  Lev.  14:  10 — 14.  The  ceremonies  were  the  same,  as 
in  the  sin-offerings. 

§  382.  Peace  and  Thank  Offerings,  EPsqfcttj ,  J-Hin  "«fDT  . 

Sometimes  we  find  these  offerings,  in  addition  to  the  terms  at 
the  head  of  this  section,  expressed  by  the  word  EVUT  merely, 
Lev.  17:  8.  Num.  15:  3.  Bullocks,  heifers,  goats,  rams,  and  sheep 
were  the  only  animals  sacrificed  on  these  occasions,  as  already 
stated  in  §  378,  Lev.  3:  1—17.  7:  23—27.  These  sacrifices, 
which  were  offered,  Fninb  as  an  indication  of  gratitude,  were  ac- 
companied with  unleavened  cakes,  ni^D  rn]?ft  ,  covered  with  oil  by 
pouring  it  upon  them  ;  with  thin  cakes  or  wafers,  likewise  unleaven- 
ed, rnstt  "^Tp^  t  an(*  besmeared  with  oil ;  also  with  another  kind 
of  cakes,  made  of  fine  meal  and  kneaded  with  oil,  in  Hebrew, 
rpsntt  ti^b  rvafctt  .  The  priest,  who  sprinkled  the  blood,  present- 
ed one  of  each  of  these  kinds  of  cakes,  as  an  offering,  Lev.  7:  11 — 
14,  28—35. 

The  remainder  of  the  animal  substance  and  of  the  cakes  was 
converted  by  the  person,  who  made  the  offering,  into  an  entertain- 
ment, to  which  widows,  orphans,  the  poor,  slaves,  and  Levites 
were  invited.  What  was  not  eaten  on  the  day  of  the  offering 
might  be  reserved,  till  the  succeeding,  but  that,  which  remained 
till  the  third,  was  to  be  burnt,  (a  regulation,  which  was  made,  in 
order  to  prevent  the  omission  or  putting  off  of  this  season  of  be- 
nevolence and  joy,)  Lev.  7:  15 — 21.  Deut.  12:  18.  This  feast  could 
be  celebrated  beyond  the  limits  of  the  tabernacle  or  temple,  but  not 
beyond  the  city. 

§  383.  Of  Covenant  Sacrifices. 

The  sacrifices,  by  means  of  which  covenants  were  confirmed, 
were  not  a  separate  class  of  offerings,  but  belonged  rather  to  the 
peace  or  thank-offerings.  The  custom  of  confirming  covenants 
in  this  way,  (which  is  the  ground  of  our  giving  the  subject  a 
separate  consideration,)  was  derived  from  a  practice  among  the 


484 


§  383.   OF  COVENANT  SACRIFICES. 


Chaldeans.  The  practice,  to  which  we  allude,  was  this.  Those, 
who  were  about  to  confirm  an  agreement,  slew  and  divided  the 
victims,  and  placed  the  parts  opposite  to  each  other.  They  then 
passed  through  the  parts  thus  divided,  saying  at  the  same  time, 
"  Let  it  not  thus  be  clone  to  us"  Ephrem  Syrus,  T.  I.  p.  161. 

Such  a  confirmation  of  his  covenant,  God  afforded  in  a  vision 
to  Abraham,  by  causing  a  flame  and  a  smoke  to  pass  between  the 
parts  of  the  victims,  Gen.  15:  8,  9,  17,  18.  And  by  this  ceremony, 
the  Hebrews  not  only  confirmed  their  covenant  with  God,  (Deut. 
29:  11,)  but  also  with  king  Zedekiah,  Jer.  34:  18-,  19. 

There  can  hardly  be  a  doubt,  therefore,  that  other  covenants 
on  other  occasions  were  confirmed  in  like  manner,  Exod.  24:  4 — 8. 
Josh.  24:  25.  1  Sam.  11:  15.  1  K.  1:  9  et  seq.  2  Chron.  29:  10.  34: 
31,32.  Ps.  50:  5.  This  hypothesis,  viz.  its  being  a  customary 
thing  to  confirm  agreements,  etc.  by  sacrifices,  accounts  for  it, 
that,  in  2  Chron.  6:  22,  mention  is  made  of  the  oath  before  the 
altar,  i.  e.  before  the  victims,  slain  upon  it. 

And  it  may  be  observed,  furthermore,  that  this  was  the  practice 
not  only  in  Judea,  but  likewise  in  almost  all  the  other  nations  of  an- 
tiquity, of  which  we  have  a  proof  in  the  words  and  phrases,  used 
on  such  subjects. 

For  instance,  rp-]2 ,  a  covenant,  is  from  ,  to  dissect  or  cut  up, 
and  literally  means  a  dissection  or  cutting  up,  viz.  of  the  victims, 
that  were  sacrificed,  when  the  covenant  was  confirmed.  The 
Latin  foedus,  covenant,  in  like  manner,  according  to  the  etymolo- 
gy given  by  Servius,  (Aen.  viii.  641.)  is  derived,  (a  foedis 
vulneribus  SACRiFicn,)  from  the  epithet,  which  was  used  to  ex- 
press the  appearance  of  the  wounds  of  the  victims  then  slain. 
This  statement  of  Servius  accounts  for  certain  expressions,  which 
were,  in  common  use  among  the  Romans,  such  as  the  following, 
foedus  icerk,  PEROUTiRE,  FERiRE,  sancire.  The  Greeks  had  a 
corresponding  phrase,  viz.  ogyucc  tt'fjiveiv  ;  the  Hebrews  likewise, 
viz.  rp-iz  rn3  to  cut,  i.  e.  to  confirm,  a  covenant  or  oath.  The 
Hebrew  word  to  swear,  means  originally  to  swear  by  seven, 

i.  e.  by  seven  victims.    Comp.  Gen.  21:  24. 

These  victims  were  symbols  of  the  punishment,  which  was  to 
fall  upon  the  violator  of  the  covenant,  and  which  those,  who  pass- 
ed through  the  victims,  imprecated  on  their  own  heads,  in  case  of 
such  violation. 


§  384.  ON  THE  MEANING  OF  SACRIFICES.  485 

In  that  great  covenant,  which  God  made  with  the  Hebrews, 
(Exod.  24:  3 — 8.)  it  is  added,  that  Moses  sprinkled  with  the  blood 
of  the  victims  the  altar,  the  book  of  the  covenant,  and  the  whole 
people,  saying,  "  This  is  the  blood  of  the  covenant,  which  Jehovah 
makes  with  yon,  that  you  may  observe  all  His  commands."  This 
signified  to  the  Hebrews,  that,  if  they  did  not  keep  his  commands, 
they  would  be  accounted  worthy  to  have  their  blood  scattered  in  the 
same  manner. 

§  384.  On  the  meaning  of  Sacrifices. 

From  what  has  been  said,  it  is  sufficiently  clear,  what  signifi- 
cancy  or  meaning  we  ought  to  attach  to  sacrifices.  For,  if  it  were 
the  case,  that  the  Hebrews,  subsequently  to  the  time  of  Abraham, 
were  accustomed  to  indicate  in  an  emblematic  manner  the  punish- 
ment due  to  the  violators  of  a  covenant  by  the  sacrifices  of  said  cove- 
nant, there  can  be  no  doubt,  that  they  likewise  attached  a  symbolic- 
al or  emblematic  meaning  to  sacrifices  on  other  occasions.  For 
instance,  such  a  symbolic  meaning  was  conveyed  by  the  whole 
burnt  offerings  or  holocausts,  which  were  understood  both  by  Noah 
and  Abraham,  from  what  God  himself  had  communicated  to  them, 
(Gen.  8:  20.  15:  9 — 18.)  to  be  a  confirmation,  on  the  part  of  God, 
of  his  promises.  In  regard  to  holocausts,  it  may  be  remarked, 
that  an  additional  significancy  was  attached  to  them  by  Moses,  who 
introduced  the  ceremony  of  imposition  of  hands,  which  was  a  sym- 
bolical indication,  that  punishment  was  due  to  the  person,  who  of- 
fered the  sacrifice,  in  case  he  failed  in  the  fulfilment  of  his  promi- 
ses. 

The  circumstance,  that  holocausts  were  symbols  in  confirma- 
tion of  divine  promises,  was  the  reason,  that  they  were  burnt  whole, 
and  that  they  were  held  in  such  particular  estimation,  in  as  much 
as  promises  were  at  the  foundation  of  the  whole  Jewish  polity. 
The  reason  also,,  that  sacrifices  of  this  kind  might  be  offered  by 
Gentiles,  who  had  so  far  left  their  old  systems,  as  to  acknowledge 
the  true  God,  was  the  fact,  that,  in  offering  such  sacrifices,  they 
were  understood  to  make  correspondent  promises,  of  which  the 
sacrifices  were  a  confirmation.  They  possessed  likewise  an  expia- 
tory significancy,  because  they  indicated  that  God  would  be  firm 


486 


§  384.   ON  THE  MEANING  OF  SACRIFICES. 


in  the  fulfilment  of  his  part  of  the  covenant,  whatever  might  be  the 
delinquencies  of  men. 

The  victims  for  sins  and  trespasses,  which  were  new  kinds  of 
expiations,  introduced  by  Moses,  signified  the  punishment,  which 
was  due  to  the  persons,  who  had  thus  erred,  and  showed,  at  the 
same  time,  that  God  would  not  fail  of  what  he  had  said  in  reference 
to  them. 

Finally,  those  sacrifices,  which  are  denominated  peace-offerings, 
and  eucharistical  offerings,  had  a  symbolic  meaning,  as  well  as  oth- 
ers ;  being  indications  of  the  punishment,  which  threatened  the  He- 
brews, if  they  should  neglect  to  walk  in  that  religious  way,  which 
they  had  promised.  In  other  words,  the  meaning  of  them  was  as 
much  as  if  they  had  said  ;  "  It  shall  not  be  so  with  as,  as  with  these 
sacrifices,  for  we  will  adhere  to  our  promises."  Hence,  being  con- 
firmed anew  on  these  occasions,  in  their  resolutions,  they  felt  them- 
selves at  liberty  to  indulge  in  conviviality. 

The  sacrifices,  therefore,  in  which  animals  were  slain,  were  all 
symbolical  or  had  a  meaning. 

The  divine  promises  were  confirmed  by  them,  and  the  Hebrews, 
on  the  other  hand,  imparted,  in  this  way,  new  sacredness  to  the  en- 
gagements, which  they  had  made,  to  continue  true  to  their  religion  : 
and  were  thus  excited  to  new  desires  after  piety  of  feeling  and  rec- 
titude of  conduct. 

If  very  many  of  the  Hebrews  were  disposed  to  go  further  than 
this,  and  to  attribute  an  inherent  efficacy  to  the  sacrifices  in  them- 
selves considered,  and  to  trust  in  the  multitude  of  victims  with 
whatever  mind  they  might  be  offered,  this  is  nothing  against  the 
truth  of  our  statement,  especially  as  this  errour  is  very  frequently 
condemned,  and  in  very  decided  terms,  Ps.  50:8 — 13.  40:  5,  6.  Is. 
1:  11—15.  comp.  1  Sam.  15:  22.  Hos.  6:  6.  Mic.  6:  6,  8.  Mai.  2: 
1—9. 

That  these  symbolic  substitutions,  however,  of  victims  in 
place  of  transgressors,  prefigured  a  true  substitution  in  the  person 
of  Jesus  Christ,  seems  to  have  been  known  but  to  very  few  of  the 
prophets,  Is.  Liu,  Still  this  obscurity  in  respect  to  the  prospec- 
tive import  of  sacrifices  is  no  more  proof  against  the  actual  exis- 
tence of  such  an  import,  than  a  kindred  obscurity,  in  another  case 
is  against  the  existence  of  prophecies,  some  of  which  the  pro- 
phets themselves  confess  they  did  not  understand.    But,  although 


§  385.  OF  BLOODLESS  SACRIFICES. 


487 


the  people  did  not  originally  understand  this  particular  meaning  of 
the  sacrifices,  they  were  prepared  to  perceive  it  at  last. 

Hence  the  death  of  violence,  which  Jesus  suffered,  is  every 
where  termed  in  the  New  Testament  a  sacrifice  ;  for  expressions 
of  this  kind  are  not  mere  allusions,  such  as  occur  in  Rom.  12:  I.  15: 
16.  Philip.  2:  17.  2  Tim.  4:  6.  Heb.  13:  15,  16;  but  they  indi- 
cate a  real  sacrifice  in  the  person  of  Christ,  which  the  sacrifices  of 
the  Old  Testament  prefigured,  as  is  expressly  stated  in  Heb.  9:  3 
—28.  10:  10—14,  18.  comp.  Matt.  26:  28.  Mark  14:  24.  Luke  22: 
20.  1  Cor.  11:  24,  25.  Heb.  12:  24.  1  Pet.  1:  2.  comp.  Exod.  24:  8. 
John  1:  29,  36.  19:  36,  37.  1  Cor.  5:  7.  1  Pet.  2:  24.  comp.  Is.  53: 
5—12.  2  Cor.  5:  21.  Eph.  5:  2.  Rom.  3:  23—25.  7:  25.  1  John  2: 
2.  4:  10. 

§  385.  Of  Bloodless  Sacrifices. 

Bloodless  sacrifices  consisted,  some  of  wine,  and  some  of  fine 
wheat  flour.  To  this  general  remark,  there  was  this  exception, 
that  the  sacrifice  of  this  sort  on  the  second  day  of  the  passover 
was  a  sheaf  of  barley,  and  that  the  trespass-offering  of  a  suspected 
wife  was  of  barley-meal.  The  flour  was  offered  sometimes  with, 
and  sometimes  ivithout  preparation.  It  was  salted,  sometimes  oil 
was  poured  upon  it ;  sometimes  it  was  kneaded  with  oil  and  after- 
wards besmeared  with  it,  and  by  some  persons  was  offered  with 
frankincense. 

Honey  and  leaven  were  not  used,  Lev.  2:  10,  12.  excepting, 
however,  in  the  two  leavened  cakes  on  the  feast  of  Pentecost,  and 
the  cakes  of  the  eucharistical  and  peace-offerings,  and,  indeed, 
these  were  not  to  be  placed  upon  the  altar.  Lev.  7:  13.  23:  17.  2: 
11.  The  sacrifices,  of  which  we  have  been  speaking,  accompa- 
nied the  bloody  sacrifices,  and  were  in  addition  to  them.  To  this 
remark,  there  are  the  following  exceptions. 

L  The  twelve  loaves  of  shewbread  in  the  sanctuary,  which  were 
changed  every  sabbath,  which  were  esteemed  peculiarly  holy,  and 
were  to  be  eaten  by  the  priests,  either  in  the  tabernacle  or  the  tem- 
ple, Lev.  24:  5—9.  1  Sam.  21:  3—6.  comp.  Mark  2:  26. 

II.  The  sheaf  of barley ,  offered  on  the  second  day  of  the  pass- 
over,  Lev.  23: 10. 


488        §  386.   ON  THE  PURIFICATION  OF  THE  UNCLEAN. 

III.  The  loaf,  which,  on  the  day  of  Pentecost,  was  offered,  as 
the  first  fruits,  Lev.  23:  17—20. 

IV.  The  sin-offering,  consisting  of  flour  merely ,  brought  by  a 
poor  man,  who  was  unable  to  bring  turtle-doves  or  young  pigeons, 
Lev.  5:  1 — 1,  11 — 13.  In  all  other  cases,  the  cakes  and  the  flour 
were  considered,  as  a  part  of  the  sacrifice,  in  addition  to  the  vic- 
tims, which  were  slain.  To  the  bullock  were  assigned  three  tenths 
of  an  ephah  of  the  finest  wheat  flour,  and  a  half  an  hin  of  oil ;  to 
the  ram  two  tenths  of  an  ephah  of  flour,  and  a  third  of  an  hin  of 
oil ;  to  a  sheep  or  lamb  a  tenth  part  of  an  ephah  of  flour,  and  a 
fourth  part  of  an  hin  of  oil,  Num.  15:  3—12.  28:  7—29. 

A  libation  of  wine  was  added,  the  same  in  quantity  with  the  oil, 
Num.  15:  3 — 12.  28:  7 — 29  ;  but  it  was  not  poured  out,  as  the 
Rabbins  assert  on  the  horns  of  the  altar,  but  round  about  it.  See 
Josephus,  Antiquities,  III.  9,  4. 

§  386.  On  the  Purification  of  the  Unclean. 

Uncleanness,  with  the  exception  of  those,  which  were  ex- 
pressly interdicted,  and  those,  by  means  of  which  the  high  priest 
and  Nazarites  were  contaminated,  from  whom  all  such  defilements 
were  to  be  removed,  were  not  accounted  sins  ;  but  the  neglect  of 
purification,  when  uncleanness  had  happened,  was  an  errour,  (tech- 
nically a  trespass  or  a  sin,)  which  resulted  in  exclusion  from  in- 
tercourse with  the  rest  of  the  people. 

The  most  of  the  instances  of  uncleanness  ceased  of  themselves 
after  the  expiration  of  a  certain  period  of  time,  provided  that  the 
unclean  person,  at  the  expiration  of  said  time,  washed  his  body 
and  his  clothes.  But  in  other  instances,  unclean  persons  were  un- 
able to  free  themselves  from  the  stain  of  their  defilement,  until  they 
had  first  gone  through  certain  ceremonies  of  purification,  prescribed 
in  the  ritual. 

For  instance,  a  person  who  had  been  rendered  unclean  by  the 
touch  of  a  dead  body,  of  a  sepulchre,  or  the  bones  of  a  dead  per- 
son, was  sprinkled  on  the  third  and  seventh  day,  by  a  clean  person 
with  hyssop,  dipped  in  water  mixed  with  the  ashes  of  a  red  heifer. 
When  this  was  done,  he  washed  his  body  and  clothes,  and  on  the 
seventh  day  was  clean. 


§387.     PURIFICATION  OF  LEPROUS  PERSONS. 


4S9 


Tents,  houses,  and  furniture,  contaminated  by  the  dead,  wer« 
to  be  purified  in  the  same  way,  Num.  19:  11 — 21. 

Of  the  Red  Heifer. 

The  ashes  of  the  heifer  here  mentioned  were  prepared  in  a 
singular  manner.  The  animal,  which  was  to  be  one  of  a  red  or 
rather  yellowish  colour,  inclining  to  a  brown,  free  from  all  defect, 
and  which  had  never  submitted  to  the  yoke,  was  led  to  the  priest. 
She  was  then  conducted  out  of  the  city  or  the  encampment,  as 
the  case  might  be,  by  some  other  person,  and  slain.  The  priest, 
who  had  accompanied,  dipped  his  finger  in  the  blood,  and  sprink- 
led it  seven  times  towards  the  Sanctuary. 

Presently  the  heifer  was  burnt  whole  in  the  same  place,  the 
priest,  in  the  meanwhile,  heaping  upon  the  altar  piles  of  wood, 
and  throwing  into  it,  at  the  same  time,  hyssop  and  scarlet  thread. 
The  persons  who  performed  the  various  offices  of  leading  out, 
slaying  and  burning  the  heifer,  and  of  carrying  away  the  ashes, 
also  the  priest,  who  officiated,  were  unclean  until  the  evening,  Num. 
19:  6,  8,  10,  21.  There  seems  to  have  been  no  improper  supersti- 
tion, connected  with  this  rite. 

§  387.  Purification  of  leprous  Persons. 

The  man,  who  had  been  healed  of  leprosy,  underwent  an  ex- 
amination From  a  priest,  beyond  the  limits  of  the  encampment, 
while  the  Israelites  were  in  the  wilderness,  but  subsequently, 
without  the  boundaries  of  the  city,  Lev.  14:  1 — 7.  Matt.  8:  4.  Mark 
1:  44.  If  found  perfectly  restored,  he  obtained  another  man  to 
bring  two  living  birds,  (doves  or  young  pigeons,)  cedar  wood, 
scarlet,  and  hyssop.  One  of  the  birds  was  slain  and  the  blood  re- 
ceived into  an  earthen  vessel,  partly  filled  with  water. 

Into  this,  the  priest  dipped  the  other  bird  alive,  the  cedar 
wood,  the  scarlet,  and  hyssop  ;  sprinkled  the  once  leprous  man 
seven  times  ;  and  let  the  living  bird  go  free,  as  a  symbol  of  his 
liberation  from  the  leprosy,  Lev.  14:  1 — 7.  (This  ceremony  was 
observed  likewise  in  the^  purification  of  a  leprous  house,  Lev.  14: 
48 — 53.)  The  subject  of  these  ceremonies,  having  then  washed 
his  body  and  his  clothes,  and  shaved  himself,  was  accounted  cleany 
but  was  not  permitted  to  enter  the  encampment  or  the  city,  until 
62 


490 


§388.   OF  THE  FIRST-BORN. 


the  seventh  day  from  this  time.  On  that  day,  he  shaved  off  not 
only  the  beard  and  eyebrows,  but  the  hair  from  every  part  of  the 
body,  washed  again  his  body  and  his  clothes,  and  was  then  esteem- 
ed perfectly  purified,  Lev.  14:  8,  9. 

He  brought  also  on  the  same  day  two  rams  of  a  year  old,  and 
a  sheep  of  the  same  age,  into  the  Tabernacle  or  Temple,  also  the 
customary  quantity  of  flour  overspread  with  oil,  and  a  Log  of  oil 
in  addition.  The  priest  then  presented  the  leper  and  the  animals 
before  God.  He  slew  one  ram,  as  a  trespass  offering,  and  offered 
the  Log  of  oil  to  God,  (per  ilS^H),)  as  a  wave-offering.  He  then 
put  some  of  the  blood  of  the  trespass  offering  on  the  tip  of  the 
right  ear  of  the  recovered  leper,  on  the  thumb  of  his  right  hand, 
and  the  great  toe  of  his  right  foot. 

He  scattered  of  the  oil,  moreover,  which  was  poured  out  into 
his  palm,  seven  times  towards  the  Sanctuary  with  the  finger  of  his 
right  hand,  besmeared  with  it,  as  he  had  done  before  with  the 
blood,  the  thumb  of  the  right  hand  and  the  great  toe  of  the  le- 
per's right  foot,  and  poured  the  remainder  of  it  upon  his  head, 
Lev.  14:  10 — 18.  He  then  slew  the  sheep  for  a  sin  offering  and 
the  other  ram  for  a  burnt  offering.  In  case  of  poverty,  two  tur- 
tle doves  and  two  young  pigeons  could  be  substituted  in  place  of 
the  sheep  and  the  second  ram,  Lev.  14:  19 — 32.  comp.  Luke  17: 
12—14.  Matt.  8:  2—4.  Mark  1:  40—44. 

§  388.  Of  the  First-born. 

The  first-born,  Cni^a  ,  both  of  men  and  animals,  were  to  be 
consecrated  to  God.  The  first-born  children  were  to  be  present- 
ed before  the  Lord,  and  to  be  redeemed  according  to  the  estima- 
tion of  a  priest,  but  the  amount  of  the  sum  paid  in  this  redemption 
could  not  exceed  five  shekels.  They  could  not  be  redeemed  before 
the  age  of  a  month,  and,  for  the  most  part,  were  not  so,  till  the  cer- 
emony of  purification  for  child  birth,  Num.  18:  14 — 16.  Exod.  13: 
13.  Luke  2:  22. 

The  first-born  of  cattle,  of  goats  and  sheep,  from  eight  days 
to  a  year  old,  were  to  be  offered  in  sacrifice,  and  the  parts  desig- 
nated being  burnt,  the  remainder  was  left  to  the  priests,  Num. 
18:  17,  18.  Lev.  27:  26.  Even  in  case  there  was  any  defect  in 
the  goats,  sheep,  or  bullocks,  so  that  they  could  not  be  legally  of- 


§  389.   OF  THE  FIRST-FRUITS. 


491 


fered  in  sacrifice,  they  were,  nevertheless,  allotted  for  the  use  of 
the  priests,  the  same  as  before,  Deut.  15:  19 — 23. 

The  first-born  of  other  animals,  of  which  in  Exod.  13:  13,  the 
ass  is  given  as  an  example,  were  to  be  slain,  although  they  could 
not  be  offered  in  sacrifice,  unless  they  were  redeemed  by  offering 
a  lamb  in  their  stead,  or  by  the  payment  of  a  certain  sum,  fixed  by 
the  estimation  of  the  priest,  said  estimation  being  increased  by  the 
addition  of  a  fifth,  Lev.  27:  13. 

If  they  were  not  redeemed,  they  were  sold,  and  the  price  was 
given  to  the  priests.  It  was  in  this  way,  that  the  Hebrews  exhib- 
ited their  gratitude  to  God,  who  preserved  their  first-born  in  Egypt 
from  impending  destruction,  Exod.  13:  2,  11 — 16.  Num.  3:  12,  13. 

In  respect  to  the  first  born  sons,  there  was  an  additional  reason 
for  the  regulations,  of  which  we  have  been  speaking ;  since  they 
were  by  birth  priests,  and  were  to  be  redeemed  from  serving  at  the 
altar,  Num.  3:  20—51. 

It  may  be  argued  from  Deut.  12:  6,  7.  14:  23.  15:  19,  23,  that 
there  was  what  may  be  called  an  after  Jirst-born,  and  that  the  se- 
cond-born of  goats,  sheep,  and  the  ox-kind,  were  brought  to  the 
Tabernacle  or  Temple,  and  converted  into  eucharistical  or  thanks- 
giving offerings,  which  could  not  be  done  with  the  first-born,  pro- 
perly so  called.  But  it  was  permitted  to  the  owner  if  there  were 
blemishes  in  them,  to  slay  them  at  home,  and  to  employ  them,  as 
food,  in  the  usual  way. 

§  389.  Of  the  First-fruits,  iTOft^,  nQwroyspvypccTcc. 

In  speaking  on  the  subject  of  first-fruits,  it  may  be  remarked 
here,  that  a  division  of  them  into  two  kinds  cannot  be  established 
from  the  passages  generally  supposed,  viz.  Num.  18:  12,  13.  Neh. 
10:  36 — 38.  This  alone  follows  from  them,  that  the  first  fruits 
were  offered,  (per  Ji^lin,)  as  a  heave-offering. 

The  first  sheaf  of  barley,  on  the  second  day  of  the  Passover, 
and  the  first  loaves,  on  the  feast  of  the  Pentecost,  were  offered  in 
the  name  of  the  people.  But  individuals  also  were  bound  to  offer 
the  first  fruits  of  the  vine,  of  fruit  trees,  of  their  grain,  honey  and 
wool,  by  means  of  which  offerings  they  exhibited  that  gratitude, 
which  was  due  to  God,  for  the  country  he  had  given  them,  Exod. 
23: 19.  Lev.  2: 12.  Num.  15:  17—21.  18: 11—13.  Deut.  26: 1— 11 


492 


<j>  390.   ON  TYTHES. 


The  offerings  thus  made  became  the  property  of  the  priests,  Num. 
18:  11—13.  Deut.  18:  4. 

Some  suppose,  that  it  was  not  necessary  for  those  first  fruits, 
which,  before  being  presented,  underwent  some  previous  prepa- 
ration, such  as  the  loaves  on  the  Pentecost,  to  be  brought  to  the 
Temple,  but  that  they  could  be  offered  to  any  priest  in  any  place ; 
in  the  same  way,  that  every  Hebrew  was  bound  to  offer  to  some 
priest  the  shoulder  ,  the  cheeks  j^fk,  and  the  maw  !rD|>, 
ijVVGTQOv,  omasum,  of  the  animals,  which  he  sacrificed  at  home. 
Consult  Deut.  18:  3.  Josephus,  Antiquities,  IV.  4,  4,  and  Philo  de 
Sacerdotum  honoribus  et  praemiis  p.  832. 

It  appears  from  Deut.  26:  1 — 11,  that  what  are  denominated 
the  second  frst  fruits  were  appropriated  to  the  eucharistical  sacri- 
fices, and  were  consumed  in  the  feasts,  which  were  made  from 
them  ;  and,  accordingly,  every  Hebrew  was  commanded,  when  he 
brought  his  basket  to  the  Tabernacle  or  the  Temple,  to  set  it  down 
before  the  altar,  and  return  thanks  with  a  loud  voice  to  God, 
who  had  given  to  his  undeserving  countrymen  so  rich  an  inheri- 
tance. 

§  390.  Of  Tythes. 

Tythes  are  very  ancient,  and  were  exacted,  in  the  earliest 
times,  among  almost  all  nations,  Herod.  I.  5,  77.  Pausan.  Eliac.  1. 
c.  10.  Phocic.  c.  11.  Diodor.  Sic.  XX.  14. 

Abraham  offered  the  tythes  of  his  spoils  to  Melchisedec,  priest 
of  the  most  high  God,  Gen.  14:  20.  Jacob  vowed  unto  God  the 
tenth  of  all  his  income  ;  a  vow,  which  was  observed  both  by  him- 
self and  his  posterity,  Gen.  28:  22. 

Tything  is  mentioned,  as  a  practice  well  known  and  of  an- 
cient standing,  in  Deut.  12:  11,  17—19.  14:  22,23;  and  the 
precepts,  which  are  there  given  in  respect  to  it,  aim  at  this  point 
merely,  viz.  that  the  tythes  should  be  presented  at  the  Tabernacle 
for  a  thank-offering,  with  the  exception,  that,  on  every  third  year, 
the  people  might  make  a  feast  of  them  at  their  own  houses,  for  the 
servants,  widows,  orphans,  the  poor,  and  the  Levites,  Deut.  14:  28, 
29.  26:  12—15. 

But  before  the  tythes,  which  have  now  been  mentioned,  and 
which  were  denominated  the  second,  were  taken  from  the  yearly 


<§>  39  f .   O't  THE  SACRED  OIL. 


493 


increase,  there  was  another  taken  called  theirs*,  Tobit  1:  7.  The 
latter  belonged  to  God,  as  the  ruler  of  the  state,  and  was  assigned 
by  Him  as  a  sort  of  salary,  to  the  Levites,  for  their  services  both 
sacred  and  civil,  Lev.  27:  30.  Num.  18:  20—24.  Deut.  14:  22,  23. 
Neh.  13:  5,  12.  The  tythe  of  the  fruits  of  the  earth  could  be  re- 
deemed, in  case  a  fifth  part  of  the  estimated  value  was  added  to  the 
whole  amount ;  in  as  much  as  the  redeemer  was  thereby  freed  from 
the  expense  of  transportation.  But  this  liberty  was  not  given  in  re- 
spect to  the  tythe  of  sheep,  goats,  and  cattle,  Lev.  27:  31. 

The  tenth  of  the  fruit  and  grain  was  easily  estimated.  In  re- 
gard to  animals,  the  ceremony  was  this.  They  passed  one  by  one 
before  a  servant,  who  numbered  them,  and  designated  every  tenth 
one  by  a  rod,  w  hich  he  held  in  his  hand.  If  another  was  after- 
wards substituted  in  place  of  the  one  then  designated,  they  both 
fell  to  the  Levites,  Lev.  27:  32,  33.  comp.  Jer.  33:  13.  Ezek.  20: 
37,  38. 

The  Levites  made  a  subsequent  division  of  the  tythes,  and 
gave  a  tenth  of  them  to  the  priests,  Num.  18:  25 — 32.  Neh.  10:  28. 
13:  10—14.  Mai.  3:  8—10.  comp.  Heb.  7:  5—7. 

§  391.  Of  the  sacred  Oil. 

The  Sacred  oil,  with  which  the  Tabernacle,  the  Ark  of  the 
Covenant,  the  golden  candlestick,  the  table,  the  altar  of  incense, 
the  altar  of  burnt-offerings,  the  laver,  and  all  the  sacred  untensils, 
and  indeed  the  priests  themselves  were  anointed,  was  composed  of 
an  hin  of  the  oil  of  olives,  of  the  richest  myrrh,  mm\L)^  ^ft;  of 
cassia,  rnp.  of  cinnamon,  Ete3  ]b:[3 ;  and  of  sweet  calamus  n:p 
t;32.  The  proportions  of  the  mixture  were  five  hundred  parts 
of  the  myrrh  and  cassia,  and  two  hundred  and  fifty  of  the  cinnamon 
and  calamus.  This  ointment,  which  could  not  be  applied  in  any 
other  way  than  those  mentioned  at  the  head  of  this  section  under 
penalty  of  excision  from  the  people,  conferred  an  honour  on  the 
persons  and  things  anointed  with  it.    Exod.  30:  20 — 33. 


494 


§  392.   OF  OATHS. 


§  392.  Of  Oaths,  ttjfettS ,  nfaitfS  . 

The  person,  who  confirmed  his  assertion  by  a  voluntary  oath, 
pronounced  the  same,  with  his  right  hand  elevated.  Sometimes 
the  swearer  omitted  the  imprecation,  as  if  he  were  afraid,  and 
shuddered  to  utter  it,  although  it  was,  from  other  sources,  suffi- 
ciently well  understood,  Gen.  14:  22,  23.  Ps.  106:  26.  80:  18.  Ezek. 
17:  18. 

Sometimes  the  imprecation  was,  as  follows ;  "  This  and  more 
than  this  may  God  do  to  me,"  2  Sam.  3:  9,  35.  Ruth  1:  17.  1  K.  2: 
23.  2  K.  6:  31.  Sometimes  the  swearer  merely  said  ;  "  Let  God 
be  a  witness  and  sometimes  affirmed  saying  ;  "  As  surely  as  God 
liveth,"  Jer.  42:  5.  Ruth  3:  13.  1  Sam.  14:  45.  20:  3,  21. 

It  is  to  be  recollected,  that  the  remarks  which  have  now  been 
made,  apply  to  the  person,  who  uttered  the  oath  himself  of  his 
own  accord.  When  an  oath  was  exacted,  whether  by  a  judge  or 
another,  the  person,  who  exacted  it,  put  the  oath  in  form  ;  and 
the  person,  to  whom  it  was  put,  responded  by  saying,  •jttej ,  ftttt , 
so  let  it  be ;  or  gave  his  response  in  other  expressions  of  like  im- 
port, such  as  ov  elnag,  Num.  5:  19 — 22.  Lev.  5:  1.  Prov.  29:  24. 
1  K.  22:  16.  Deut.  27:  15—26. 

Sometimes  the  exacter  of  the  oath  merely  used  the  following 
adjuration,  viz.  I  adjure  you  by  the  living  God  to  answer,  whether 
the  thing  be  so  or  not.  And  the  person  sworn  accordingly  made  an- 
swer to  the  point  inquired  of,  Num.  5:  22.  Matt.  26:  63.  It  should 
be  remarked  here,  though  the  formulary  of  assent  on  the  part  of  the 
respondent  to  an  oath  was  frequently  amen,  amen,  that  this  formu- 
lary did  not  always  imply  an  oath,  but,  in  some  instances,  was 
merely  a  protestation.  We  see  from  the  nature  of  these  adjura- 
tions, why  the  Niphal  form  of  the  verb  is  used,  viz.  i'SUi: ,  to  swear, 
properly  to  be  sworn. 

As  the  oath  was  an  appeal  to  God,  (Lev.  19:  12.  Deut.  6:  13.) 
the  taking  of  a  false  oath  was  deemed  a  heinous  crime,  and  per- 
jury, accordingly,  was  forbidden  in  those  words,  Thou  shalt  not 
take  the  name  of  the  Lord  thy  God  in  vain,  i.  e.  shalt  not  call  God 
to  witness  in  pretended  confirmation  of  a  falsehood,  Exod.  20:  6. 

It  was  a  common  thing  in  Egypt  in  the  time  of  Joseph,  to 
swear  by  the  life  of  the  king,  Gen.  42:  15 ;  and  this  practice  pre- 


§  392.  OF  OATHS. 


495 


vailed  subsequently  among  the  Hebrews,  1  Sam.  25:  26.  2  Sam.  11: 
11.  14:  19.  comp.  Ps.  63:  11. 

The  Hebrews  also  swore  by  cities  and  consecrated  places,  such 
as  Hebron,  Shilo,  and  Jerusalem.  A  person  sometimes  swore  by 
himself  and  sometimes  by  the  life  of  the  person  before  whom  he 
spoke,  viz.  *a  by  myself,  ^tfiCD  by  thee  or  by  thy  life,  1  Sam.  1: 
26.  2  K.  2:2.  Gen.  43:  20/  44:  18.  Exod.  4:  10,  13.  Num.  12:  11. 
Josh.  7:  8.  Judg.  6:  13,  15.  1  K.  3:  17,  26. 

Tn  some  instances,  persons  adjured  others  by  the  beasts  of  the 
field,  (Canticles  2,  7.)  a  sort  of  adjuration,  which,  to  the  present 
day  makes  its  appearance  in  the  writings  of  the  Arabian  poets. 
Consult  the  Koran,  Sura  85.  1—3.  86:  1,  11—13.  89:  1—4.  9:  1 
—4.  91:  1—8,  etc. 

The  Jews,  in  the  time  of  Christ,  were  in  the  habit  of  swearing 
by  the  altar,  by  Jerusalem,  by  heaven,  by  the  earth,  by  themselves, 
by  their  heads,  by  the  gold  of  the  Temple,  by  sacrifices,  etc.  Be- 
cause the  name  of  God  was  not  mentioned  in  these  oaths,  they  con- 
sidered them,  as  imposing  but  small,  if  any  obligation,  Martialis, 
Epigramat.  XI.  95.  And  we,  accordingly,  find,  that  the  Saviour 
takes  occasion  to  inveigh,  in  decided  terms,  against  such  arts  of  de- 
ception, Matt.  5:  33—37.  23:  16—22.  It  is  against  oaths  of  this 
kind,  and  these  alone,  (not  against  an  oath  uttered  in  sincerity)  that 
he  expresses  his  displeasure,  and  prohibits  them.  This  is  clear, 
since  he  himself  consented  to  take  upon  him  the  solemnity  of  an 
oath,  Matt.  26:  63  ;  and  since  Paul  himself,  in  more  than  one  in- 
stance, utters  an  adjuration.    Compare  Rom.  9:  1.  2  Cor.  1:  23. 

In  the  primitive  periods  of  their  history,  the  Hebrews  religious- 
ly observed  an  oath,  (Josh.  9:  14,  15.)  but  we  find,  that  in  later 
times,  they  were  often  accused  by  the  prophets  of  perjury.  After 
the  Captivity,  the  Jews  became  again  celebrated  for  the  scrupulous 
observance  of  what  they  had  sworn  to,  but  corruption  soon  increas- 
ed among  them  ;  they  revived  the  old  forms,  the  words  without  the 
meaning  ;  and  acquired  among  all  nations  the  reputation  of  perju- 
rers. 


496  §  393.  of  vows. 

§  393.  Of  vows.  Cnn: ,  -yjs. 

Vows,  which  were  not  of  divine  appointment,  but  originated 
with  men  themselves,  were  solemn  promises,  made  by  persons  to 
consecrate  something  to  God,  or  to  do  something  in  his  service  and 
to  his  honour,  which,  without  such  promises,  they  did  not  feel 
themselves  bound  to  do.  The  design  of  these  vows  was,  in  some 
cases,  to  express  the  thankfulness  of  those,  who  made  them,  to  God  ; 
in  others,  to  obtain  favour  and  mercy  from  Him. 

The  earliest  vow,  of  which  we  have  any  account  in  the  Scrip- 
tures, is  that  of  Jacob,  mentioned  in  Genesis,  28:  22  ;  and  since  it 
was  observed  by  his  posterity,  it  was  of  no  little  use  in  preserving 
the  true  knowledge  of  God.  Other  vows,  it  may  well  be  supposed, 
cherished  and  increased  pious  feelings. 

Moses,  for  religious  purposes,  confirmed  the  vows,  which  had 
been  made  in  ancient  times,  and  which  having  been  observed  in 
subsequent  ages,  had  acquired  a  sort  of  prescriptive  authority.  But 
the  making  of  new  vows  by  individuals,  he  does  not  appear  to  have 
encouraged,  although  he  insisted  on  a  scrupulous  fulfilment  of  them 
when  made,  Deut.  23:  23,  24.  It  should  be  observed,  however, 
that  he  permitted,  in  certain  cases,  the  redemption  of  a  vow,  (Lev. 
27:  1 — 25.)  and  conferred  the  power  on  the  father  and  the  hus- 
band of  annulling  the  vows  of  a  daughter,  or  a  wife,  Num.  30:  2 — 
17. 

Vows  were  uttered  audibly,  and  as  appears,  from  Num.  30:  3, 
11,  14,  were  confirmed  by  an  oath.  Compare  Deut.  24:  23.  Judg. 
11:  35,  36.  Ps.  66:  14.  Matt.  15:  5. 

Vows  were  either  (1)  affirmative,  strictly  so  called,  by 

which  property  of  various  kinds,  and  men  themselves  might  be  con- 
secrated to  God,  and  which  were  capable  of  redemption,  (with  the 
exception  of  what  was  devoted  by  the  vow,  called  in  Hebrew  Birth 
and  of  animals  proper  for  sacrifices ;)  or  (2)  negative,  by  which  ab- 
stinence was  promised  from  certain  things  in  themselves  lawful, 
and  which  were  denominated  ttjs:  b£  HDtf  ,  a  restraint  on  the  appe- 
tite. The  principal  among  this  last  class  of  vows  was  that  of  the 
Nazarites. 


§  394.   OF  AFFIRMATIVE  VOWS. 


497 


§  394.  Of  Affirmative  Vows. 

By  Vows  of  this  kind,  not  only  property  of  various  descrip- 
tions, as  money,  lands,  houses,  and  animals  clean  and  unclean,  but 
servants  also,  sons,  and  the  person  himself,  who  made  the  vow, 
might  be  consecrated  to  God.  These  are  all  mentioned  under  a 
name  common  to  any  sacred  gift,  viz.  ]2^p ,  Josephus,  Antiquities, 
IV.  4,  4.  Mark  7:  11. 

Animals,  which  were  fit  for  sacrifices  and  which  were  devoted 
to  God  by  this  vow,  were  to  be  sacrificed,  but  those,  which  were 
excluded  from  the  altar,  were  to  be  sold  according  to  the  valuation 
of  a  priest ;  they  could  be  redeemed,  however,  by  the  additional 
payment  of  a  fifth  part  of  the  valuation.  The  men,  who  were  thus 
devoted,  became  servants  in  the  tabernacle  or  temple,  unless  they 
were  redeemed. 

Money,  lands,  and  houses,  which  had  been  made  the  subjects 
of  this  vow,  became  the  property  of  the  tabernacle  or  the  temple  ; 
excepting  that  the  land  might  be  redeemed  before  the  year  of  Ju- 
bilee, Lev.  27:  1—24. 

Of  the  vow  called  Cher  em. 

The  vow,  called  tnh ,  i.  e.  the  accursed  thing,  was  not  introduc- 
ed by  Moses  de  novo,  but  was  an  ancient  custom  which  he  thought 
proper  to  retain,  in  order  that  he  might  not  deprive  himself  of 
the  good,  which  at  times  might  be  expected  to  arise  from  giving 
an  example  of  formidable  severity,  Exod.  17:  14.  Num.  21  :  2. 
Deut.  2:  32,  34.  3:  1—8.  13:  14,  15.  comp.  Judg.  20:47,48.  If  the 
vow  of  Cherem  were  uttered  in  respect  to  an  enemy,  it  implied 
the  widest  destruction,  and  it  was  sacrilege  for  the  conquering 
army  to  appropriate  to  itself  any  of  the  plunder,  Josh.  6:  17 — 19. 
7:  1,  26.  In  a  few  instances,  it  appears,  that  the  flocks  and  some 
other  of  the  spoils  were  not  destroyed,  Deut.  2:  32,  34.  3:  1 — 8. 
Josh.  8:  2.  By  the  vow  of  Cherem,  otherwise  called  the  irrevoca- 
ble curse,  sometimes  fields,  animals,  and  individuals  of  the  human 
species  were  devoted.  It  was  designed,  in  its  operation  upon 
men,  to  bear  only  upon  the  wicked,  who  were  thereby  made  an 
example  to  others.  Compare  1  Sam.  14,  24,  et  seq.  Jephtha, 
63 


498  §  395.   OF  NEGATIVE  VOWS,  THE  NAZARITE,  ETC. 

therefore,  in  slaying  his  daughter  in  conformity  with  his  rash  vow, 
violated  at  least  the  spirit  of  the  Mosaic  Laws,  Judg.  11:  30 — 39. 

§  395.  Of  Negative  Vows,  the  Nazarite,  etc. 

A  negative  vow,  as  has  already  been  stated,  was  a  promise  to 
abstain  from  certain  things,  admissible  by  law.  Josephus  says, 
(Jewish  War,  II.  15,  1.)  that  in  his  day,  there  were  many,  particu- 
larly those,  who  had  been  oppressed  by  sickness  or  by  adverse 
fortunes,  who  vowed  to  abstain  from  wine,  to  go  with  the  head 
shaven,  and  to  spend  the  time  in  prayer  for  thirty  days  previous 
to  their  offering  sacrifices.    Compare  Acts  18:  18. 

But  the  Nazarite,  on  the  contrary,  vowed  to  let  the  hair  grow, 
to  abstain  not  only  from  wine  and  all  inebriating  drink,  but  from 
vinegar  likewise,  to  eat  no  clusters,  and  to  beware  of  any  conta- 
mination from  corpses,  bones  and  sepulchres.  In  some  instances, 
the  parents  bound  the  child  by  the  vow  of  a  Nazarite,  even  before 
its  birth.  This  was  the  case  in  respect  to  Samson  and  John  the 
Baptist,  Judg.  13:  2—5,  12—23.  Luke  1:  13—15.  This  vow  some- 
times lasted  through  life,  but,  for  the  most  part  was  limited  in  its 
operation  to  a  definite  period.  The  customs  relative  to  the  Naza- 
rite prevailed  before  the  days  of  Moses,  who  in  Lev.  25:  25.  bor- 
rowed expressions  from  them,  before  the  publication  of  his  Law  on 
the  subject  in  Num.  vi. 

If  the  Nazarite,  whether  male  or  female,  ('"P'n,  tt*VT3,)  for 
the  vow  might  be  made  by  either,  was  unexpectedly  contaminat- 
ed he  was  to  be  purified,  not  only  in  the  manner  already  men- 
tioned, but  was  required  to  shave  off  his  hair,  to  offer,  on  the 
seventh  day,  two  turtle  doves  or  two  young  pigeons,  the  one  for 
a  sin,  the  other  for  a  burnt  offering,  also  a  lamb  of  a  year  old  for 
a  trespass-offering,  and  to  commence  anew  his  Nazariteship,  Num. 
6:  9—12. 

When  the  time  specified  in  the  vow  was  completed,  he  offer- 
ed a  ram  of  a  year  old  for  a  burnt-offering,  a  sheep  of  the  same 
age  for  a  sin-offering,  a  ram  for  a  thank-offering,  a  basket  of  un- 
leavened cakes,  some  of  which  were  kneaded  with  oil,  and  some 
covered  with  oil ;  also  a  libation  of  wine.  His  hair  was  sha- 
ven off  before  the  gate  of  the  sanctuary,  and  cast  into  the  fire, 
where  the  thank-offering  was  burning.    He  offered,  as  a  wave- 


§  390.  or  PRAYERS. 


499 


offering  to  God,  the  shoulders  of  the  thank-offering,  and  two  cakes, 
one  of  each  kind,  which  were  both  given  to  the  priest. 

He  at  length  indulged  himself  once  more  in  drinking  wine  at 
the  feast,  which  was  prepared  from  the  thank-offering.  As,  in 
some  instances,  the  Nazarites  had  not  sufficient  property  to  ena- 
ble them  to  meet  the  whole  expense  of  the  offerings,  other  persons, 
who  possessed  more,  became  sharers  in  it,  and  in  this  way  were 
made  parties  to  the  vow,  Bereshith  Rabba  90.  Kohtleth  Rabba  7. 
Acts  21:  23,  24. 

§  396.  Of  Prayers. 

Prayers,  in  the  childhood  of  the  human  race,  were  nothing 
more  than  the  mere  unspoken  emotions,  which  were  naturally  in- 
spired by  reverence  towards  God,  by  fear,  or  by  gratitude.  It 
was  not,  till  a  subsequent  period,  that  they  were  embodied  in  lan- 
guage, and  that  supplications  were  added  to  the  exercise  of  these 
simple  emotions,  Gen  12:  8.  21:  33.  24:  26,  48.  26:  25.  32:  9—12. 

Moses  left  the  subject  of  prayer  to  the  feelings  of  every  individ- 
ual, and  made  no  arrangements  in  regard  to  it,  further  than  to 
prescribe  the  benediction  to  be  pronounced  by  the  priest,  Num. 
6:  24,  25;  and  a  formulary,  according  to  which  the  Hebrews,  in 
their  presentation  of  the  first  fruits,  were  to  return  thanks  to  God 
for  the  possession  of  the  land  of  Canaan,  Deut.  26:  3 — 10,  13 — 15. 

Our  Lord's  prayer,  (Matt.  6:  9 — 13.)  is  a  selection  of  the  most 
devotional  and  appropriate  sentiments  from  the  Jewish  formula- 
ries, extant  in  his  time.  Compare  Veststenii  Nov.  Test,  at  Matt. 
6:  9—13.  T.  I.  p.  323—326.  The  pious  Hebrews,  when  they  of- 
fered their  sacrifices,  returned  thanks  to  God  in  the  words  given 
them  by  Moses,  and  thereby  kept  alive  in  their  bosoms  the  feelings 
of  piety  and  devotion. 

Hymns  were  sung  on  particular  occasions,  accompanied  with 
sacred  dances  and  instruments  of  music,  Exod.  xv.  Judg.  v.  Noth- 
ing is  said  of  any  other  public  devotional  exercises,  which  may 
be  called  prayers,  except  in  the  following  passages,  1  K.  8:  14 — 
21.  23—53.  Ps.  72:  20.  Neh.  8:  6,  and  a  few  others,  in  which  men- 
tion is  made  of  the  singing  of  Psalms  in  the  Temple. 

Individuals,  who  prayed  alone  in  private,  uttered  themselves 
aloud,  as  may  be  gathered  from  I  Sam.  1  :  12 — 15,  compared 


500 


§  396.   OF  PRAYERS. 


with  Luke  18:  10 — 14.  The  Hebrews  prayed  in  the  attitude  of 
standing,  an  attitude,  which  was  observed  in  the  Synagogue  and 
in  the  ancient  Christian  church,  and  is  to  this  day  among  oriental 
christians.  It  appears,  that  they  sometimes  kneeled  likewise, 
1  K.  8:  54.  2  Chron.  6:  13.  comp.  1  K.  19:  18.  Dan.  6:  10.  Ezra 
9:  5.  Luke  22:  41.  Acts  7:  60 ;  and  sometimes  prostrated  them- 
selves at  full  length  on  the  ground,  Exod.  34:  8.  2  Chron.  29:  29. 
Ps.  95:  6.  Matt.  26:  39. 

They  raised  their  hands  to  heaven,  1  K.  8:  2.  2  Chron.  6:  13. 
Is.  1:  15;  and  sometimes  smote  upon  their  breasts,  Luke  18:  13. 

Elijah,  in  a  certain  instance,  inclined  his  body  so  much  when 
he  prayed,  that  his  head  touched  his  knees.  Probably  he  was  in 
a  sitting  posture  with  his  knees  bent,  1  K.  18:  42.  The  Orien- 
tals of  the  present  day  do  not,  when  in  the  exercise  of  prayer, 
confine  themselves  to  one  position,  but  often  vary  it.  They  are 
especially  careful,  however,  when  at  prayers,  to  turn  the  face  in  a 
particular  direction  ;  viz.  the  Jews  and  Christians  towards  Jerusa- 
lem, and  the  Mohammedans  towards  Mecca. 

The  Mohammedans  call  this  direction  &XaJ  kebla  or  the  front ; 

> 

the  Jews  call  it  (viz.  the  direction  towards  Jerusalem,)  fcnftw , 
"T^n ,  i-  e.  the  hind  part ;  because  the  Sanctuary,  towards  which 
they  turned  themselves,  was  in  the  western  or  hind  part  of  the  Tab- 
ernacle and  Temple.  Compare  1  K.  8:  38.  42:  44,  48.  2  Chron.  6: 
34,  38.  Dan.  6:  11,  14. 

The  kebla  for  the  Mehcstani  or  followers  of  Zoroaster,  i.  e. 
the  front  or  point  of  the  compass,  towards  which  they  turned 
themselves  when  they  worshipped,  was  the  East.  Compare  Ezek. 
8:  16. 

Anciently  there  were  no  fixed  hours  for  prayer.  An  argument 
can  hardly  be  drawn  from  Ps.  57:  17,  that  three  definite  periods 
in  a  day  were  assigned  to  this  duty.  It  is  true,  however,  that 
Daniel,  at  a  somewhat  recent  period,  prayed  three  times  a  day, 
without  doubt  at  the  third,  sixth,  and  ninth  hours,  i.  e.  according 
to  our  reckoning  at  nine,  twelve,  and  three,  which  hours,  it  appears, 
were  consecrated  to  prayer  in  the  time  of  the  Apostles,  Acts  2:  15. 
3:  1.  10:  9. 


§  397.  OF  THE  WORSHIP   IN  THE  SYNAGOGUES.  501 


§  397.  Of  the  Worship  in  the  Synagogues. 

We  do  not  find  mention  made  of  public  worship  in  the  Syna- 
gogues, except  on  the  Sabbath,  Matt.  12:  10.  Mark  t:  21.  3:  1. 
6:  2.  Luke  4:  16,  32,  33.  6:6.  13:  10.  Acts  13:  14.  15:21.  16: 
13—25.  17:  2.  18:  4.  What  is  said  of  Paul's  hiring  the  school  of 
one  Tyrannus  at  Ephesus  and  teaching  in  it  daily,  is  a  peculiar  in- 
stance, Acts  19:  9,  10.  Yet  there  can  be  no  doubt,  that  those 
Jews,  who  were  unable  to  go  to  Jerusalem,  attended  worship  on 
their  festival  days,  as  well  as  on  the  Sabbath,  in  their  own  Syna- 
gogues. 

Individuals  sometimes  offered  their  private  prayers  in  the  Syna- 
gogue. When  an  assembly  was  collected  together  for  worship, 
the  services  began,  after  the  customary  greeting,  with  a  doxology. 
A  section  was  then  read  from  the  Mosaic  Law.  Then  followed, 
after  the  singing  of  a  second  doxology,  the  reading  of  a  portion 
from  the  Prophets,  Acts  15:  21.  Luke  4:  16.  The  person,  whose 
duty  it  was  to  perform  the  reading,  placed  upon  his  head,  as  is 
done  at  the  present  day,  a  covering  called  Tallith,  to  which  Paul 
alludes,  2  Cor.  3:  15.  The  sections,  which  had  been  read  in  the 
Hebrew,  were  rendered  by  an  interpreter  into  the  vernacular 
tongue,  and  the  reader  or  some  other  one  then  addressed  the  peo- 
ple, Luke  4:  16.  Acts  13:  15. 

It  was  on  such  occasions,  as  these,  that  Jesus,  and  afterwards 
the  Apostles,  taught  the  gospel.  The  meeting,  as  far  as  the  reli- 
gious exercises  were  concerned,  was  ended  with  a  prayer,  to  which 
the  people  responded  amen,  when  a  collection  was  taken  for  the 
poor. 

The  customs,  which  prevail  at  the  present  day,  and  which 
Vitringa  has  treated  of,  (de  Synagoga  veteri,  p.  946 — 1050.)  were 
not  all  of  them  practised  in  ancient  times.  The  readers,  for  in- 
stance, were  not  then,  as  they  are  at  the  present  day,  called  upon 
to  perform,  but  presented  themselves  voluntarily,  Luke  4:  16 ;  the 
persons  also,  who  addressed  the  people,  were  not  Rabbins,  ex- 
pressly appointed  for  that  purpose,  but  were  either  invited  from 
those  present,  or  offered  themselves,  Acts  13:  15.  Luke  4:  16. 

The  parts  to  be  publicly  read  likewise,  do  not  appear  to  have 
been  previously  pointed  out,  although  the  book  was  selected  by 


502  §  397.  OF  THE  WORSHIP  IN  THE  SYNAGOGUES. 

.  the  ruler  of  the  Synagogue,  Luke  4  :  16  et  seq.  Furthermore,  the 
forms  of  prayer,  that  are  used  by  the  Jews  at  the  present  time,  do 
not  appear  to  have  been  in  existence,  in  the  time  of  Christ ;  un- 
less this  may  perhaps  have  been  the  case  in  respect  to  the  sub- 
stance of  some  of  them,  especially  the  one  called  Km  Shma, 
Step ,  concerning  which  the  Talmudists,  at  a  very  early  period, 
gave  many  precepts  and  of  which  also  something  remains  to  be 
said  by  us. 

The  name  is  borrowed  from  the  first  word,  which  occurs  in 
the  fourth  verse  of  the  sixth  chapter  of  Deuteronomy,  viz,  2£tt3 ; 
but  this  formulary  of  supplication  embraced  not  only  this  passage, 
viz.  Deut.  6:  4—9,  but  also  11:  13—21,  and  Num.  15:  37—41  ;  in 
which  passages,  it  is  inculcated  on  the  Hebrews,  to  retain  the  law 
of  God  perpetually  in  mind,  to  meditate  upon  it,  to  apply  it  to  them- 
selves, and  to  reduce  it  to  practice. 

It  was  a  precept  among  the  Rabbins,  that  every  Jew  was 
bound  in  duty,  having  first  furnished  himself  with  Phylacteries  and 
having  placed  the  Tallith  on  his  head,  to  repeat  these  passages 
on  the  Sabbath,  and  on  Monday  and  Thursday  ;  in  the  morning, 
with  three,  and  in  the  evening,  with  four  doxologies.  This  was  to 
be  done  in  the  Synagogue.  But  when  this  could  not  be  the  case, 
he  was  to  recite  the  passages,  wherever  he  might  be,  standing 
either  in  the  streets  or  the  public  square.  It  was  the  practice 
among  the  Pharisees  in  the  time  of  Christ  to  visit  the  corners  of 
the  streets,  at  the  hours  when  these  supplications  were  uttered, 
so  that  it  might  be  seen  from  more  than  one  direction,  with  how 
much  devotion  they  recited  the  passages  in  question,  Matt.  6:  5. 
Vitringa  de  synagoga,  pp.  1051 — 1060. 

It  was  an  observation  among  the  Jews,  that  the  recitation  of 
these  passages  and  of  the  doxologies  excited  or  produced  in  their 
minds  the  kingdom  of  Gad  or  of  heaven.  (See  Wetstein's  New  Tes- 
tament at  Matt.  6:  5.  T.  I.  p.  256.)  The  meaning  of  this  remark, 
as  is  evident  from  an  attentive  consideration  of  the  facts,  that  may 
be  brought  in  reference  to  it,  is  nothing  more  than  this,  that  these 
exercises  excited  within  them  devotional  or  religious  feelings,  which 
they  expressed  by  the  phrase  kingdom  of  God  or  of  heaven. 

The  phrases,  the  kingdom  of  God,  and  the  kingdom  of  heaven 
are  sometimes  used  in  the  New  Testament  for  the  gospel  dispen- 
sation, or  the  reign  of  the  Messiah,  because  it  was  expected,  that 
religious  feelings,  practice,  and  joys  would  be  consummated  in 


5  399.   MODE  OF  WORSHIP  PRACTISED  BY  THE  APOSTLES.  503 

Him.  It  is  also  used  for  the  state  or  residence  of  the  blessed  after 
death  ;  because  Messiah's  kingdom  endures  beyond  the  grave,  and 
receives  its  final  consummation  in  another  world. 

§  398.  The  Language  in  which  the  Service  was  performed 
in  the  Synagogues. 

The  object  of  the  erection  of  the  Synagogues  was  the  instruc- 
tion of  the  people  in  moral  and  religious  truths,  which  evidently 
could  not  have  been  secured,  had  not  the  services  been  partly  at 
least  in  the  dialect,  understood  by  the  people  generally.  There 
is  no  doubt,  therefore,  that  the  prelections  in  Hebrew  were  ren- 
dered by  an  interpreter  into  the  vernacular  tongue  ;  and  this  is  the 
statement  of  the  Talmud  on  the  subject. 

In  the  Synagogues  of  the  Hellenists,  the  Alexandrine  Version 
was  read,  as  Tertullian,  (Apol.  18,)  testifies.  Hence  very  many 
of  the  Talmudists  make  mention  of  this  version  in  very  honoura- 
ble terms.  The  more  recent  of  them,  however,  observing,  that 
the  Christians,  in  their  attacks  on  the  Jews,  drew  their  most  effi- 
cient weapons  from  this  Version,  became  hostile  to  it,  and  strove 
to  exclude  it  from  the  Synagogues,  but  their  attempts  in  this  respect 
were  defeated  by  the  emperor  Justinian. 

The  doxologies  and  prayers  were  also,  for  the  reason  above 
given,  recited  in  the  language,  which  prevailed  among  the  peo- 
ple. Some  Hebrew  words,  it  is  true,  were  retained,  viz.  amen, 
Hallelujah,  ftj  ^tt,  Sabaoth,  rrifiJSX,  which  are  retain- 
ed in  common  use  at  the  present  day  in  Christian  churches,  and 
which  occur  also  in  the  New  Testament.  The  dialect  in  popu- 
lar use,  in  which  the  services  of  the  Jewish  Synagogues  were 
performed,  was  the  Aramean.  As  instances,  see  Mark  15:  34. 
iXwt,  iXm,  lappa.  occ(3ax&avi,  Nftb  "^Slbtf  "nnbtf  ^npStt) ,  also 
Mark  7:  34,  tqxpa&a,  the  same  with  the  Aramean  nncnN  ,  be  thou 
opened. 

§  399.  Mode  of  Worship  practised  by  the  Apostles. 

It  was  by  ministering  in  synagogues,  that  the  apostles  gather- 
ed the  first  Churches.  They  retained  also  essentially  the  same 
mode  of  worship  with  that  of  the  Synagogues,  excepting  that  the 


504  §  399.    MODE  OF  WORSHIP  PRACTISED  BT  THE  APOSTLES. 


Lord's  Supper  was  made  an  additional  institution,  agreeably  to  the 
example  of  Christ,  Acts  2:  42.  20:  7—11.  ]  Cor.  11  :  17—34. 
They  were  at  length  excluded  from  the  Synagogues,  and  assem- 
bled at  evening  at  the  house  of  some  Christian,  which  was  lighted 
for  the  purpose  with  lamps,  Acts  20:  7:  11. 

The  Apostle  with  the  Elders,  when  engaged  in  public  wor- 
ship, took  a  position,  where  they  would  be  most  likely  to  be  heard 
by  all.  The  first  service  was  merely  a  salutation  or  blessing,  viz. 
the  Lord  be  with  you,  or  peace  be  with  you.  Then  followed  the  dox- 
ologies  and  prelections,  the  same  as  in  the  Synagogues.  The 
Apostle  then  addressed  the  people  on  the  subject  of  religion  and 
urged  upon  them  that  purity  of  life,  which  it  required.  Prayer 
succeeded,  which  was  followed  by  the  commemoration  of  the  Sa- 
viour's death  in  the  breaking  and  distribution  of  bread.  The  meet- 
ing was  ended  by  taking  a  collection  for  the  poor,  especially  those 
at  Jerusalem,  2  Cor.  9:  1 — 15.  comp.  Justini  Apolog.  I. 

Those,  who  held  some  office  in  the  Church,  were  the  regularly 
qualified  instructers  in  these  religious  meetings  ;  and  yet  laymen 
had  liberty  to  address  their  brethren  on  these  occasions  the  same 
as  in  the  Synagogues,  also  to  sing  hymns,  and  to  pray,  which,  in 
truth,  many  of  them  did,  especially  those,  who  were  supernaturally 
gifted,  not  excepting  the  women.  Those  females,  who  were  not 
under  a  supernatural  influence,  were  forbidden  by  the  Apostle  Paul 
to  make  an  address  on  such  occasions,  or  to  propose  questions,  and 
it  was  enjoined  on  those,  who  did  speak,  not  to  lay  aside  their  veils, 
1  Cor.  11:  5.  14:  34—40. 

The  reader  and  the  speaker  stood  ;  the  others  sat ;  all  arose 
in  the  time  of  prayer.  Whatever  was  stated  in  a  foreign  tongue, 
was  immediately  rendered  by  an  interpreter  into  the  speech  in  com- 
mon use.  This  was  so  necessary,  that  Paul  enjoined  silence  on  a 
person,  who  was  even  endowed  with  supernatural  gifts,  provided  an 
interpreter  was  not  at  hand,  1  Cor.  14:  1 — 33. 

It  was  the  practice  among  the  Greek  christians,  to  uncover 
their  heads,  when  attending  divine  service,  1  Cor.  11:  11 — 16. 
But  in  the  East,  the  ancient  custom  of  worshipping  with  the  head 
covered,  was  retained.  Indeed,  it  is  the  practice  among  the  Ori- 
ental christians  to  the  present  day,  not  to  uncover  their  heads  in 
their  religious  meetings,  except  when  they  receive  the  Eucharist. 


§  OF  IDOL  DEITIES. 


505 


Their  stated  public  religious  meetings  were  held  by  the  Apos- 
tles on  the  first  day  of  the  week,  i.  e.  Sunday ,  or,  as  it  is  called  in 
the  Apocalypse,  the  Lord's  day,  Rev.  1:  10.  Unless,  indeed,  we 
are  to  understand  from  what  is  said  in  Acts  20:  6,  7,  that  theirs* 
day  of  the  week  means  the  evening  of  Saturday,  at  which  time,  (in 
the  evening,)  the  Jews  began  to  reckon  their  days. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

CONCERNING  IDOLATRY. 

f 

§  400.  Of  Idol  Deities. 

That  the  knowledge  of  the  existence  and  character  of  God, 
as  taught  in  the  Bible,  was  derived  from  divine  Revelation,  may, 
independently  of  other  considerations,  be  reasonably  inferred  from 
this,  viz.  that  men,  left  to  themselves,  do  not  appear  to  have  been 
able,  at  the  time  when  the  early  parts  of  the  Scriptures  were  writ- 
ten, to  form  such  an  idea  of  the  Supreme  Being,  as  is  therein  com- 
municated. In  truth,  the  history  of  mankind  enables  us  to  assert 
with  confidence,  that  no  nation  whatever  of  itself  ever  attained  to 
such  a  sublime  idea. 

Even  the  Greek  philosophers,  after  having  wandered  in  the 
mazes  of  errour  for  more  than  two  hundred  years,  acknowledged 
him  indeed,  as  the  framer  or  architect  of  the  world,  the  being, 
that  gave  to  it  its  form  and  symmetry,  but  did  not  acknowledge 
him,  as  its  creator,  much  less  widen  the  range  of  their  thoughts  to 
the  conception  of  Him,  as  the  creator  and  governour  of  the  uni- 
verse. Furthermore,  they  do  not  appear  to  have  had  any  true 
64 


506 


§  400.  OF  IDOL  DEITIES. 


notion  of  Him,  as  the  ruler  and  judge  of  men,  and  were  the  victims 
of  such  a  mental  blindness,  as  not  to  see  the  vanity  and  nothingness 
of  all  other  deities. 

But  if  these  gifted  and  scrutinizing  men,  who  so  well  under- 
stood so  many  things,  pertaining  to  the  natural  sciences,  did  not 
acknowledge  God,  as  the  creator  and  governour  of  the  universe, 
and  the  judge  of  the  human  race,  who  is  represented  as  such  in 
the  most  ancient  parts  of  the  Bible,  who  then  will  say,  that  Abra- 
ham, Noah,  Enoch,  and  Adam,  or  if  it  please,  Samuel,  David, 
Asaph,  and  Nathan,  so  much  inferiour  to  these  philosophers,  in 
point  of  scientific  knowledge,  could,  icithout  the  intervention  of  Rev- 
elation, have  possessed  that  full  and  pure  idea  of  a  God,  which  we 
know  they  did  possess?  If  the  knowledge  of  God  had  been  a 
matter  so  very  obvious  and  easy,  certainly  the  Hebrews,  at  least 
after  the  time  of  David,  would  not  have  failed  to  show  themselves 
his  constant  worshippers ;  at  least,  the  most  literary  of  the  Jews 
in  the  time  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  would  not  have  laid  a  plan  to 
introduce  idolatry  again  among  their  countrymen.  Compare 
Meiner's  Historia  doctrinae  de  vero  Deo,  1780. 

Those  persons,  who  maintain,  that  the  primitive  worship  was 
that  of  animals  and  idols,  reason  a  priori  on  the  subject,  and  take 
it  for  granted,  that  men  always  ascend,  and  never  descend  in 
knowledge.  But  this  position  is  refuted  by  all  history,  especial- 
ly that  of  religion,  which  has  experienced  very  many  reverses,  and 
often  seen  its  Hebrew  votaries  relapsing  back  to  idolatry. 

A  relapse  or  descent  of  this  kind  happened  previously  to  the 
deluge,  when  multitudes  rejected  the  revealed  knowledge  of  God, 
and  the  divine  admonitions,  and  gave  themselves  up  to  every  sort 
of  wickedness.  Such  a  relapse  took  place  in  the  time  of  Abra- 
ham, when  men,  becoming  the  dupes  of  superstition,  transformed 
into  deities,  and  worshipped,  animals,  the  earth,  the  sea,  winds, 
rivers,  fire,  stones,  plants,  the  sun,  moon,  and  stars ;  in  the  progress 
of  time  also,  they  deified  and  worshipped  abstract  qualities,  as  fame, 
concord,  piety,  faith,  to  which  they  erected  altars.  See  Cicero  de 
Nat.  Deor.  L.  III.  16—23,  24.  de  Leg.  II.  8.  They  also  wor- 
shipped physical  evils,  as  fevers,  evil  fortune,  and  moral  ones,  as  im- 
prudence, defamation,  etc.  Pliny,  Nat.  Hist.  II.  5. 

In  very  ancient  times  those  men,  who  excelled  others  in 
strength,  in  power,  and  in  prudence,  and  who,  in  consequence,  be- 


§  400.   OF  IDOL  DEITIES. 


507 


came  the  instruments  of  great  good  or  of  great  evil,  were  reck- 
oned among  the  gods,  when  they  were  dead  ;  so  that  the  majority, 
if  not  the  whole,  of  the  Greek  and  Latin  deities  migrated  to  heav- 
en from  among  the  children  of  men,  Herod.  I.  131,  144.  Cicero 
Tuscul.  Quaest.  1. 12, 13.  de  Nat.  Deor.  I.  42.  III.  15—23.  Diod. 
Sic.  V.  74 — 80.  Josephus,  Antiq.  IX.  4,  5.  Hence  the  gods  are 
said  in  Scripture  to  be  dead,  an  expression,  which  is  also  applied  to 
vain  idols,  that  were  destitute  of  life.  God,  on  the  contrary,  is  call- 
ed the  living  God. 

In  a  more  recent  age,  although  the  study  of  philosophy  flour- 
ished, the  most  wicked  of  heathen  kings  and  generals  while  yet 
living,  not  waiting  till  after  death  to  be  canonized,  obtained  tem- 
ples, and  procured  priests  to  adore  them  with  the  offering  up  of  sac- 
rifices. 

Many  nations  believed,  that  there  were  cruel  and  malignant  dei- 
ties. The  Egyptians  had  their  Typho,  and  the  Mehestani  their 
Ahrimanius  and  innumerable  other  demons  of  a  like  character,  that 
were  subject  to  him,  which,  however,  being  taught  by  Zoroaster, 
they  did  not  worship,  but  resisted.  The  good  deities  also  were 
frequently  enraged,  not  so  much  indeed  on  account  of  the  sins  and 
the  corruption  of  men,  as  through  a  failure  in  the  worship  they 
expected,  and  through  mere  petulence,  and  accordingly  persecuted 
some  men  without  any  cause,  as  may  be  seen  in  Homer.  (Con- 
suit  Valerius  Max.  Lib.  I.  I.  p.  38 — 42.)  Hence  the  justice  of  Je- 
hovah is  often  celebrated  in  the  Bible. 

Every  nation  and  city  had  its  own  gods,  (Pliny  II.  5.  comp. 
2  K.  17:  24 — 34.  Jer.  2:  28.)  which  at  first  had  acquired  some 
celebrity  by  the  worship  of  some  particular  family  merely,  but 
were  at  length  worshipped  by  the  other  families  of  that  town  or 
nation,  yet  each  family  had  its  separate  household  or  tutelary  gods. 
No  one  felt  himself  bound  to  worship  every  God,  but  paid  his  hon- 
ours, as  he  chose,  to  those  he  deemed  most  propitious  or  most  pow- 
erful. But  still  he  did  not  think  it  advisable  wholly  to  neglect  oth- 
er gods,  lest,  perchance,  thinking  themselves  contemned  by  such 
neglect,  they  should  revenge  themselves  by  sending  some  evil  re- 
tribution. The  gods  of  those  states  and  cities,  which  had  become 
illustrious  by  wealth  at  home,  and  successful  war  abroad,  were 
accounted  great  and  powerful ;  but  those,  on  the  other  hand,  of 
weak  and  conquered  nations,  were  considered  weak  and  impo- 


508  §401.   ALTARS,  STATUES,  TEMPLES,  GROVES. 

tent,  not  being  able  to  defend  their  own  votaries.  Hence  their 
idols  were  carried  away  by  the  victors,  as  marks  of  the  triumph, 
Hos.  10:  5.  Is.  46:  1.  Jer.  48:  7.  1  K.  20:  23,  28. 

In  conformity  with  these  sentiments,  Cicero,  in  his  oration  for 
Flaccus  28,  exclaims,  in  respect  to  the  conquest  of  the  Jewish  na- 
tion, "  Quam  cava  diis  immortalibus  esset,  docuit,  quod  est  victa,  quod 
elocata,  quod  servata."  And  hence  in  the  Bible  Jehovah  is  so  of- 
ten represented,  as  all-powerful.  Their  deities,  in  the  estimation 
of  the  heathen,  could  be  compelled  to  regard  the  prayers  of  their 
supplicants  by  certain  incantations  ;  they  were  thought,  moreover, 
to  sleep,  to  rest,  and  to  approach  to  the  sacrifices  offered  to  them, 
as  to  a  banquet,  Iliad  I,  423,  424,  609 — 611,  Lucian  de  sacrificiis, 
1  K.  18:  27,  28.  These  deities  were  of  both  sexes,  lived  in  matri- 
mony, committed  adultery,  and  even  polluted  themselves  by  inter- 
course with  mortals. 

§  401.  Altars,  Statues,  Temples,  Groves. 

To  the  false  deities,  of  which  we  have  spoken  in  the  preceding 
section,  were  erected, 

I.  Altars,  Deut.  7:  5.  12:  2.  The  Mehestani  alone  had  nothing 
but  fire-hearths,  since  they  offered  to  the  superiour  powers,  which 
they  worshipped,  only  the  life  or  spirit  of  the  animal,  and  consum- 
ed the  body  themselves.  The  Greeks  erected  to  their  celestial 
gods  altars  (§oj(aoi,  nitta,)  of  twenty  two  cubits  in  height.  To  the 
Earth,  the  Sea,  and  to  Vesta,  they  erected  altars  of  less  altitude ; 
and  to  the  heroes,  whom  they  had  canonized,  those,  which  were 
still  lower.  They  sacrificed  to  the  infernal  deities,  and  to  Nymphs, 
in  caves  and  various  subterranean  recesses.  (See  Potter's  Greek 
Antiquities,  Part.  I.  p.  467—472.) 

As  an  accompaniment  to  the  altars,  there  were  added ; 

II.  The  images  of  the  gods.  These  images  were  at  first  mis- 
shapen blocks  of  wood  or  stone,  the  remains  of  which  were  de- 
nominated in  latter  periods  Bethels,  (jccnvXicx,  ^anvXiot.  The 
stones  were  mostly  small,  of  a  black  colour,  sometimes  conical, 
sometimes  cylindrical,  and  sometimes  round.  The  largest  of  them 
were  either  square  or  conical,  and  all  of  them  were  supposed 
to  possess  an  inherent  efficacy  of  more  than  an  earthly  nature. 
The  name  fiaixvUa,  as  every  one  will  see,  originated  in  a  misap- 


§  401.   ALTARS,  STATUES,  TEMPLES,  GROVES.  509 

plication  of  the  Hebrew  bfi*  rP3.  See  Gen.  28:  17,  22,  and  Ram- 
bach  on  Potter's  Antiquities,  Part  I.  p.  463. 

In  the  progress  of  time,  it  became  the  practice  to  expend 
much  labour  and  art  upon  images,  some  of  which  were  made  of 
colossal  stature.  At  first,  they  were  made  of  wood,  but  afterwards 
of  stone  and  ivory,  and  finally  of  metal.  But  those  made  of  wood 
and  stone  were  either  covered  with  laminae  of  silver  and  gold, 
or  were  clothed  in  precious  vests,  Num.  33:  52.  Deut.  4:  28.  5:  8. 
7:  5.  12:  3.  29:  17.  Judg.  17:  4.  Jer.  10:  9. 

These  images  were  seen,  in  the  time  of  Moses,  in  the  form  of 
men,  women,  quadrupeds,  birds,  insects,  fishes,  the  sun,  moon,  and 
stars,  Exod.  20:  4,  5.  Deut.  4:  10 — 18.  5:  8,  9.  Some  were  com- 
pound forms,  partly  human,  partly  animal ;  for  instance,  the  Egyp- 
tian Anubis,  which  had  the  head  of  a  dog,  the  Osiris,  which  had 
the  head  of  a  bird,  and  the  Dagon  of  the  Philistines,  which,  with 
a  human  form  above,  terminated  below,  in  the  shape  of  a  fish. 
The  images  or  statues,  of  which  we  have  now  spoken,  were  be- 
lieved to  be,  if  not  the  gods  themselves,  at  least  the  abodes,  into 
which  they  could  be  forced  by  certain  religious  ceremonies  and 
incantations ;  and  hence  it  came  to  be  believed,  that  they  were 
subject  to  the  ordinary  passions  of  men,  Curtius,  IV.  11.  Diodor. 
Siculus  XVII.  46.  Plin.  Natural  History,  XXXVIII. 

III.  Idol  images  were  originally  protected  against  the  injuries 
of  the  weather  by  a  roof,  supported  on  columns.  Afterwards 
walls  were  erected,  and  in  this  way  arose  a  small  Temple.  In 
progress  of  time,  the  small  Temple  became  a  large  and  magnifi- 
cent one,  for  the  most  part  square,  sometimes  oblong.  It  had  no 
windows,  and  the  columns,  on  which  the  roof  formerly  rested,  be- 
ing retained  as  an  ornament,  were  so  arranged,  and  increased  in 
number,  as  to  form  a  cloister  or  covered  walk  round  the  main  build- 
ing. The  Temples  were  divided  into  two  apartments,  the  Sanc- 
tuary and  the  shrine,  and  were  surrounded  with  a  large  open 
court,  in  which  was  the  altar,  and  in  which  the  people  assembled, 
Stieglitz,  Archaeol.  der  Baukunst  II.  1 — 14.  tab. 

Temples  were  made  the  repositories  of  treasures,  and  some 
of  them  in  oriental  countries  were  protected  in  ancient  times  by 
a  tower,  Judg.  9:  4,  46.  Altars  were  sometimes  erected  without 
reference  to  any  Temple,  and  the  names  of  the  deities,  to  which 
they  were  dedicated,  were  inscribed  upon  them.    There  were 


510  §  402.  SACRIFICES,  PRAYERS,  FESTIVALS,  ETC. 

certain  altars  at  Athens,  which  bore  the  inscription,  ayvcooroig 
fteoig,  to  the  unknown  gods,  Pausanias  in  Atticis,  I.  1.  in  Eliacis 
V.  14.  Diogenes  Laertius  I.  10,  3. 

Paul  (Acts  17:  23. (  has  given  this  inscription  in  the  singular 
number,  viz.  cxyvtonro)  &£o);  as  Jerome,  (Epist.  ad  Magn.  episc. 
et  comment,  ad  Tit.  III.)  has  remarked.  As  God  was  originally 
worshipped  by  his  creatures  under  the  open  sky,  it  afterwards 
came  to  be  the  case,  as  was  very  natural,  to  select  shady  groves 
for  the  purposes  of  devotion.  Hence  it  eventually  happened, 
that, 

IV.  Groves  were  planted  around  the  heathen  Temples,  espe- 
cially if  the  deities  were  believed  to  patronize  immodesty  and 
prostitution,  Horace  Lib.  I.  Ode  12.  Hence  it  is  forbidden,  (Deut. 
12:  2.  16:  21.)  to  plant  trees  near  the  Sanctuary,  and  the  He- 
brews are  commanded,  (Deut.  7:  5.  12:  3.)  to  cut  down  and  burn 
the  groves  of  the  Canaanites. 

V.  Priests  and  priestesses  performed  the  duties  of  these  Tem- 
ples. Their  heads  were  bound  with  fillets.  The  victims  and  the 
altars  were  adorned  in  the  same  manner.  The  priests  made 
known  to  the  people  what  services  were  to  be  performed  on  their 
part,  and  gave  responses,  Potter's  Antiquities,  Part  I.  p.  503.  Acts 
14:  13. 

§  402.  Sacrifices,  Prayers,  Festivals,  Purifications,  Mysteries. 

It  was  by  no  means  the  tendency  of  the  worship  of  these  dei- 
ties to  produce  in  their  votaries  moral  integrity  and  innocence  of 
life.  They  were  resorted  to,  and  supplications  were  offered,  for 
the  purpose  of  obtaining  some  external  good  or  eliciting  some  re- 
sponse, and  it  was  for  these,  that  thanks  were  returned  to  them. 

The  Meiiestani  alone,  whose  idolatry  was  of  a  more  refined 
kind,  prayed  with  many  supplications  for  purity  of  thought,  word 
and  deed,  but  what  this  purity  was,  we  are  not  told.  Like  other 
Gentiles,  they  mingled  with  their  worship  many  absurd  ceremo- 
nies, and  attributed  a  superstitious  efficacy  to  certain  forms  of 
prayer.  They  believed,  that  the  guilt  of  the  most  atrocious 
crimes  might  be  done  away  by  expiatory  sacrifices,  though  the 
moral  character,  at  the  same  time,  remained  the  same.  They 
even  made  the  commission  of  crimes  a  part  of  the  divine  wor- 


§  402.   SACRIFICES,  PRATERS,  FESTIVALS,  ETC.  511 

ship,  and  it  is  no  wonder,  for  it  was  an  article  of  their  creed,  that 
their  gods  were  not  free  from  vice. 

The  principal  parts  of  idol  worship  were, 

I.  Sacrifices,  viz.  victims,  salt  cakes,  libations,  honey,  and#  in- 
cense. It  was  necessary,  that  the  person  who  offered  them, 
should  be  washed,  be  clad  in  newly-washed  garments,  and  be  pure, 
i.  e.  have  abstained  from  sexual  intercourse.  The  victims  were 
different  according  to  the  different  deities;  they  were  to  be  free 
from  all  defect,  and  omens  were  gathered  from  them  by  an  inspec- 
tion of  the  internal  parts,  especially  the  liver.  Not  only  animals, 
but  human  beings  also  were  immolated  by  almost  all  the  nations  to 
their  gods,  Eusebius,  Praep.  Evang.  L.  IV.  c.  16.  p.  155 — 161. 
Pliny,  Hist.  Nat.  XXVIII.  3.  Diodor.  Siculus  V.  32. 

By  the  Canaanites  especially,  the  most  promising  of  their  off- 
spring were  sacrificed,  Lev.  18:  21.  20:  1—9.  Deut.  18:  9—14. 
Libations  of  wine  were  poured  out  between  the  horns  of  the  vic- 
tim, Ovid,  Metamorphoses,  VIT.  59:  3  ;  but  when  no  victims  were 
slain,  they  were  poured  upon  the  earth. 

II.  Prayers.  The  worshippers,  in  the  intervals  of  time  be- 
tween the  offering  of  the  successive  supplications,  were  accustom- 
ed to  employ  themselves  in  kissing  or  embracing  the  hands  and 
knees  of  the  idols.  Great  care  was  taken,  in  respect  to  the  for- 
mularies of  supplication,  that  nothing  might  be  omitted  or  improp- 
erly uttered,  and  that  no  title  of  honour  should  be  passed  by,  for  any 
thing  of  this  kind  rendered  the  prayers,  to  which  the  persuasive 
power  was  attributed,  inefficacious,  Pliny,  Hist.  Nat.  XXVIII.  3. 
Valerius  Maximus  XIII.  1,5.  In  consequence  of  these  feelings 
on  the  subject,  their  prayers  were  uttered  syllable  for  syllable,  and 
both  syllables  and  words  were  often  repeated ;  a  practice,  which  is 
condemned  by  our  Saviour,  Matt.  6:  7.  When  they  prayed,  they 
often  wounded  their  bodies,  or  shouted  and  leaped  around  the  al- 
tar, 1  K.  18:  26—29.  Strabo.  p.  801.  Lucian  de  Salt.  Athenaeus 
Sympos,  Lib.  II.  1. 

III.  Festivals  were  celebrated  by  the  heathen  in  honour  of 
their  false  deities ;  on  which  occasions  sacrifices  were  offered, 
feasts  were  held,  there  were  various  sports  and  exercises ;  and  sol- 
emn processions,  in  representation  of  their  mythological  history, 
proceeded  through  the  streets.  To  the  Mysteries,  which  were 
celebrated  on  certain  of  these  festivals,  no  one  had  access,  but 


512 


§  403.   CONCERNING  DIVINATIONS,  ETC. 


those,  who  were  initiated  ;  and  still  it  does  not  appear,  that  any 
more  correct  religious  notions  were  taught  in  them,  than  on  oth- 
er occasions.  On  the  contrary,  Cicero,  (de  Nat.  Deorum  Lib.  I. 
42.  ^remarks,  that  they  were  occupied  rather  with  an  explication 
of  the  nature  of  things,  than  of  the  science  of  the  gods  ;  but  he 
makes  a  further  remark,  however,  in  his  Tusculan  Questions,  Bk. 
II.  1,  that  the  doctrine  prevailed  in  them,  that  the  gods  were  for- 
merly men. 

IV.  Purifications.      These  were  performed  by  water,  blood, 
fire,  sulphur,  and  among  the  Mehestani,  by  the  urine  of  oxen  also  ; 
by  which  all  impurity  was  taken  away,  and  as  they  believed  ex- 
piation could  be  made  for  any  crime  whatever,  Zend-Avesta,  P.  II 
p.  340—342.  343—378.  P.  111.  p.  209—220. 

V.  A  part  of  the  worship  in  question  consisted  in  the  prostitu- 
tion of  females  and  boys  ;  and  in  Egypt  bestiality  likewise  made  a 
part  of  it,  Herodot.  1.  93.  182.  199.  Valerius  Maximus  III.  6,  15. 
Athenaeus  Sympos.  XIII.  Strabo.  p.  272.  In  the  temple  of  Venus 
at  Corinth,  there  were  more  than  a  thousand  prostitutes,  Strabo. 
378.  comp.  1  Cor.  5:  9—11.  6:  9,  13,  18.  2  Cor.  12:  21. 

§  403.  Concerning  Divinations,  etc. 

In  the  early  ages  of  antiquity,  numerous  divinations  and  sleights 
of  hand  were  practised,  and  the  imposters,  who  understood  them, 
were  held  in  distinguished  honour. 

I.  As  early  as  the  time  of  Joseph,  there  appeared  in  Egypt 
persons  of  this  description,  called  t^tt^rr,  in  the  Egyptian  dia- 
lect chertom,  i.  e.  ivorkers  of  miracles,  otherwise  called  hgoygccfi/na- 
zeig,  or  those  skilled  in  the  interpretation  of  hieroglyphical  charac- 
ters. We  find,  that,  in  the  history  of  the  patriarch  just  alluded 
to,  these  persons  were  held  in  much  honour,  as  interpreters  of 
dreams,  Gen.  41:  8.  and  in  the  history  of  Moses,  we  find  them 
making  attempts  at  miracles,  Exod.  7 :  11 — 18.  Two  of  these 
workers  of  wonders,  the  Jews  agree  in  calling  Jannes  and  Jam- 
bres,  2  Tim.  3:  8.  comp.  Jabloniskii  opusc.  I.  401.  Eichhorn's  Re- 
pert.  XIII.  18.  The  astrologers,  who  are  mentioned,  Dan.  1:  20. 
2:  2,  10.  4:  4 — 6.  5:  11.  and  are  denominated  &^2tnft>  do  not  ap- 
pear to  have  been  the  same  with  those  in  Egypt,  although  they 
professed  to  interpret  dreams.    Perhaps,  in  order  to  ascertain  the 


§  403.   CONCERNING  DIVINATIONS,  ETC. 


513 


true  meaning  of  the  term,  by  which  they  are  designated  in  these 

instances,  we  ought  to  compare  the  Chaldee  word  &b"tf1  with  the 

c  /    /  c  /  : 
Persian  word  OA>cOy^-  Dhardamand,  i.  e.  one  skilled  in  science. 

II.  Necromancers,  nteitf Cab^p ,  were  very  numerous.  It 
was  one  of  the  Laws  of  Moses,  that  persons  of  this  description 
should  be  put  to  death  by  stoning  ;  for  those,  who  attributed  to 
the  dead  a  knowledge  of  future  events,  which  belongs  to  God 
alone,  virtually  disclaimed  his  allegiance,  Lev.  20:  26.  The  He- 
brew words  above  quoted  properly  signify  the  spirits  of  the  dead, 
and  are  applied  to  Necromancers  by  metonymy  ;  for  the  Arabic  A  in 

Vav  verb  which  is  the  root  of  Sttfit,  means  to  return,  so  that 
we  may  consider  the  strict  meaning  of  the  derivative  to  be  a  spir- 
it returned,  i.  e.  from  the  dead  ;  while  the  other  word  d'^'sp  ,  (from 
S^"1  to  knoic)  means  those  that  know,  i.  e.  the  spirits  of  the  dead, 
who  were  supposed  to  reveal  the  events  of  the  future.  In  the 
same  way,  the  Greek  dctlfiwv  is  derived  from  daioy,  the  Latin  dis- 
co, Lev."  19:  31.  20:  27.  Deut.  18:  11.  1  Sam.  28:  3—10.  2  K.  21: 
6.  23:  24.  The  impostors,  who  bore  the  name  of  Necromancers, 
and  who  were  designated  in  the  Hebrew  by  the  words,  upon  which 
we  have  now  remarked,  pretended,  that  they  were  able  by  their 
incantations  to  summon  back  departed  spirits  from  their  abodes ; 
and  hence  we  find,  that  they  are  coupled  in  the  same  passage. (Deut. 
18:  11.)  with  enchanters,  ^Sh  ^Sn.  They  themselves  uttered  the 
communications,  which  they  pretended  to  receive  from  the  dead. 
They  doled  them  out  syllable  by  syllable,  sometimes  muttering  in 
a  low  tone,  and  sometimes  peeping  like  a  chicken.  Hence  they 
are  denominated  in  Isaiah  D^D^D^^^  tf^JlB  those  that  mutter 
and  peep,  Is.  8:  19.  29:  4.  The  ventriloquists,  E^Dtt  ,  mentioned  in 
Is.  19:  3,  do  not  appear  to  have  been  essentially  different  from 
these. 

HI.  Other  sorts  of  diviners  were,  (1)  those,  who  drew  their 
auspices  from  the  clouds,  denominated  in  Hebrew  B^ab,  fc^aa^Za ; 
(2)  those,  who  founded  their  predictions  on  the  condition  of  the 
internal  parts  of  animals,  and  are  called  ta^ttOlp;  (3)  those,  who 
drew  their  omens  from  serpents,  called  t3n^na»  ;  (4)  the  astrolo- 
gers properly  so  called,  t^5#3 ,  Bisroto» .  The  latter  class  were, 
at  a  late  period,  known  to  the  Romans  by  the  name  of  Chaldeans. 

65 


514 


§  403.  CONCERNING  DIVINATIONS,  ETC. 


The  Hebrew  words,  however,  which  are  found  not  only  in  the 
books  of  Moses,  but  in  all  parts  of  the  Old  Testament  Scriptures, 
are  much  broader  in  signification,  than  the  term  used  by  the  Ro- 
mans. (5)  There  was  another  class  of  persons,  who  pretended, 
that  they  could  render  serpents  innocuous  by  their  incantations. 
If  the  serpent  happened  to  bite,  notwithstanding  the  skill  of  the 
charmer,  they  said,  he  was  deaf,  Ps.  58:  4,  5.  Jer.  8:  17.  Eccles. 
10:  11.  Pliny,  Hist.  Nat.  XVIII.  4.  XXVIII.  6.  These  persons, 
who  are  very  well  known  by  the  name  of  Psylli,  are  found  at  the 
present  day  in  the  East. 

IV.  Omens  and  prodigies  were  noticed  by  all  nations,  especially 
by  the  Romans  ;  hence  they  are  carefully  mentioned  by  their  his- 
torians. We  have  to  reckon  among  these  prodigies  not  only 
monsters,  comets,  eclipses  of  the  sun  and  moon,  meteors,  showers 
of  blood  or  stones,  and  the  speeches  of  cows  and  oxen ;  but  also 
others,  which  occurred  every  day,  as  the  flight  of  birds,  the 
sneezing  of  men,  cross  or  squinting  eyes,  a  ringing  in  the  ears, 
words  spoken  in  one  sense  and  understood  in  another,  the  casual 
meeting  of  certain  men  and  animals,  for  instance  a  negro,  a  cat, 
and  a  hare.  But  they  were  none  of  them  supposed  to  be  atten- 
ded with  any  injurious  effect,  provided  they  were  not  seen,  Valeri- 
us Max.  I.  4 — 7.  Suetonius  in  Augusto  §  92.  Pliny,  XXVIII.  5.  7. 
Arrianus,  Exped.  Alexandri,  VII.  24.  Jer.  10:  2. 

There  was  also  a  sort  of  divination  or  lot  practised  among  the 
inhabitants  of  the  East,  by  means  of  arrows  of  different  colours, 
to  which  custom  one  may  notice  a  reference  in  the  signification 
of  a  l  umber  of  Arabic  words,  Hos.  4:  12.  Ezek.  21:21,22.  (Comp. 
Jerome's  Commentary  on  these  passages.)  Dreams  also  were  con- 
sidered in  all  places,  as  possessing  an  ominous  significancy,  Judg.  7: 
13,  15.  Deut.  13:  2,  3.  Jer.  23:  32.  Macrobius  de  Somnio  Scipio- 
nis,  I.  3.  Valerius  Max.  I.  7. 

V.  Oracles  were  consulted  previously  to  any  transactions  of 
great  moment,  especially  before  the  commencement  of  warlike 
expeditions,  but  not  without  the  presentation  of  gifts.  Croesus, 
before  engaging  in  war  with  Cyrus,  interrogated  almost  all  the 
Oracles,  but  received  nothing  but  ambiguous  responses,  Hero- 
dot.  I.  46— 55.  90,91.  Is.  41:21— 24.  44:7.  The  Oracle  of 
Beelzebub  was  in  the  city  of  Accaron.  He,  who  consulted  the 
Oracle,  was  first  obliged  to  purify  himself.    He  then  offered  up 


§ncrx.   STATE  OF  IDOLATRY  IN  THE  TIME  OF  CHRIST.  5i5 

sacrifices.  In  many  temples,  especially  those  of  Esculapius,  Isis, 
Osiris,  and  Horus,  he  slept  on  the  skin  of  the  victim  through  the 
night,  with  the  expectation  of  obtaining  some  information  by  a 
dream  respecting  the  means  and  medicines,  by  which  his  disease 
might  be  cured  ;  or  of  hearing  some  response  purporting  to  come 
from  the  Oracle,  but  produced  in  reality  by  the  deceitful  machi- 
nation of  the  priests.  Virgil,  accordingly,  uses  the  following  ex- 
pressions, "  Pcllibus  incubuit  stratis,  somnosque  pctivit,"  Aeneid, 
VII.  59.  comp.  Plautus  in  Curcll.  Act.  I.  Sc.  I.  2.  61.  The  cures, 
that  took  place,  were  inscribed  on  tables  for  that  purpose,  and  pre- 
served in  the  temple,  in  order  that  the  priests  might  produce  them  in 
confirmation  and  proof  of  the  power  of  their  idol  deities,  Diodorus 
Sic.  I.  25.  Is.  65:  4.  Amos  2:  8. 

§  404.  State  of  Idolatry  in  the  time  of  Christ. 

In  the  time  of  Christ,  many  of  the  practices,  marked  for  their 
enormity,  and  others  equally  distinguished  for  folly,  which  had 
prevailed  in  the  worship  of  the  heathen  deities,  had  gone  into 
general  desuetude,  although  they  were  not  wholly  abolished. 
That  the  cruel  enormities,  to  which  we  allude,  were  not  wholly 
done  away,  is  evident  from  the  fact,  that  at  Rome  as  late  as  the 
time  of  Nero  or  Vespasian,  a  Greek,  a  Grecian  lady,  and  some 
others  of  the  enemies  of  the  Romans,  were  buried  alive  for  the 
purpose  of  appeasing  the  anger  of  the  gods.  The  victims,  offer- 
ed for  this  purpose,  were  called  y.uxrdgfiaTu,  Pliny  XXVIII.  3. 
Indeed  so  late  as  the  second  century,  human  beings  were  sometimes 
immolated  in  this  metropolis  of  the  world,  Eusebius,  praep.  evang. 
IV.  16. 

The  heathen  Oracles  had,  in  a  measure,  lost  their  authority, 
but  not  altogether,  and  the  old  deceptions  were  still  practised  in 
the  tempjes  of  Esculapius,  Isis,  Osiris,  and  Horus,  Strabo,  p.  801. 
Omens  and  prodigies  were  also  accounted  of  less  weight  than  for- 
merly, but  they  still  continued  to  be  carefully  observed,  and  are  fre- 
quently mentioned  by  Livy,  Suetonius,  Tacitus,  and  Dion  Cassius. 
Manners  and  morals  grew  worse  and  worse.  Deities  increased  in 
number,  and  the  apotheosis  of  vicious  emperors  was  not  unfrequent. 
About  these  things,  the  Epicurean  sect  cared  nothing,  the  disciples 
of  the  Academy  did  not  pretend  to  affirm  much  one  way  or  the 


516        §404.   STATE  OF  IDOLATRY  IN  THE  TIME  OF  CHRIST. 

other,  while  those  of  the  Porch  explained  the  whole  on  their  sys- 
tem of  Pantheism.  The  Philosophers  indeed  disputed  with  much 
subtlety  respecting  the  architect  of  the  universe,  but  they  knew 
nothing  about  the  Creator,  the  all-wise,  and  all-powerful  Judge  of 
men. 

They  worshipped  the  gods  themselves,  and  threw  no  obsta- 
cles in  the  way  of  others  rendering  them  the  same  worship ;  but 
they  had  understanding  enough  at  the  same  time  on  the  subject  to 
condemn  the  vices,  which  had  been  attributed  to  them,  and  to 
give  them  an  allegorical  interpretation.  They  still  left  to  them 
the  government  of  the  world  and  of  men ;  but  they  exploded 
the  idea  of  the  existence  of  Tartarus  or  the  Infernal  Regions  ; 
although  they  failed,  as  it  is  remarked  by  Polybius,  (Hist.  VI.  6.) 
to  substitute  any  thing  better  in  its  place.  The  doctrine,  which 
some  of  them  advanced,  respecting  the  existence  of  the  soul  after 
death,  they  found  themselves  unable  to  maintain  by  such  argu- 
ments, as  would  be  considered  proof;  and  they  overlooked  alto- 
gether the  subject  of  the  difference  of  allotment  to  the  good  and 
evil,  when  this  life  is  over,  Cicero,  Tusc.  Quaes.  Lib.  I.  11. 

The  good  principles,  which  some  advanced,  were  controvert- 
ed and  denied  by  others,  and  the  people,  not  being  in  a  condition 
to  pass  an  opinion  on  disputes  of  this  nature,  followed  the  author- 
ity of  the  priests.  If  indeed,  any  tenets  of  the  philosophers  obtained 
circulation  among  the  populace,  they  were  only  those  of  the  worst 
kind  ;  such  as  the  simultaneous  death  of  the  soul  and  the  body,  and 
the  denial  of  a  divine  Providence,  Pliny,  Hist.  Nat.  Lib.  II.  2. 
VII.  56. 

As  respects  some  of  the  moral  duties,  the  philosophers  may 
have  made  some  advance,  as  to  correctness,  on  former  opinions ; 
but  how  deficient  they  were  after  all,  will  be  seen,  when  it  is  re- 
marked, that  they  made  the  honour,  utility,  and  propriety  of  ac- 
tions the  rule  of  their  moral  merit  or  demerit,  and  permitted  the 
practice  of  fornication,  the  prostitution  of  boys,  the  exposure  of 
children,  and  the  hatred  of  enemies.  The  Stoics  defended  the 
practice  of  suicide,  insisted  on  the  sternest  apathy,  and  joined  with 
the  Platonist  in  recommending  a  contemplative  life.  As  such  a 
life  did  not  suit  with  the  feelings  and  practice  of  the  great  bulk 
of  mankind,  the  philosophers  indulged  only  in  intercourse  with 
one  another.    But  even  if  they  had  been  unanimous,  in  teaching  a 


§405.   OF  IMAGES  MADE  FOR  SACRED  PURPOSES.  517 

system  of  morals,  which  might  be  considered  perfect,  there  would 
have  been  a  want  of  something  still ;  there  would  have  been  a 
want  of  motives,  of  incitements,  to  influence  them  and  their  disci- 
ples, to  put  it  into  practice.  Whence  Cicero  complains,  that  the 
doctrines  of  these  philosophers  were  rather  the  ostentation  of 
learning,  than  the  prompter  and  law  of  their  conduct,  Tuscul. 
Quaest.  Lib.  II.  4. 

§  405.  Of  Images  made  for  Sacred  Purposes. 

Two  kinds  of  these  images  are  mentioned  in  the  Bible,  viz. 
those  of  Jehovah  and  those  of  the  false  deities  ;  which,  especially  in 
the  history  of  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  (2  K.  10:  29.  13:  2,  11.  14: 
24.)  are  carefully  distinguished  from  each  other.  Both  were  in- 
terdicted to  the  Hebrews,  for  they  were  considered  as  being  in 
danger  of  attributing  some  inherent  efficacy  to  those  of  Jehovah, 
as  well  as  of  the  other  deities,  Exod.  32:  4.  Deut.  13:  2,  3.  4:  12 
—20. 

The  images  of  Jehovah  were, 

I.  The  Calf,  mentioned  in  Exod.  32:  4,  5 ;  and  the  two  calves 
erected  by  Jeroboam  in  the  cities  of  Dan  and  Bethel.  They 
were  made  in  imitation  of  the  two  celebrated  living  bulls  in 
Egypt,  viz.  Apis  at  Memphis  and  Mnevis  at  Heliopolis.  These 
calves  are  said  to  be  gold  in  the  same  sense,  that  the  Table  and 
Altar  are  said  to  be  so,  i.  e.  covered  with  gold. 

II.  The  Ephod  of  Gideon.  This  certainly  was  not  the  sacer- 
dotal garment,  called  an  Ephod  ;  for  such  a  garment  could  not 
have  been  made  of  gold,  which  is  represented  to  have  been  the 
case  with  the  Ephod  in  question,  Judg.  6:  25—33.  8:  24—27.  It 
was  a  piece  of  wood,  sculptured  in  the  likeness  of  an  Ephod,  and 
covered  with  gold.  In  confirmation  of  this  view,  it  may  be  ob- 
served, that  the  word  STCgtt  is  used,  (Is.  30:  22,)  for  a  covering 
or  superfices  of  gold. 

III.  The  image  of  Micah  in  mount  Ephraim  ;  which  is  express- 
ly said  to  be  an  image  of  Jehovah,  Judg.  17:  3 — 13.  18:  3,  6,  15-31. 

Idols,  properly  so  called,  occur  under  different  names,  which 
are  sometimes  interchanged  with  each  other.  The  words  bftD 
and  ftjlfclj,  an  image  or  effigy  are  general  terms,  which  are  appli- 
ed to  idols  and  effigies  for  sacred  purposes  of  any  kind ;  the  words 


518  §  406.   OF  THE  HOST  OR  ARMY  OF  HEAVEN. 


ilOS  and  b'MSS©  mean  properly  a  sculptured  image  ;  pfeSZ^  may  mean 
any  monument  w hat ever  ;  especially  one  for  superstitious  purposes. 
The  word  rOS"2  means  a  covering  of  silver  and  gold,  and  by 
synecdoche,  the  idol   itself,  which  is  thus  covered  ;    the  terms 

S  S  * 

!nS2?  and  from  the  Arabic  i^^jvaC  to  cut  out  or  hew,  signify 
an  idol,  as  the  etymology  of  the  words  intimates,  which  is  hewn  out 
or  sculptured. 

Idols  are  sometimes  denominated  fi^Va  .    The  word  does  not 

li.'n  ii'i      :  J^S^SS  &  ''      ,      jL^Ji"  '*» 

appear  to  be  from  the  Arabic  ^.2*,  to  be  large,  but  from  the 

Hebrew  bbi  to  roll,  because  the  trunks  of  these  idols  could  be 
easily  rolled  ;  with  a  contemptuous  allusion,  at.  the  same  time,  to 
the  round  and  voluble  excrements  of  certain  brute  animals.  We 
also  find  other  contemptuous  names  for  idols,  viz.  fP'^  an  ao0^m 
nation and  Q^r^rN :,  an  appellation  applied  to  idols,  on  account  of 
their  weakness.  Jehovah,  on  the  contrary,  is  termed  T^N  the 
Mighty,  n?r5?  "l^N  the  Mighty  one  of  Jacob,  and  ^fi^to*  -pn&t  the 
mighty  one  of  Israel,  Gen.  49:  24.  Is.  49:  26.  60:  16.  Ps.  132:  2,  5. 

§  406.  Of  the  Host  or  Army  of  Heaven. 

The  Host  of  Heaven,  c^'^il  ,  which  are  represented  as 
being  made  the  objects  of  worship,  are  the  stars.  As  early  as 
the  time  of  Moses,  we  find,  that  these  heavenly  bodies  were  not 
only  worshipped  themselves,  but  also  images  of  them,  Exod.  20: 
4.  Deut.  17:  3.  Hence,  through  a  failure  of  distinguishing  be- 
tween second  and  original  causes,  or  what  may  be  termed  the  per- 
mission of  God  in  his  Providence  and  his  immediate  agency,  which 
is  common  among  Oriental  writers,  the  stars  are  said  in  Deut.  4: 
19,  to  be  distributed  among  the  nations,  as  objects  of  their  wor- 
ship, while  God  has  selected  the  people  of  Israel  for  his  own, 
that  they  might  worship  Him.  The  Mehestani,  (the  disciples 
of  Zoroaster,)  not  only  worshipped  the  stars,  but  paid  their  hom- 
age likewise  to  the  innumerable  spirits,  with  which,  in  their 
opinion,  they  were  peopled.  These  spirits  they  believed  to  be 
their  guardian  defenders  against  the  evil  Ahrimanius  and  his  de- 
mons, Dan.  4:  23. 

Notwithstanding  the  worship  of  the  stars,  a  practice,  which 
was  very  widely  spread,  was  interdicted  to  the  Hebrews,  they 


§  407.   OF  THE  SUN  AND  THE  GOD  BAAL. 


519 


very  often,  especially  during  the  seventy  years  immediately  pre- 
ceding the  Captivity,  adored  them,  erected  altars,  and  burnt  in- 
cense to  them  in  their  houses,  1  K.  22:  19.  2  Chron.  18:  18.  33:  3. 
2  K.  17:  16.  21:  3.  23:  4,  5.  Jer.  8:  2.  19:  13.  Zeph.  fa  5. 

Note.  The  phrase,  ni^i'i  rnh"; ,  Jehovah  of  hosts,  or  rather 
when  fully  written,  niiOS  ",n*bN  J-pfr  Jehovah,  the  Lord  of  hostsy 
which  occurs  first  in  the  book  of  Psalms  and  the  books  of  Samuel, 
is  not  to  be  rendered  the  God  of  the  stars  nor  the  God  of  the 
gods  ;   for,  however  frequently  the  singular  may  be  thus  us- 

ed, it  is  certain  that  the  plural,  viz.  nitf^,  is  never  employed  in 
reference  to  the  stars.  Nor  is  another  rendering,  which  is  some- 
times given,  viz.  the  God  of  armies,  a  correct  one.  It  is  true, 
that,  at  a  very  ancient  period,  the  Hebrews  were  denominated 
the  armies  or  hosts  of  Jehovah,  S"nrp  rnKi^ ;  but  we  never  find, 
at  the  early  period  to  which  we  allude,  the  converse  of  these  ex- 
pressions, viz.  rPiOS  the  God  of  armies.  We  prefer,  there- 
fore, the  rendering  of  the  Septuaginl,  which  translates  the  phrase 
in  question,  -nuvioxyoLTtoQ,  the  ruler  of  all  things  or  the  omnipotent. 
Indeed  both  the  singular  fcOX  and  the  plural  rptf222  ,  which  are 
from  the  verb  iO£  to  arise,  are  applied  to  every  thing,  which 
arises  or  makes  its  appearance  either  in  earth  or  heaven,  Gen. 
2:  1. 

§  407.  Of  the  Sun,  and  the  god  Baal. 

The  Sun,  tft'tin ,  as  an  object  of  worship,  is  always  mentioned 
by  Moses,  in  connexion  with  the  moon  and  stars,  to  all  of  which, 
as  it  would  seem  from  his  representations,  effigies  or  images  were 
erected,  Exod.  20:  4.  Deut.  4:  19.  17:  13.  The  sect  of  the  Ara- 
bians, called  Nabatacans,  erected  altars  to  the  Sun,  on  the  tops  of 
houses,  and  worshipped  him  with  libations  and  with  the  burning 
of  incense,  Strabo,  p.  784.  comp.  Jer.  19:  13.  Zeph.  1:5.  We 
find,  that  a  city  was  consecrated  to'  the  Sun  in  Egypt,  in  the  time 
of  Joseph,  and  that  men  of  distinguished  rank  were  set  apart  to 
his  service,  Gen.  41:  45,  50.  46:20.  The  city,  to  which  we  al- 
lude, viz.  Heliopolis,  (in  Hebrew  "ptt  and  ]{*,)  was  a  place  of  note, 
so  late  as  the  time  of  Jeremiah,  (see  chap.  43:  13,)  in  consequence 
of  the  obelisks,         rp:a  niasE,  which  were  erected  in  honour  of 


520  §  407.   OF  THE  SUN  AND  THE  GOD  BAAL. 


that  luminary.  One  of  these  obelisks  is  still  remaining  upon  its 
base ;  the  others  are  prostrated  and  broken,  Niebuhr's  Tavels,  I. 
98,  99.  Strabo,  p.  805.  Abdollatif  in  Jahn's  Arabic  Chrestomathy, 
p.  139  et  seq. 

It  is  these  monuments  of  superstition,  (obelisks,)  although  per- 
haps smaller  in  size,  which  are  meant  by  the  word  fi^jan ,  and 
which,  although  they  were  interdicted  by  Moses,  (Lev.  26:  30.) 
were,  notwithstanding,  at  a  subsequent  period  erected  by  his  coun- 
trymen, Is.  17:  8.  27:  9.  Ezek.  6:  4,  6.  2  Chron.  14:  5. 

We  learn  from  2  Chron.  34:  4 — 7,  that  these  obelisks  were 
erected  on  the  altars  of  Baal ;  they  were  of  course  consecrated 
to  the  Sun,  since  Baal,  especially  when  it  is  read  in  connexion 
with  Astarte  or  Ashtaroth,  i.  e.  the  moon,  means  the  sun,  for  in- 
stance in  Judg.  2:  13.  10:  6.  1  Sam.  7:  4.  12:  10.  also  in  2K.  23: 
5.  where  the  expressions  tiitttfi  ^£3 ,  the  sun  Baal,  are  coupled  to- 
gether. Baal  Gad,  ^  ,  moreover,  which  is  mentioned,  Josh.  11: 
17.  12:  7.  13:  5.  is  evidently  the  same  with  the  City  of  the  sun, 
which  formerly  existed  in  Syria,  and  was  called  by  the  Greeks 
Heliopolis  ;  where  at  this  day  amid  its  ruins,  which  now  bear  the 
name  of  Baalbek,  are  found  the  remains  of  a  most  magnificent 
temple. 

Baal  Samen,  a  deity  of  the  Phenicians,  eulogized  in  the  frag- 
ments of  Sanconiathon,  is  no  other  than  Erfru3  the  Lord  of 
heaven,  i.  e.  the  sun.  It  is  stated  by  Macrobius,  (Saturnal.  I,  23.) 
that  the  Sun  in  his  character  of  deity  was  represented,  in  the 
cities  named  Heliopolis  both  in  Syria  and  Egypt,  by  the  image  of 
an  unbearded  youth.  His  right  hand,  like  that  of  a  charioteer,  was 
in  an  elevated  posture,  and  sustained  a  whip ;  his  left  hand  grasped 
the  thunderbolt.  This  idolatrous  effigy  was  covered  throughout 
with  gold. 

The  hieroglyphical  characters,  which  can  be  traced  on  the 
obelisks,  of  which  we  have  already  spoken,  and  likewise  on  the 
remains  of  other  ancient  monuments  in  Egypt,  are  denominated, 
in  the  writings  of  Moses,  rp3ip»  *fe$m ,  also  rn*3iptt  ;  and  are  forbid- 
den by  him,  on  account  of  their  having  been  made  objects  of  super- 
stitious worship,  Lev.  26:  1.  Num.  33:  52.  comp.  Ezek.  8:  7 — 13. 

There  is  no  doubt,  that  the  men,  mentioned  in  Ezek.  8:  7 — 13. 
worshipped  hieroglyphical  representations. 

The  Mehestani  considered  the  Sun  to  be  the  eye  of  Ormuz, 


§  408.  OF  OTHER  BAALS  OR  BAALIM.  521 

and  next  to  the  Amschaspands,  the  greatest  of  all  the  divinities  ; 
indeed  they  supposed  him  to  be  the  body  or  residence  of  one  of 
them,  Zend  Avesta,  P.  II.  p.  231.  They  described  the  chariot  of 
the  sun,  as  being  of  a  white  colour,  and  wreathed  with  garlands 
of  flowers.  The  sacred  horses  were  white  also,  of  the  Nisean 
breed,  and  four  in  number.  The  tongue  of  the  chariot,  to  which 
they  were  fastened,  was  covered  with  gold,  Xenophon,  Cyropaed. 
VIII.  3,  6.   Zend  Avesta,  P.  II.  p.  264. 

Anion  and  Manasses,  the  predecessors  of  king  Josiah,  who  lived 
between  699 — 642  before  Christ,  and  consequently  before  the 
time  of  Zoroaster,  placed  a  chariot  of  this  kind  before  the  gate  of 
the  Temple  at  Jerusalem  ;  which  was  burnt  by  the  order  of  Jo- 
siah, their  successor,  2  K.  23:  11.  Such  was  the  religious  ven- 
eration of  the  Mehestani  for  the  sun,  that  they  did  not  pray  with- 
out turning  their  face  towards  him.  They  saluted  his  rising 
beams  with  songs  of  praise,  holding  in  their  hands,  at  the  same 
time,  a  barsom,  i.  e.  a  bundle  of  branches,  taken  from  the  pome- 
granate tree,  the  tamarisk,  and  the  palm.    Compare  Ezek.  8: 16,  17. 

§  408.  Of  Other  Baals  or  Baalim. 

The  word  Baal,  properly  signifies  a  master,  lord,  or  hus- 
band. It  sometimes  occurred,  in  the  popular  mode  of  speech,  for 
Jehovah  himself,  Hos.  2:  16.  But  it  is  in  general  the  name  of  the 
sun,  as  appeared  in  the  preceding  section,  or  of  other  false  dei- 
ties ;  and  we  accordingly,  find  it  in  the  plural  form,  Viz.  Baalim, 
13**3,  Judg.  2:  11.  3:  7.  8:  33.  10:  6.  10.  1  Sam.  7:  4.  12:  10,  etc. 
comp.  1  Cor.  8:  5.  Many  cities  were  distinguished  by  bearing  the 
name  of  some  idol  deity,  that  was  thus  called  ;  for  instance,  Baal- 
Phrazim  not  far  from  Jerusalem ;  Baal-H&zor  in  the  tribe  of 
Ephraim  ;  jB«c?-Thamar  in  that  of  Benjamin  ;  Baal-Hermon  be- 
yond the  Jordan. 

Who  the  Baals  were,  from  whom  these  cities  were  named, 
and  what  was  their  character,  cannot  now  in  all  instances  be  de- 
termined. Baal-Zephon,  ^3>3  ,  however,  mentioned  in  Exod. 
14:  2,  situated  on  the  boundaries  of  Egypt,  derived  its  additional 
name  from  Typhon.  The  letter  Tsade  is  changed  into  Tav ; 
in  the  same  way  that  fyk  becomes  Tanis  by  a  change  of  the  same 
letters.  The  place  in  question  seems  to  have  been  no  other  than 
66 


522 


§  403.   OF  OTHER  BAALS  OR  BAALTM. 


Heroopolis,  where  Typhon  is  said  to  have  been  struck  dead  with 
lightning.  This  Baal  then  was  Typhon.  As  respects  the  others, 
although  they  are  involved  in  obscurity,  we  may  perhaps  come  to 
the  following  conclusions. 

I.  Baal-Veor,  iVzd  This  was  a  god  of  the  Moabites. 
The  men  bound  their  temples  with  garlands  in  his  honour  ;  and 
it  was  at  the  shrine  of  this  corrupt  deity,  that  the  Moabitish  wo- 
men, in  order  to  do  him  reverence,  parted  with  their  virtue,  Num. 
25:  1 — 9.  Baal-Peor  then  was  another  Priapus.  The  name  , 
to  open,  seems  to  be  an  allusion  to  the  corrupt  practices,  which 
were  patronized  by  him.  An  account  of  the  exceeding  abomina- 
tions, which  prevailed  at  the  shrines  of  those  deities,  who,  like 
Priapus,  were  the  patrons  of  carnal  gratification,  may  be  seen  in 
Augustine's  book  de  civitate  dei  IV.  10.  VI.  9.  VII.  21,  comp. 
Bayer's  Additamenta  ad  Seldeni  Syntagma  V.  de  diis  Syris  p. 
235.  Whether  the  idol  of  the  Moabites,  called  $12)3  Chamosh  or 
Chcmosh,  (Num.  21:  29.  Jer.  48:  7,  13,)  be  the  same  with  Baal-Peor 
cannot  now  be  positively  determined. 

II.  rPia  bs>3  Baal-Berith,  i.  e.  the  lord  of  the  Covenant. 
The  Shechemites,  it  appears,  built  a  Temple  to  this  God,  Judg.  8: 
33.  9:  4.  He  was  the  tutelary  god  of  Covenants,  answering  in  a 
certain  sense  to  the  Jupiter  fidius  of  the  Romans. 

III.  Baal-Zebub,  ^§3 .  This  god  had  a  Temple  of  some 
note  in  the  city  of  Ekron,  2  K.  1:  2.  He  was  the  tutelary  deity, 
that  protected  the  people  from  the  infestations  of  gnats.  The  in- 
habitants of  Olympia  and  Elis  had,  in  like  manner,  their  £veg  ano- 
fivog  ;  The  Trojans  their  Apollo  apiv&iog,  so  called  from  his  having 
destroyed  mice ;  the  inhabitants  of  Mount  Oeta  their  Hercules 
y.uQvonlwv,  to  protect  them  from  the  locusts  ;  and  the  Erythreans 
their  Hercules  invv.zovog,  who  destroyed  vermin,  Pausanias  in 
Eliac.  pr.  c.  14.  p.  55.  Strabo  p.  613.  But,  as  the  gods,  which 
have  now  been  mentioned  did  not,  by  any  means,  assume  the 
form  of  the  animals  or  insects,  from  which  they  were  supposed  to 
defend  the  people,  we  have  good  reason  for  supposing,  that  Baal- 
Zebub,  although  we  are  unable  to  say  precisely  what  his  form 
was,  did  not  take  the  shape  of  a  gnat.  Baal-Zebub  is  not  to  be 
confounded  with  Beel-  Zebul,  @t£\£efiovl,  the  lord  of  the  dwelling, 
habitation,  or  region,  (viz.  of  the  air  or  visible  firmament,)  of  whom 
we  have  spoken  in  another  place. 


§408.   OF  OTHER  BAALS  OR  BAALIM.  523 

IV.  The  Baal  of  Jezebel;  i.  e.  the  Baal,  whom  Jezebel,  the 
wife  of  king  Ahab  and  daughter  of  Ethbaal,  king  of  the  Sidonians, 
introduced  into  the  kingdom  of  Israel  and  clothed  with  so  great  au- 
thority, and  whom  their  daughter  Athaliah,  the  wife  of  Jehoram,  in- 
troduced to  so  great  authority  in  the  kingdom  of  Judah,  that  he  had 
both  at  Samaria  and  Jerusalem,  temples,  altars,  and  priests.  This 
deity  was  evidently  the  Hercules  of  the  Phenicians.  (See  1  K.  16: 
31.  18:  19—29.  21:  5—15,  23—25.  2  K.  10:  18—27.  8:  18.  11. 
18.  2Chron.  23:  17.)  This  Hercules,  (for  there  were  no  less  than 
six  of  that  name,  Cicero  de  nat.  deor.  III.  16.)  was  worshipped 
chiefly  at  Tyre  in  a  very  ancient  temple,  and  at  Tartessus  in  Spain. 
It  was  in  honour  of  this  god,  that  the  Carthaginians,  for  a  long 
time,  annually  sent  the  tenth  of  their  income  to  Tyre,  Arrian  de 
exped.  Alexandri  II.  16.  Herodotus  II.  44.  comp.  2  Mace.  4:  18 
— 20.  He  is  said  to  have  been  the  son  of  Jupiter  and  Asteria. 
The  account  of  the  Baal  of  Jezebel  and  Athaliah  agrees  with  that 
of  this  Hercules;  since  the  representation  of  Scripture  (1  K.  19: 
18.)  is  the  same  with  that  of  Diodorus  Siculus  XX.  14.  viz.  that 
human  sacrifices  were  not  offered  to  him,  and  with  that  of  Cicero 
in  Verrem  Lib.  IV.  43,  viz.  that  the  Tyrian  Hercules  was  worship- 
ped by  kissing.  This  mode  of  adoration,  however,  was  not  with- 
held from  other  deities,  Hos.  13:  2.  Job  31:  26,  27. 

V.  Bel,  .  This  word  appears  to  be  contracted  from  ^$3 
or  ;  and  the  deity  signified  by  it  is  probably  the  heathen  god, 
called  by  Cicero  the  Indian  Hercules.  (See  Nat.  Deorum  III.  16.) 
Herodotus  (I.  181 — 183,)  gives  a  description  of  a  magnificent 
temple,  erected  to  this  god  in  Babylon.  It  resembled  in  its  con- 
struction seven  towers  built  one  upon  another.  In  the  upper 
tower  or  story  was  the  shrine  or  the  most  sacred  part  of  the  tem- 
ple, which  was  furnished  with  a  bed  and  table  of  gold.  A  female 
dwelt  here  during  the  night,  at  which  time  the  god  Baal  was  sup- 
posed to  pay  his  visitations  to  it.  In  the  lower  story,  there  was 
a  very  large  image,  also  a  table  and  a  throne  of  gold,  the  weight 
of  which,  as  the  priests  informed  Herodotus,  was  eight  hundred  tal- 
ents. 

In  the  open  court,  there  was  an  altar  of  gold,  upon  which 
milk  only  was  offered,  and  another,  upon  which  frankincense  and 
sheep  were  offered.  Herodotus  was  informed,  that  Xerxes  took 
away  from  this  temple  a  golden  statue  twelve  cubits  high.  The 
temple  was  still  standing  in  the  time  of  Strabo. 


524 


§  409.  THE  MOON  AS  AN  OEJECT  OF  WORSHIP. 


§  409.  Of  Astarte,  Ashtaroth  or  the  Moon,  as  an  object  of 

Worship. 

As  the  Sun  was  called  the  lord  or  the  king,  so  the  moon  was 

called  the  queen  of  heaven,  tPtt'^r:  rpbft ;  to  whom  the  Hebrews 

(Jer.  7:  18.  44:  17,  19.)  offered  cakes,  fi^to,  poured  out  libations, 

and  burnt  incense.    It  is  this  queen,  that  is  termed,  (1  K.  11:5, 

33.  2  K.  23:  13,  14,)  the  goddess  of  the  Zidonians,  also  n^P,tti3> 

Ashtoreth,  and  in  Judg.  2:  13.  10:  6.   1  Sam.  7:  3,  4.  12:  10.  'is 

named  rnnrmte  Astaroth. 
1 1  • 

The  Moon,  as  an  object  of  worship,  being  connected  with  Baal 
or  the  Sun,  she  is  thence  called  paX&tg,  a  word  answering  to 
,  Eusebius,  Praep.  evang.  I.  10.  Hesychius  on  the  word 
pifi&rtg,  Selden  de  dlis  Syris,  Syntagm.  II.  p.  245,  246. 

As  the  word  rnT£N,  which  properly  means  groves,  occurs  in 
Judg.  3:  7.  for  rri^nili?,  and  in  Judg.  2:  13.  is  found  in  connexion 
with  Baalim,  the  conclusion  is  a  very  clear  one,  that  groves,  were 
consecrated  to  this  goddess  ;  and  she  is,  accordingly,  denominated 
(2  K.  21:  7.  23:  6,  7.)  STn^K  bps  ,  the  image  or  idol  of  the  groves, 
and  likewise  STTtffi*  merely.  Wherever,  therefore,  a  grove,  or 
Ashtaroth  is  mentioned  in  connexion  with  Baal,  Baalim,  or  the 
Host  of  heaven,  we  have  reason  for  concluding,  that  reference  is 
had  to  the  moon,  as  an  object  of  worship,  Judg.  6:  23 — 28.  1  K. 
16:  33.  2  K.  13:  6.  IS:  4.  It  is  the  moon,  otherwise  called  Ash- 
taroth, which  appears  to  be  meant  in  1  K.  15:  13.  18:  19.  2  Chron. 
15:  16.  by  the  word  nSfcbsia,  i.  e.fear  or  terrour;  in  the  same  way 
that  ins,  (Gen.  31:  42.)  and  the  Aramean  word  «nbrH. ,  both  of 
which  mean /ear,  are  put  for  the  object  of  fear  or  reverence,  viz. 
the  Deity. 

The  worship  of  this  goddess,  as  well  as  of  the  god  Baal,  was 
common  in  Palestine  before  its  occupation  by  Moses.  Hence  the 
command  to  cut  down  the  groves,  Exod.  34:  13.  Deut.  7:5. 

The  Greeks  and  Romans  were  acquainted  with  the  goddess  in 
question  under  the  name  of  Astarte,  and  sometimes  made  her,  in 
their  representations,  the  same  with  Juno,  and,  at  other  times, 
the  same  with  Diana  or  Venus ;  but  Lucian,  or  whoever  wrote 
the  book  concerning  the  Syrian  goddess,  considers  her  to  be  the 
moon,  and  says,  that  a  very  celebrated  temple  was  erected  for 
her  worship  in  Phenicia.    Perhaps  there  were  many  Astartes,  as 


§410.  OF  TAMMUZ  AND  ADONIS. 


525 


there  were  many  Baals.  The  temple,  which  Herodotus  (I.  105.) 
found  at  Ascalon,  and  which  he  reckons  among  the  fanes  of  Venus, 
was  undoubtedly  a  temple  of  Astarte  or  Ashtaroth,  1  Sam.  30:  10. 
The  fact  of  groves  being  mentioned  in  connexion  with  the  god- 
dess is  in  itself  a  circumstance,  calculated  to  excite  a  suspicion, 
that  her  worship  was  impure  ;  and  in  2  K.  23:  6,  7,  we  have  a 
very  clear  intimation  indeed,  that  such  was  the  case.  Compare 
Hos.  4:  13,  14.  Is.  57:  7.  Ezek.  6:  13. 

Sanconiathon,  or  if  it  be  preferred,  Philo  Biblius  remarks  in- 
deed in  Eusebius  (Praep.  evang.  I.  10.)  that  Astarte  was  the  Venus 
of  the  Phenicians  ;  and  adds  further,  that  the  effigy  of  the  goddess 
was  the  head  of  an  ox  with  horns  probably  in  resemblance  of  the 
crescent.  This  statement  throws  some  light  on  the  expressions 
fiH|*1j2  ni*Wipg  Ashtaroth  of  horns,  Gen.  14:  5.  Deut.  1:  4.  The 
Syrians  also  called  Venus  rrnQD?,  which  is  merely  a  word  alter- 
ed from  nHfittjg  * 

The  Arabians  before  the  time  of  Mohammed  worshipped  the 
planet  Venus,  or  the  morning  and  evening  star  so  called.  This 
accounts  for  their  making  Venus'  day  or  Friday  a  festival,  although 
there  is  no  command  respecting  it  in  the  Koran.  But  the  moon 
likewise  was  worshipped  by  them,  and  made  a  separate  object  of 
their  adoration,  as  may  very  well  be  inferred  from  their  propensity 
to  make  images  of  the  moon,  which  is  mentioned  Judg.  8:  21 — 26. 
These  images  were  crescents,  hung  upon  the  necks  of  the  camels. 
Compare  Selden  de  diis  Syris,  Syntagma,  II.  p.  291. 

§  410.  Of  Tammuz  and  Adonis. 

In  progress  of  time,  various  fables  were  invented  relative  to 
the  Sun  and  Moon  in  their  character  of  deities,  one  of  which  was 
the  story  of  Adonis.  The  name  of  Adonis,  "^itf  i.  e.  my  lord,  is  in 
itself  an  intimation,  that  the  Sun  is  implied  under  it.  The  stories 
concerning  him,  though  not  always  consistent  with  themselves, 
agree  in  this,  that  he  was  an  object  of  love  to  Venus,  Astarte,  or 
the  moon,  that  he  was  afterwards  slain  by  a  boar,  and  that  it  was 
at  length  permitted  him,  to  spend  his  time  alternately  and  at 
equal  intervals,  as  a  shade,  in  the  realms  of  Proserpine,  and  in  his 
original  form,  on  the  earth.  (Compare  the  large  German  edition 
of  this  work,  P.  III.  §  133.) 

The  Egyptians  had  a  fable,  that  their  god  Osiris  was  shut  up 


526  §411.   MOLOCH,  MOLEC,  MALCO.M,  MILCOM. 

in  a  box  by  Typhon  and  thrown  into  the  Nile,  was  found  by  Isis 
at  Byblos  in  Syria,  was  finally  slain  by  Typhon,  his  body  cut  to 
pieces  and  his  limbs  scattered  in  every  direction.  Isis,  however, 
collected  his  limbs  together  and  buried  them.  These  stories,  re- 
specting Osiris  and  Adonis,  although  quite  dissimilar,  were  at  last 
connected  together.  For  in  Syria  the  women  spent  the  anniver- 
sary of  Adonis'  death  in  much  grief,  while  the  Egyptian  women 
spent  that  of  Osiris  in  the  same  manner,  and  in  both  cases,  the  pe- 
riod of  mourning  was  followed  by  a  festival  of  joy  ;  in  Syria  for 
Adonis  returned  to  life,  and  in  Egypt  for  the  limbs  of  the  dismem- 
bered Osiris  collected  and  buried.  The  Egyptians  were  in  the 
habit  on  this  occasion  of  writing  an  epistle,  enclosing  it  in  a  box 
of  the  Papyrus,  and  throwing  it  into  the  sea.  The  account,  en- 
closed therein,  which  was  said  to  be  wafted  by  water  to  Byblos, 
concerned  the  discovery  and  burial  of  the  limbs  of  Osiris,  but  the 
inhabitants  of  Byblos  interpreted  it  of  the  restoration  of  Adonis  to 
life. 

In  Syria  this  festival  was  held  in  the  month  Tammuz  or  July, 
at  which  time  the  torrent  of  Adonis,  having  contracted  a  red  col- 
our from  the  earth,  was  thought  to  be  tinged  with  the  blood  of 
Adonis,  and  at  that  time  the  grief  of  the  women  began.  When 
this  colour  in  the  water  was  no  longer  perceivable,  the  return  of 
Adonis  to  life  was  announced,  and  sorrow  was  converted  into  joy. 
The  women  when  they  mourned  for  Adonis  were  expected  to 
shave  their  heads ;  in  failure  of  which,  they  were  bound  to  prosti- 
tute themselves  to  some  stranger,  and  pay  the  price  to  the  temple  of 
Venus.  This  is  the  festival,  which  is  spoken  of  in  Ezekiel  8:  14, 
for  Adonis  in  Syriac  is  called  Tammuz. 

§  411.  Moloc,  Molec,  Malcom,  Milcom. 

Planets  were  worshipped  under  the  name  rn  "r  -T  72 :  for  we  find 
them  in  2  Kings  23:  5,  spoken  of  in  connexion  with  the  sun  and 
moon,  and  the  horses  and  chariots,  which  were  assigned  to  the 
Sun  by  the  Mehestani.  So  that  there  is  no  doubt,  that  the  seven 
planets  are  meant ;  which,  in  the  Zend  Avesta,  P.  III.  Dun-Dc- 
hesh  §  5.  p.  66,  are  represented,  as  being  stationed  for  guards  or 
watches. 

Of  these  planets,  Saturn,  more  than  any  others,  was  made  an 


§411.   MOLOC,  MOLEC,  MALCOM,  MILCOM.  527 

object  of  worship ;  in  regard  to  whom  a  mythological  story  was 
prevalent,  that  he  devoured  his  own  offspring ;  a  circumstance, 
of  which  indeed  we  have  an  intimation  in  the  custom  of  offering  to 
him  children  in  sacrifice,  which  existed  among  the  Canaanites, 
Phenicians,  and  Carthaginians,  among  which  nations  he  was  known 
under  the  various  names  of  Moloc,  Molec,  Malcom,  and  Milcom, 
Eusebius,  Praep.  evang.  IV.  c.  16. 

This  monster  of  a  deity  was  represented  by  a  statue  of  brass,, 
with  arms  extended,  but  declining  towards  the  earth.  The  chil- 
dren to  be  offered  to  the  god  were  placed  upon  his  arms,  and  as 
their  declination  was  considerable,  the  victims  readily  rolled  off 
from  them  into  a  furnace  placed  below,  and  glowing  with  fire, 
Diodorus  Sic.  XX.  14.  The  offering  up  of  children  in  this  man- 
ner was  very  early  forbidden  by  Moses,  but  they  were  sacrificed 
after  his  time,  notwithstanding  his  injunctions  on  the  subject,  by 
Ahaz  and  by  Manasseh. 

The  word  ^PlJjrtl  to  cause  to  pass  through,  and  the  phrase 
*j5J*3  "1!^$*]  to  cause  to  pass  through  thejire,  are  used  in  respect  to 
human  sacrifices  in  Deut.  12:  31.  18:  10.  2  Kgs.  16:  3.  21:6. 
2  Chron.  28:  3.  33:  6.  These  words  are  not  to  be  considered,  as 
meaning  in  these  instances  literally  to  pass  through,  and  that  alone. 
They  are  rather  synonymous  with  Pj-yjjJ  to  burn,  and  ftiT  to  immo- 
late, with  which  they  are  interchanged,  as  may  be  seen  by  an  ex- 
amination of  Jer.  7:  31.  19:  5.  Ezek.  16:  20,  21.  Ps.  106:  38. 

In  the  later  periods  of  the  Jewish  kingdom,  this  idol  was  erect- 
ed in  the  valley  south  of  Jerusalem,  viz.  Etsj-t  or  dan  "p.  lb  , 
in  the  valley  of  Hinnom,  and  in  the  part  of  said  valley  called  Tophet, 
nsh ,  so  named  from  the  drums  which  were  beaten  to 

prevent  the  groans  and  cries  of  children  sacrificed,  from  being 
heard,  Jer.  7:  31,  32.  19:  6—14.  Is.  30:  33.  2  K.  23:  10.  The 
place  was  so  abhorrent  to  the  minds  of  the  more  recent  Jews,  that 
they  applied  the  name  Ge  Hinnom  or  Gehenna  to  the  place  of 
torments  in  a  future  life.  The  word  Gehenna  is  used  in  this  way, 
(viz.  for  the  place  of  punishment  beyond  the  grave,)  very  frequent- 
ly in  Oriental  writers,  as  far  as  India.  Compare  Wetstein's  New 
Testament  at  Matt.  5:  22. 


523 


§413.   OF  TERAPHIM. 


<§,  412.  Concerning  Chiun  and  Remphan. 

The  god  Chiun,  |«1*3 ,  whose  small  Tabernacles,  (resembling 
perhaps  the  small  shrines  of  Diana  mentioned  Acts  19:  24.)  were 
secretly  carried  about  with  them  by  the  Hebrews  in  their  jour- 
ney through  the  Arabian  wilderness,  (Amos  5:  26.)  were  no  other 
than  Saturn.    As  a  confirmation  of  this,  we  observe,  that  the  Ara- 

'  c  * 

bic  and  Persian  word  for  Saturn  is  ^f^j^ — » ;  the  Syriac  is 
*pi*£>;  the  Chaldaic  is  "jVS ,  which  means  just;  for  the  reign  of 
Saturn  was  celebrated  for  the  exercise  of  justice. 

The  Alexandrine  interpreter  has  rendered  the  Hebrew  word 
Chiun  by  the  word  Pepqav,  Psqav,  Patqav,  which  in  the  Coptic 
dialect,  is  the  name  for  Saturn,  Delia  Valle's  Travels,  P.  I.  p.  125. 
The  Prophet  Amos  calls  this  god  both  a  star  and  a  king ;  as  in 
fact  Saturn  was  both  a  planet,  and  the  king  or  idol-deity,  who  was 
otherwise  called  Molec,  Moloc,  Milcom,  and  Malcom.  This  dou- 
ble character  of  Saturn,  as  a  star  in  heaven  and  a  monarch  on  earth, 
may  perhaps  be  recognized  in  the  Hebrew  words  •jba:?  and 
^binlN  Annamelech  and  Adrammelech,  (2K.  17:  31.)  since  it  ap- 
pears, that  both  of  the  deities  thus  named  were  worshipped  by  the 
offering  up  to  them  of  human  sacrifices. 

The  Egyptians  consecrated  to  Saturn  the  seventh  day  of  the 
week;  hence  Saturn  is  denominated  by  the  Jews,  ^Pfia'Aj,  "Wfi'iS . 
A  Caaba  is  said  to  have  been  formerly  consecrated  to  him  at  Mec- 
ca, Pocoke,  Specimen  Hist.  Arab.  p.  140. 

§  413.  Of  Teraphim,  tPsnn . 

That  Teraphim  were  images,  sculptured  in  imitation  of  the 
human  form,  is  evident  from  1  Sam.  19:  13  ;  and  that  they  were 
household  gods  is  clear  also  from  Gen.  31:  19,  34,  35.  1  Sam. 
19:  13—17.  2K.  23:  24.  It  appears  from  Ezekiel  (ch.  21:  21,) 
that  responses  were  sought  from  them,  the  same  as  from  Oracles. 
Compare  Zech.  10:  2.  Judg.  17:  5.  18:  5,  6,  14—20.  Hosea  3:  4. 
This  is  confirmed  by  1  Sam.  15:  23,  where  Teraphim  are  spoken  of 
in  connexion  with  the  arts  of  divination. 

The  etymology  of  the  word  coincides  with  the  statement,  for 
p|*irs  according  to  Bar  Bahlul  means  an  inquirer,  one,  who  asks. 
The  name  of  this  idol,  when  we  consider,  that  it  was  first  brought 
from  Mesopotamia,  Gen.  31:  19,  is  derived  more  naturally  from 


§  414.   OF  DAQON. 


529 


Jp.h,  a  Syriac  word,  than  from  the  Arabic  O^-'i  Greek  rpugpaw, 
which  is  the  derivation,  proposed  by  Michaelis,  who  would  make 
the  Teraphim  the  same  as  the  Sileni. 

He  rests  his  hypothesis  chiefly  on  Lev.  17:  7.  The  word 
U^^iS  hairy ,  which  is  there  used,  he  supposes,  is  not  to  be  ren- 
dered goats,  which  in  other  places  are  denominated  tPf  y  ^'V^'ip, 
but  Sileni,  i.  e.  apes  or  Satyrs,  and  for  this  reason  more  especially, 
that  the  Hebrews,  as  is  evident  from  other  sources,  would  not  of 
course  have  sacrificed  he-goats  to  she-goats.  But  granting  that 
the  word  in  question  should  be  rendered  in  the  way  he  proposes, 
still  its  identity  with  Teraphim  is  something,  which  is  by  no  means 
evident. ,  On  the  contrary,  it  is  evident, 

I.  That  in  the  district  of  Mendusium  in  Egypt,  both  she-goats 
and  he-goats  were  considered  sacred,  and  that  a  certain  species  of 
the  he-goat  was  worshipped  with  divine  honours,  Herodot.  II.  46. 
Strabo,  p.  802.  comp.  Jablonsky  Pantheon  Egypti  p.  279. 

II.  In  Leviticus  17:  3,  it  is  not  said,  that  the  Hebrews  sacrificed 
she-goats  to  the  tPnsip,  as  Michaelis  seems  to  imagine  ;  nor  is  this 
passage  to  be  compared  necessarily  with  17:  7,  where  there  is  noth- 
ing said  about  she-goats,  as  sacrifices. 

III.  Goats  do  not  only  appear  under  the  unqualified  Hebrew 
word^trnsnp ,  in  Lev.  16:  9,' 18,  20,  as  Michaelis  himself  has  admit- 
ted, but  also  in  Lev.  4:  24.  9:  15.  2  Chron.  11:  15.  Dan.  8:  21. 

IV.  That  Teraphim  were  found  only  among  barren  women, 
which  is  maintained  by  Michaelis,  and  brought  in  favor  of  his  ar- 
gument, is  refuted  by  many  passages,  which  have  been  already 
adduced.  Further,  the  Teraphim  mentioned  Gen.  31:  19,  34,  did 
not  belong  to  the  unfruitful  Rachel,  but  to  Laban.  Michal  is  the  on- 
ly barren  woman  mentioned,  as  possessing  Teraphim,  1  Sam.  19:  13. 

§  414.  Dagon. 

The  sculptured  image  or  representation  of  Dagon  (from 
^  a  fish)  exhibited,  as  may  still  be  seen  on  ancient  coins,  the  ap- 
pearance of  a  woman  above,  but  of  a  fish  below.  (Compare  the 
original  German  edition  of  this  Work,  P.  III.  tab.  XII.  No.  III.) 
This  figure  of  the  idol  agrees  quite  well  with  what  is  said  of  it  in 
1  Sam.  5:  4,  5,  comp.  Zeph.  1:  9;  since  it  lost  in  its  fall  upon  the 
ground  the  head  and  hands  ;  and  only  the  stump,  "p:n  or  fish,  was 
remaining.  67 


530 


§  414.   OF  DAGON. 


Dagon  was  the  God  of  the  Philistines,  Judg.  16:  23 — 26.  1  Sam. 
5:  1 — 5.  1  Mace.  10:  83.  Temples  were  erected  in  honour  of 
this  deity  at  Gaza,  at  Azotus,  at  Ascalon,  as  is  clear  both  from 
Diodor.  Sic.  II.  4.  Herodotus  I.  105.  and  from  ancient  coins;  (see 
Michaelis  alte  Or.  Bibl.  VI.  Th.  S.  86—99.)  and  perhaps  in  some 
other  cities  of  the  Philistines,  who  formerly  emigrated  from 
Egypt,  where  certain  fishes  were  worshipped  with  divine  honours. 
This  deity  is  not  to  be  confounded  with  the  Ashtaroth,  in  whose 
temple  the  Philistines  (1  Sam.  31:  10)  deposited  the  armour  of  Saul. 
It  is  true,  that  in  the  parallel  passage  in  1  Chron.  10:  10,  the  He- 
brew is  &5"prrbN  rP3 ,  the  temple  of  their  god,  but,  though  the  noun 
be  masculine,  it  may  be  applied  to  Ashtaroth,  i.  e.  Ashtaroth  may 
be  considered  as  being  meant  here,  since  the  Hebrew  has  no  sep- 
arate termination  in  this  instance  for  the  feminine. 

Dagon  also  was  of  the  feminine  gender,  and  Herodotus,  who 
says,  she  was  worshipped  at  Ascalon,  compares  her  to  Venus,  I. 
105.  This  idol  is  likewise  called  Derketo,  Athara,  and  Atargatis, 
Strabo,  p.  748,  785.  Lucian  de  Dea  Syra.  That  the  name  Der- 
keto is  Syriac,  the  termination  to  is  itself  an  indication.  Indeed 
Diodorus  Siculus  (I.  4.)  expressly  says,  that  the  goddess  worship- 
ped at  Ascalon  was  called  by  the  Syrians,  Derketo. 

The  origin  of  the  name  was  this.  A  very  large  temple  was 
erected  to  her  at  Mabug  or  Hierapolis  in  Syria,  where  she  was 
worshipped,  and  where  her  statue  was  a  female  form  throughout. 
Within  this  temple  was  a  chasm  or  fissure  in  the  earth,  (^«ffjua,) 
into  which  the  worshippers  on  certain  days  poured  water.  Hence 
the  goddess  was  denominated  by  the  Syrians  ittn^n  ,  i.  e.  a  fissure, 
which  at  length  appeared  under  the  altered  form  of  Derketo,  Jacob 
Surug  in  Assemani  Biblioth.  Orient.  T.  I.  p.  327,  328,  and 

T.  II.  IN  INDICE  GEOGRAPH. 

The  mythological  story  in  respect  to  Derketo,  is,  that  she  fell 
in  love  with  a  youth  through  the  arts  of  Venus,  and  that  the  fruit 
of  their  embraces  was  Semiramis,  who  being  exposed,  but  found 
and  educated  by  shepherds  afterwards  became  queen  of  Assyria, 
while  Derketo  herself  was  transformed  into  a  fish. 

It  is  stated,  however,  in  the  work  already  alluded  to,  (Lucian 
de  Dea  Syra,)  that  many  supposed  the  Temple,  erected  at  Hiera- 
polis, belonged  to  Juno,  and  that  it  was  built  by  Deucalion  after 
his  escape  from  the  waters  of  the  flood,  in  memory  of  the  fact, 


§415.   OF  OTHER  DEITIES. 


531 


that  the  waters  of  the  deluge  had  escaped  through  that  aperture 
in  the  earth,  already  spoken  of,  over  which  the  Temple  was 
built.  Something  in  corroboration  of  this  view  of  the  subject  may 
be  inferred  from  the  representations  on  the  coins  of  the  city  of 
Ascalon,  which  exhibit  on  one  side  a  figure  of  Derketo,  and  on 
the  other,  a  ship  with  seven,  eight,  or  nine  men.  So  that  the 
mythology  of  the  goddess  in  question,  which  is  sufficiently  won- 
derful, appears  to  have  been  founded,  partly  on  the  traditionary 
accounts  of  the  Deluge,  and  partly  on  the  opinions  which  were 
prevalent  among  the  ancients  respecting  either  the  mermaid,  or  that 
animal  of  the  ocean,  denominated  by  Linnaeus  Trichecus  mana- 
tus,  {sea-cow.)  Compare  Donat.  in  Scheuchzer's  Physica  sacra, 
P.  II.  p.  281. 

§  415.  Of  other  Deities. 

The  character  of  some  of  the  heathen  deities  mentioned  in  the 
Bible,  for  instance,  Apollo,  Diana,  Castor  and  Pollux,  may  be  learnt 
from  the  records  of  profane  antiquity  ;  but  in  regard  to  that  of  some 
others,  we  are  left  in  great  ignorance,  for  instance, 

I.  Shedim,  ffn-ij ,  Deut.  32:  17.  Ps.  106:  37.  It  appears,  that 
children  were  sacrificed  to  the  deities  thus  named  ;  that  they  were 
considered  to  be  of  an  angry  nature,  and  inimical  to  the  human 
race  ;  and  that  the  object  of  the  homage  rendered  to  them,  was 
to  avert  calamities.  The  name  t^yi)  may  signify  either  lord  or 
master,  or  any  thing  that  is  black;  it  being  derived  from  an  Ara- 
bic Ain  Vav  verb,  viz.  oV*«  to  be  black,  or  to  be  master.  If  it  had 
been  derived  from  TT25 ,  it  would  have  been  pointed  tF'pB  or 
fi^Tij .  The  Mehestani  named  one  of  the  evil  spirits  Shed  ;  but 
it  was  at  length  changed  into  light  by  Ormuz,  i.  e.  made  a  good 
spirit,  and  was  confined  to  the  planet  Venus,  Zend  Avesta,  P.  III. 
Bun-Dehesh  p.  66.  It  might  be  said,  if  any  one  chose  to  take  that 
ground,  that  the  persons,  who  introduced  the  present  system  of 
punctuation  into  the  Hebrew  text,  pointed  the  word,  in  reference  to 
the  Shed  of  the  Mehestani,  tHttj  instead  of  D^Ttf  or  fi^Ti?  ;  or 
that  the  Mehestani,  in  the  recent  book  of  Bun-Dehesh,  had  bor- 
rowed the  name  from  the  Hebrew.  The  Syriac  word  NTiZJ  ap- 
pears to  be  adopted  from  the  Hebrew. 

II.  Nebo,  ta3 ,  Is.  46:  1,  a  deity  of  Babylon,  worshipped  by  the 


532 


§415.   OF  OTHER  DEITIES. 


Chaldeans  properly  so  called,  the  name  of  which  is  found  in  the 
first  syllable  of  the  proper  Chaldaic  word  "lSNS'lbtta  Nebuchad- 
nezzar. Perhaps  the  term  may  be  explained  by  a  comparison  of 
the  Slavonian  word  nebo  heaven ;  since  the  last  syllable  of  the  word 
Tszar,  is  still  found  in  the  Russian  language. 

III.  Gad  and  Meni,  -JS  and  *»D73  ,  Is.  65:  11.  The  Hebrews  set 
tables  in  honour  of  the  deities,  and  furnished  them  with  food 
and  beverage.  Jerome,  in  his  remarks  on  the  passage  here  quot- 
ed, observes,  that  it  was  the  custom  so  late  as  his  time  in  all  cities, 
especially  in  Egypt,  to  set  tables,  and  furnish  them  with  various 
luxurious  articles  of  food,  and  with  goblets  containing  a  mixture 
of  new  wine,  on  the  last  day  of  the  month  and  of  the  year,  and 
that  the  people  drew  omens  from  them  in  respect  to  the  fruitful- 
ness  of  the  year  ;  but  in  honour  of  what  god  these  things  were 
done,  he  does  not  state.  Perhaps  IS  is  the  goddess  of  fortune, 
for  this  word  in  the  Syriac  dialect  means  fortune,  and  *»372  is  fate, 
from  5-5373 ,  to  number,  to  define,  or  perhaps  the  idol  known  under 
the  Arabic  word  which  was  formerly  worshipped  by  the 
tribes  Hudeil  and  Choraa  between  Mecca  and  Medina,  Golius'  Ara- 
bic Lexicon,  col.  2270. 

IV.  Rimmon,  1173*1 ,  an  idol  of  the  Assyrians,  2  K.  5:  18.  per- 
haps the  tutelary  deity  of  pomegranates  ;  Nisroc,  -"TiJS ,  a  god  of 
the  Assyrians,  2  K.  19:  37.  Is.  37:  38 ;  and  the  deities  of  the  col- 
onies sent  by  the  king  of  Assyria  into  Samaria,  viz.  Nergal  bS"}3  , 
Ashima,  ri73^N  ,  Nibchaz,  fhsfa  ,  and  Tartar,  ppnn  ,  2  K.  17:  30, 
31,  are  altogether  unknown. 

V.  Nanaea,  vavalct,  otherwise  called  Anais,  Anaitis,  Aneitis, 
and  Tanais,  a  goddess,  to  whom  a  very  splendid  temple  was  con- 
secrated in  Elymais,  2  Mace,  1:  13,  14.  comp.  1  Mace.  6:  1,  2.  The 
worship,  rendered  by  the  Mehestani  to  this  goddess,  was  the  pros- 
titution of  virgins ;  so  that  she  seems  to  have  agreed  in  character 
very  much  with  the  Babylonish  deity  Myllitta,  tfn-fsp»  m  whose 
honour  every  woman  of  Babylon  was  bound  once  during  her  life, 
to  commit  prostitution,  Herodot.  I.  199.  comp.  Strabo.  p.  512,  532, 

'     533,  559. 


INDEX 

OF  PASSAGES  ILLUSTRATED,  OR  ALLUDED  TO,  IN  THIS  WORK. 


Genesis. 


4. 


Genesis. 


Genesis. 


iap.  verse. 

Section. 

Chap,  verse. 

Section. 

(Jhap.  verse. 

Section. 

—  11. 

164  374 

6t  3  8 

304 

12.  6 

297  note 

306 

6  7 

304 

327,  374 

1 

346  VI. 

9 

99 

7,8 

81,304 

27, 28 

159  151 

15  16 

104  I. 

8 

396 

29' 

136 

17' 

306 

10—15 

163 

1 

406  nnfp 

7    2  R 

136 

10, 20 

44 

1 — 3 

346  347 

4  10 

102  304 

11—13 

152 

2 

304' 

4?  10 

346  V. 

13 

303 

2,3 

346  VI. 

ll' 

100  III. 

15 

31 

3 

349 

8.  4 

ibid. 

13.  4 

374 

8 

164 

10, 12 

102  304 

4,  14, 18  297 

8—20 

301 

10,'  12 

346  V. 

4  18 

304  327 

15 

54 

ll' 

71 

7' 

297  note 

16 

136 

20 

304  327 

8 

304 

23,  24 

151 

20 

374 

18 

76 

24 

160 

20 

384 

14. 

170  I. 

.  8 

21 

21 

304 

1—16 

81 

8 

101  V. 

22 

21 

1—16 

104  III. 

17—19 

54 

9.  3—6 

136 

3 

19 

18,21 

42 

6 

257,  264 

4 

19,  295 

24 

90 

14, 15 

278 

5 

409 

24 

276  I. 

21 

66,81 

6 

27  I. 

2 

54 

25 

169 

8 

290 

2,19,20  42 

25—29 

90 

10 

19 

3,4 

304 

10.  1 

99 

11,12 

298 

3—5 

374 

1—30 

104  III. 

14 

170  V. 

6—16 

304 

4,5 

107 

14 

171,284 

19 

151 

5— 10,&c.  4 

14,  15 

269,  290 

21 

92 

9 

52 

14—16 

291 

21, 

94  I. 

23 

14  1. 

14—24 

304 

21 

95  I. 

11.  1—9 

81 

18 

66 

21 

96  note.  V. 

2 

42 

18, 19 

231 

21—23 

80 

3 

32,  39 

18—20 

306 

23 

90 

4—6 

304 

20 

298,  304 

26 

301 

5—7 

ibid. 

20 

390 

29 

151 

10—32 

303 

22, 23 

392 

1—32 

303 

12.  3 

214 

23 

118 

22,  24 

147 

3 

326  I. 

23 

123 

24 

203 

4—15 

104  III. 

23 

173  • 

29 

301 

5 

107 

15.  1 

271 

1 

301 

5,6,  8,9  297 

3 

168  IV. 

3 

301,302 

6 

ibid. 

3 

170  V. 

534 


JNDEX  OF  PASSAGES  ILLUSTRATED. 


Genesis.  Genesis.  Genesis. 


Chap,  verse. 

Section. 

I  Chap,  verse. 

Section. 

1  Chap,  verse. 

Section. 

15.  7,  13-21  297 

!  18.  19 

306 

!  23.  16 

107, 115 

8—20 

304 

20 

19 

17 

206 

8,9,17,18  383 

19.  1 

44, 180 

19 

205 

9 

374,  377 

1 — 3 

174 

20 

85 

9—18 

384 

1—9 

149 

24.  2 

44, 171 

9—21 

374 

2 — 10 

149 

10,  64 

49 

10 

81 

3 

140  bis 

1  11—15 

45  1. 

13, 16 

99 

24 

19 

1  16 

166 

15 

203 

24  et  seq 

19 

17—20 

44 

16 

297 

26 

209 

!  22 

81, 129 

18 — 21 

13 

30—32 

156 

22, 23,  53  130 

16.  1—3 

156 

32 

81 

25 

47 

2 

161 

32 — 35 

66 

31 

152 

2 — 14 

156 

37 

164 

40 

147 

4 — 10 

151 

20  2 

230  (5) 

46,  48 

396 

5,6 

153 

2—6 

152 

50 

152 

10 — 14 

228 

16 

127 

55 

154 

11 

164 

16 

127  VI. 

60 

ibid. 

12 

53 

21.  8 

148 

60 

100  I. 

17.  1 

147,  306 

8 

166 

64 

49 

5 

164 

8 — 21 

168  II. 

65 

127 

8 

297 

9 — 11 

153 

67 

31 

9—14 

214,  306 

10 

170  V. 

25.  1—6 

168  II. 

10 

81, 162 

14 

81, 167 

8        203,314 1. 

10—14 

163 

20 

52 

8,9 

203 

11—14 

105 

21 

27  I. 

9 

205  bis 

13—17 

169 

21 

152 

10 

314  II. 

15 

164 

22 

231 

16 

28 

23 

170  V. 

24 

283 

23  et  seq. 

165  III. 

18.  1 

101  III. 

25 

45 

25,  26 

164 

1—30 

174 

25—30 

297 

30,  34 

141 

2—6 

141 

33 

396 

31,32 

165 

3—9 

149 

22.  3 

48 

34 

54 

4 

29,  123 

3,5 

48 

26.  1 

44 

4 

149 

10 

81 

4 

221,303 

4—6 

81 

13 

374 

4 

326  I. 

D 

llzt  TV 
1 1*1  1  v  . 

15 

228 

7—17 

152 

6 

138,  140 

18 

214, 221 

10 

230  (5) 

6 

140  bis 

18        303,326 1. 

12 

62 

6 

148 

23. 

27  note 

12—14 

54 

6—9 

31 

2  et  seq. 

207 

12,  15, 18 

81 

7 

141 

2—4 

205 

13—22 

45 

8 

47 

4—20 

206 

25 

327,  396 

10—21 

304 

6 

207 

34,  35 

297  note 

16—20 

214 

7,  12 

174 

27.  3,4,9,10  141 

16—25 

306 

9, 19 

14  IV.  ! 

3,  4, 14 

81 

18 

221,303, 

10  et  seq. 

247 

9 

148 

18 

326 1.  1 

13—16 

81 

25 

66 

19 

303,  304 

15, 16 

104 1.  ! 

27 

135,  176 

INDEX  OF  PASSAGES  ILLUSTRATED. 


535 


Genesis. 

Chap,    verse.  Section. 

27. 28  21 

29  165  III. 

28.  2—9  104  III. 
8,  9  297  note 

11,18,22  40 

14  214,221 

14  103,3261. 
17,  22  401  II. 

18  71 
20—22  303 

22  55,  148 

22  390, 393 

29.  3—12  45  1. 
6  175 

9  44 

10  166 

11, 13  175 

18.27  153 
22  148 
27  304 
27  346  V. 

27. 28  102 

30.  44 
1—3,  15  151 
1—18  156 
3—5  161 

13  156 

14—16  151  III. 

15,  16  156 

32—34  46 

31.  10—12  46 

15  153 

17  49  bis 

18, 19  118 

19  413 
19,37,34  81 
19,  34  413  IV. 
19,  34,  35  413 

27  92,961. 
27,54  148 

38  44 

42  409 

32.  6  171,284 
9—12  396 

25, 32  143  III. 

28  164 
23.  1  171 

4  175 

17  28,30,44 


Genesis. 


Chap,  verse. 

33.  19 
20 


34 


35. 


1,2 

1—  12 

2—  5 
11,12 
11—27 
14 
20 
25 

25—31 
1,3,7 
2 

2-7,9- 
8 
10 
16 
20 
22 
28 
29 
29 
2—24 
20—30 
20—30 
24 
24 
3 
3, 23 
7 

22  ff. 

25 

25 

25, 26 

34 

35 

35 

36 

38.  8 
11 
14 
18 
18 

18,  25 
24 
24 
28 

39.  1 
9 


36. 


37. 


12 


115 

327 
31 

150  III. 
152 
153 
152 
163 
180 
162  II. 
291 
327 
325 
13303 
166,  206 
164 
113  X. 
209 
165  I. 
314  II. 
203  bis 
205  bis 
297  note 

27  I. 
297  note 
48  n.  I. 
105 
118 
119 
54,  62 
45  II. 
49,  74 
110 
107 
211 

203  tris 
314 1.  II. 
236  V. 
157 
168  V. 
127  IV. 
85, 128 
226 
128 

158, 167 
210,2591. 
118, 119 
236  V. 
303, 306 


Genesis. 

Chap,   verse.  Seel  ion. 

39  20  45  II. 

20  249  (2) 

40.  2  139 

3,  4  236  V. 

3, 4  249 

11  144 
15  45 II. 

15  249  (1) 

17—19  257 

17—19  259 II. 

20  148, 161 

20  227 

41.  2  141 
5, 47  62 
6  62 
6,23  21 

8  85  n.  I. 

8  403 1. 
35  65 

40  225 
42  85,118 

42  128, 130 

43  59 
43  104 II. 
43  174, 179 
43  179  note 

45  164 
45, 50  407 

46  238 

47  58 

42.  1—5  107 
6  174 

13  203 

15  392 

43.  11  69,74,76 
11  77,178 

19  254 

20  392 
27  175 
32  145 

44.  17  254 

18  392 
34  173 

45.  5,8  306 
6  59 

10  12 

19  104 II. 
19, 21  59 
19,27  59 


536 


INDEX  OF  PASSAGES  ILLUSTRATED. 


Genesis. 


Genesis. 


Chap,  verse. 

45.  22 
22,23 

46.  4 
4 

20 

47.  6 
6 

6,  11 
8—11 

17 

18 

19— 26 

20—  27 
29—31 

48.  4,21,22 
5,6 
5,6 

7 

10—12 

'22 

49.  1—26 

1— 27 

2—  28 
3,9,17,22 
8—10 
8—10 

10 
11 

11,12 

13  < 

14 

17 

19 

24 

25 

26 

27 

29 

23 

29 

33 

50.  2 
2—10 
2—26 
3 

4 

7—11 
7—13 
7—14 


Chap. 


118,  178 
178 

204 

297  note 

407 

171 

234  II. 

12 
175 

50 

55 
234 
104  I. 
297  note 
297 
165  I. 
217 
205 
175 
278 
297 
168  II. 
167 
288  I. 
165  III. 
217 
226 


50. 


III. 


405 


66 
104 

48 

50 
269 
278. 

21 

19 
269,  298 
203 
206 
314  II 
314  I. 
105 
314  I. 
204  bis 
211 
ibid. 
205 

297  note 
205 


9 
10 
13 

13,  25 

17—20 

20 

23 

24,25 
24—36 

Exodi 
9,10 
9, 11 
19 


2. 


7, 
10 
16 
16 
20 

3.  1 
4- 
5 
7 

13 
16 
22 

4.  10, 
16 
27 


-20 


13 


104  II. 

63 
206 
ibid. 
303 
306 
161 
204 

297  note 


297  note  I 
65, 234 
161 
180 
166 
164 

44,451. 
166,  231 
149 
231 

228 

123,  368 

189 

305 

213 

299 

392 

230 

175 


1,14,15,19213 
14, 15,  19  ibid. 


7. 


15—19 

3 

7 
14 

1 

5 
11 
11 

11—18 

13—25 

3 
18 
22 

3 


10. 


238 
306 

305, 306 

85 
230 

305,  306 
100  III. 
235  II. 
403  I. 
180 

85  n.  I. 
235  II. 
377 
50 

14-16,  29  305 
31, 32  62 
1,2  306,308 


Exodus. 

Chap,    verso.  Sectiou. 

10.  2  305 
12, 15  23  IV. 
13—20  ibid. 

15  ibid,  bis 

11.  2  299 
4—7  190 

5  139 
7  51 

12.  354 
1—6  ibid. 
1, 13  16  310 
1—28  354 
2  103 
7  354 

11  123,123 

12  305 
15,34  140 

16  353 
18  354 
23, 29  190 
25—28  308 

29  165  III. 

34  122,  140 

51  269 

13.1-10,)  .™ 

11-16  j  320 
2,11-16  388 

3,7  140 

4  103 

4—16  308 

6, 7  354 

13  388  bis 
16  320 

18  269, 290 

19  204 

19  297  note 

14.  2  408 
4,17,18,31 305 

6  283 

6,  7  104  II. 

6, 7  269 

6—28  50 

7  269, 290 
23—28  283 

24  101 

15.  90, 396 
1—21  295 

4  269,290 

9  298 


INDEX  OF  PASSAGES  ILLUSTRATED. 


537 


Exodus. 

Exodus. 

Exodus. 

Chap,  verse. 

Section. 

Chap,  verse. 

Section. 

Chap,  verse. 

Section. 

15.  17 

334 

21.  2—4 

171VIII. 

23.  11,12 

309 

20 

961.  97 

2—11, 

|  309 

12 

347 

20,  21 

349 

20—26 

15 

103,3  54 

27 

75 

4 

171 VIII. 

15 

354 

16.12 

305, 306 

5,6 

ibid. 

16 

356 

16,18,22, 

|  114 II. 

7  et  seq 

ibid. 

17 

353 

32,33,36, 

7,8 

ibid. 

19 

143VIII. 

22—30 

346  IV. 

8 

171  VII. 

19 

389 

22—30 

348 

9 

152 

20—23 

228 

29 

113VIII. 

9—12 

155 

20—33 

221 

32, 36 

333 

10 

160 « 

32,  33 

215  I. 

33, 34 

333  note 

10,  11 

151  III. 

24.  2—8 

218(4) 

36 

114  III. 

12 

264 

3,  8 

219 

17. 

267 

15, 17 

167 

3 — 8 

218(2) 

8,14 

215  II. 

16 

170  IV. 

3—8 

218  (4) 

14 

85,  88 

18,  19 

256 

3—8 

383 

14 

394 

19 

105 

4 

85,329 

16 

225 

20,21 

171  11. 

8 

325, 384 

18.  3, 4 

164 

23—25 

256 

12 

87  III. 

7 

175 

26,  27 

171  III. 

25.  4 

107 

13—26 

216 

28—31 

253  (2) 

10 — 15 

333 

19.  4,5 

221 

30 

253  (1) 

23 — 28 

331 

4—8 

214 

32 

170  VI. 

29, 30 

ibid. 

4,9 

305 

32 

253  (4) 

31—40 

330 

6 

361 

22.  1 

254  bis 

33 

144 II. 

7 

218  (2) 

2 

170  III. 

36 

119 

7 

218(4) 

2 

254 

26.  7—13 

328 

7,8 
10,  14 

219 

3,  6,8 

ibid. 

15—30 

ibid. 

325 

6 

21,63 

36,  37 

ibid. 

20. 

214 

12 

44 

27.  1—8 

329 

2 

309 

16 

150  III. 

3 

ibid. 

2,3 

228 

20,21 

248, 309 

9—19 

328 

4 

406,407 

21 

215 

20 

71,  330 

4,5 

401  II. 

22—24 

168  V. 

28. 

368 

4 — 6 

189 

25 

251 

4,  37 

126 

5,6 

307 

25,  26 

122 

4,  40 

368  IV. 

6 

392 

25, 26 

250  II. 

4,  40 

370  IV. 

8—11 

346 II. 

25,  26 

309 

4 — 43 

36S 

8 — 11 

347 

27 

ibid. 

6,  7 

122  II. 

8 — 12 

306 

31 

143  II. 

6,7 

370  II. 

1U 

1T1  TV 
1/1  IV. 

Zo.   1 — 7 

oUy 

O  11 

y — ii 

Q£ 
OO 

10 

348 

1—9 

248 

16 

113  III. 

10,11 

309  bis 

4,5 

309 

30 

370  III. 

12 

167 

7 

248 

30 

370  note 

20,21 

361 

8 

177 

31—35 

370  I. 

23 

107 

215 

33,  34 

73 

24 

329 

9, 12 

309 

36—38 

370  IV. 

21-24. 

214 

10,11 

350 

38 

310 

21.  2 

350 

11 

52 

39,41 

368  II. 

538 


INDEX  OF  PASSAGES  ILLUSTRATED. 


Exodus. 


Chap,  verse. 


Section. 


28. 40  126 

.  42  120 

29.  5  368  II. 

5  370 IV. 
5—9  367 

6  126 

6  370 IV. 

9  126 

9  368 IV. 

10—14  367 

13,  22  143  III. 

13,22  378  VII. 

15—18  367 

19—34  ibid. 

22  143  III. 

24  378  V. 
24,  27,  28  ibid. 

27  ibid. 

28  378  V. 

29  367 
25—37  ibid. 
46  306 

30.  1—10  332 
8  330 

10  357 

18  329 

22—33  391 

25  378  VII. 
34_37  332 

35  142  note 

37,  38  148, 176 

31.  12—17  347 

13—  17  ibid. 

14  153,257 

14  258 

14—  17  348 

17  306 

18  87  III. 

32.  2,3  129 
4  405 
4, 5  405  I. 
6, 7  349 

16, 32  86 

19  87  III. 
29  216, 367 
32  85 

33. 18—23  306 
34.   1  et  seq.  87  III. 

6, 7  307 


Exodus. 

Chap,   verse.  Section. 

34.  8  396 
12, 16  215  I. 
13  409 

15  143  VII 

15, 16  152 

18  103 

22  355, 356 

24  300 
26  68 

26  143  VIII. 

26  309 
27, 28  85 

31,  32  218  (2) 

35.  1—3  348 

2  158, 257 

2  258, 347 

3  348 

22  128,  129 

22  130 

25  83 
30—35  82 
35  119 

36.  1  et  seq.  82 

37.  i_9  333 

10—16  331  bis 

17—24  330 

25—29  332 

38.  1—7  329 
3  ibid. 

8  132 
9—20  328 

22,23  82 

25,26  115 

39.  5  370  1. 

9  113  III. 
9  370  III. 

27,28  370 IV. 

27—29  368 

28  126 
31  ibid. 

31  370 IV. 

40.  4,24  331 
5, 26  332 
7  329 

29  ibid. 

Leviticus. 

1.  2  374 

2  377 


Leviticus. 

Chap,    verse.  Section. 

1.  3  379 
3_9  378  I. 
3—17  379 

5  378  III. 

2.  1,5,7,15  71 

2  114  I. 

4  140  III. 

5  140 IV. 
10, 12  385 

11  140,385 

12  138, 389 
12, 14  138 

13  378  VII. 

3.  1  378  1. 
1—17  382 

4, 10,  15  143  III. 

4, 10, 15  378  VII. 

9  143  III. 

9, 10, 17  143  L 

4, 5.  252 

4.  1—16  381 
3,5,16  367 

7  378 IV. 

9  143  III. 
9  378  VII. 

13  218  (2) 

14  378 1. 

15  378  II. 
22—26  380 

24  413  III. 

27—35  380 

5.  1  392 

}  385  IV. 

1—16  381  I. 

1—19  381 

2  183  VI. 

7  377 
12  114  I. 
17  381 

6.  1—5  252 

8  et  seq.  348  III. 

10  368  I. 

14  140 IV. 

15  71, 367 
18, 22  375 

7.  1  ibid. 

3  143  III. 
3,4  378  VII. 


INDEX  OF  PASSAGES  ILLUSTRATED. 


539 


Leviticus. 

Leviticus. 

Leviticus. 

Chap,  verse. 

Section. 

Chap,  verse. 

Section. 

Chap,  verse. 

Section. 

7.  11—14, 

|382 

13.  2,39 

189 

17.  10—14 

143  I. 

28—35, 

3 

183 

15,  16 

180 

13 

385 

38,  39 

189  n.  I. 

18. 

127 

15—21 

382 

45 

183  I. 

1—30 

309 

23—27 

ibid. 

45 

211 

3—5 

ibid. 

26,  27 

143  I. 

46 

334 

7—18 

152 

30,  32,  34  378  V. 

47—59 

135  note 

21 

402  I. 

8.  2 

367 

14.  1 — 7 

387  bis. 

19.  2 

309,  361 

2,3,14-17  ibid. 

2 

180 

2 

ibid. 

3—5 

218  (2) 

4—7 

377 

9 

362 

9 

126 

5, 50 

45  I. 

9, 13 

309 

13 

368  IV. 

8,9 

387 

10 

69 

15, 16 

378  IV. 

10 — 14 

381  V. 

10,12,14^ 

18—21 

367 

10—18 

387 

}>309 

22—36 

ibid. 

12 

378  V. 

on  qo 

26 

143  III. 

13 

375 

\ 

j 

26 

378  VII. 

13,19,22 

^380 II. 

1  o 
14 

27 

378  V. 

30,31 

14 

309 

9.  5 

218  (2) 

19—32 

387 

15 

248 

9, 10, 19  378  VII. 

33—57 

39 

16 

309 

10, 19 

143  III. 

41,42 

ibid. 

16—18 

ibid. 

15 

413  III. 

41,42,45  ibid. 

18 

181,  309 

19 

143  III. 

48—53 

387 

19 

61, 119 

255 

21 

378  V. 

56 

189 

20 

22 

329 

15.  1—8 

180 

20—22 

158 

10.  1—5 

366 

3 

183  II. 

20—22 

381  III. 

6 

211,212 

16—28 

183  III. 

26 

143  I. 

7 

367 

18 

151  IV. 

27 

124 

8—11 

369 

19—25 

183  V. 

28 

134, 211 

14 

378  VIII. 

29 

377 

29 

150  I. 

15 

378  V. 

16.  1—34 

357 

31 

100  III. 

17 

375 

4 

126 

31 

314  II. 

11.  1—38 

143  V. 

4, 23 

370 

31 

403  II. 

4 

49 

6—10 

357 

32 

174 

8—11, 

1 183  VI. 

9, 18, 20  413  III. 

33,  34 

181,  309 

24-31, 

11—19 

357 

34 

215 

9 

78 

20-22, ) 

ibid. 

36 

115 

35 

140  II. 

26-28,  J 

36,37 

111 

44 

309 

21 

378  II. 

20.  1—5 

402  1. 

44, 45 

361 

23—25 

357 

6,7,26,27  314  II. 

45 

309  bis 

32 

367  bis 

7 

309 

45 

361 

34 

357 

7,8 
7.  8,  26 

ibid. 

12.  1—6 

183  IV. 

17.  1—7 

376 

361 

1—8 

161 

3 

413  II. 

9 

167 

6,8 

379,380 1. 

4 

258 

10 

158, 257 

6—8 

377 

7 

377,  413 

10—18 

258  ' 

13. 

189 

7 

413  II. 

11—20 

152 

1-14, 57  105 

8 

382 

14 

259  1. 

540 


INDEX  OF  PASSAGES  ILLUSTRATED. 


Leviticus.  Leviticus.  Leviticus. 


Chap,  verse. 

Section. 

Chap,  verse. 

Section. 

Chap,  verse. 

Section. 

20.  26 

309,  361 

O/l    1  o 
ZQ.  1  Z 

O  4(\ 

Z*V 

27.21,28,29  295 

26 

403  II. 

lb,  ZZ 

1  Ql 

lol 

24 

351 

27 

100  III. 

1  o  oo 
19 — ZZ 

Zoo 

26 

388 

27 

100  IV. 

OC       1  "7 

2o.    1 — 7 

r-n  orn 
/VI,  oDU 

28 

298 

27 

403  II. 

1 — 1  / 

i  no 
102 

30 

55,  390 

21.  1—5, 
10,11 

>  183  VI. 

1  1  / 

1  71  VTTT 
1/1  V  111. 

31 

390 

1  oo 
1 — ZZ 

102  III. 

32,  33 

ibid. 

7,13, 14152 

Q  A 

3,4 

bo 

9 

150  I. 

c 

5,  b 

onn 

ooy 

Numbers. 

9 

259  I. 

6,  7 

CO 

52 

1.  1—54 

267 

10 

211,367 

"7 

7 

onn 
oily 

16 

213 

16,  17 

369 

Q  11 
P  1  1 

on 
ool 

53 

286 

20—22 

189 

Q       1  Q 
O  It) 

lbia. 

2. 

ibid. 

22.  3-8,30-33  309 

OO/ 

1,3,10 

ft 

i  ftn 

in  1Q 

III,  lo — 

\  351  II. 

17,18,25 

>287 

7  1A 
/  1 4 

o04  note 

1  "7  OQ  QA 

1  /  ,.4o— o4 

31 

^n  oa 

 -w-± 

Q.77 
O  /  / 

1  T 
1  / 

onn 
oily 

3.  1—36 

365 

94 

QQT 

O'J  / 

Z\3 — ZZ 

5—13 

362 

Q.nQ 

ouy 

occ 

o  (\  rr 

40—51 

23     1     1 1 

Q.^J 

ut)4 

or 

oo — o/ 

ori 

Zol 

9 

363 

J  Q 

4  O 

OIU,  oD4 

Qft 

QAO 

ouy 

12,  13 

165  I. 

f\ 

u 

OD4 

on     /1 1 

1*71  17TTT 
1/1   V  111. 

12,  13 

388 

7 

Q£Q 

on    a  i 
oy — 4 1 

1  / 1  1A. 

21—38 

286 

in 

OoO  11. 

on  Aft 
ov — 4b 

Q£1  T 
OOl  1. 

20—51 

388 

in    i  ^ 

1U  I  •> 

on  co 

jy — oo 

1  "71  T 
1/11. 

24,30,35  213 

15,  16 

355, 

on  co 

oy — do 

QAO 

ouy 

42 

151 

17 

355, 385 

4/  DO 

1  <y  1  "17TTT 
1  / 1 V  111. 

4.  1,30,35 

J  365 

17—20 

385  III. 

A(\ 

4y 

lDld.  A.. 

46—49 

18—20 

355 

O^  1 
ZO.  1 

CC  T 

co  n.  1. 

3 

369 

20 

378  V. 

1 

ACW 

4U/ 

7 

331 

22 

309 

q  /n; 
o — 4b 

010  001 

^iy, zzi 

9 

330 

22,  43 

309 

A 
4 

Ol  fMO 

ZL,  oz 

5.  2  et  seq 

183  I. 

24 

352  | 

o 

Zi\)  1. 

5—10 

252 

27—29 

357 

Q 

o 

1  nn  t 
1  uu  1 . 

11—31 

159 

34—42 

356 

o/i 

/in  1  /in 
4U,  14U 

18 

125 

38 

353, 356 

Qn 

OU 

Q7^  /in^ 
o/O, 4U/ 

19—22 

392 

40 

73  note 

QQ  i  or 

oo — oo 

Qcn 
00U 

22 

ibid. 

40 

75  bis 

o4 

1  no  TTT 
IDZ  111. 

23 

87 

40 

356 

Q/l  Q£ 
o4,  oo 

■7Q 

/y 

25 

378  V. 

42,  43 

356 

on  oc 

 ZO 

Qn7 

OU  / 

6.  3 

144 

43 

44 

27.  1—8 

170  VI. 

5 

125 

24.  1—4 

330 

1—8 

363 

9—12 

395 

4 

330 

1—24 

394 

10 

377 

5—9 

331 

1,25 

393 

10,11 

380  III. 

5—9 

385  I. 

1—33 

309 

11 

381  IV. 

6,7 

331 

13 

388 

11—16 

379 

7 

331 

16—21 

351  II. 

24,  25 

396 

8 

349 

20—34 

214 

24—26 

309 

INDEX  OF  PASSAGES  ILLUSTRATED.  541 


Numbers. 


Chap,  verse. 

Section. 

*7     Q  £t  T 
/.    O,  D,  / 

iZ  OO 

1  1  f  TT 

144  11. 

oo4 

K  Of? 

<J— /CU 

lit  1U 

I/?  in 

jo — iu 

IT   1 Q 

0O0 

18 

165  I. 

23—26 

365 

9.  14 

181 

15—23 

287  bis 

10.  1—10 

93 

2—4 

218  (3) 

3 

ibid. 

4 

213 

5-8,13-28  287 

Q  10 

290 

10 

ocg  bis 

12 

27  I 

29 

9Q  32 

1 10 

j.  jl  yj 

11. 

24.4  nntp 

4, 13 

141 

5' 

78 

8 

138 

16 

216 

32 

142 

33—35 

219 

12.  1—10 

188 

1—15 

219 

10 

189 

11 

392 

13.  20 

69 

22,  23 

27  III. 

24 

20  IV. 

24,25 

66 

25—33 

41 

28 

275 

33 

27  III. 

14.  5 

219 

18 

307 

15.  3 

382 

3—12 

385  IV. 

14 

181,309 

17—21 

389 

27—31 

252 

32,36 

348 

32—36 

347 

32—41 

122, 219 

Numbers. 


Chap,  verse. 

Section 

ir  0 e  o£i 

15.  00,  00 

loo, 2o7 

»37 — 41 

on  "7 
397 

lb.    1  1/ 

21b 

1 — 50 

219 

4  et  seq. 

ibid. 

6,1  /,18 
37,  38 

\  176 

s 

13 

77 

22 

306 

30—33 

314  II. 

17.  1—11 

219 

7 

226 

10 

333 

10 

ibid,  note 

18.  6 

363 

10,11,18  378  VIII. 

11 

68 

11—13 

389  bis 

12 

71 

12,  13 

389 

14 

295 

14—16 

388 

15, 16 

165  I. 

17 

378  IV. 

17,  18 

388 

19 

142  note 

20—24 

390 

21,22 

214 

25—32 

390 

19.  6,8,10,21  386 

6 

180 

11—16 

183  VI. 

11—21 

386 

15 

143  VI. 

17 

45  I. 

20.  3,29 

203 

5 

73 

14—22 

297 

17—19 

45 

24,  26 

203 

24—26 

3141.11. 

26 

203 

26—28 

367 

28 

205 

29 

211 

31.  2 

394 

4,10-31  297 

8,9 

288  III. 

Numbers. 


Chap,  verse. 

Section. 

21.  14 

88 

21  et  seq.  13 

21—35 

215 

22 

45  II. 

24  et  sec 

.  90 

29 

408  I. 

22.  1—35 

297 

4 

60 

7,16,37  177 

21 

48 

21  30 

ibid. 

24 

67 

24  7 

230 (3) 

11  13 

177 

17 

226 

25.  1 

15  III. 

1—9 

408  I. 

4,5 

259  II. 

7 

276  II. 

8 

31 

16,  17 

215 

26.  2 

267 

3 

15  III. 

5—50 

213 

27.  1—8 

168  III. 

1—8 

219 

1—11 

152,  219 

5 

219 

8—11 

168  III. 

16 

306 

18 

106  V. 

18,23 

378  II. 

28.  3  et  seq.  348  III. 

7—29 

385  IV. 

9,  10 

349 

11—14 

352  bis 

16—25 

354  bis 

17 

ibid. 

26 

355  tris 

27—31 

ibid. 

29.  1—6 

352 

2—9 

ibid. 

7—11 

357  bis 

12,  35 

356 

12—38 

ibid. 

39 

353 

39 

356 

30.  2—14 

309 

642 


INDEX  OF  PASSAGES  ILLUSTRATED. 


Numbers. 

Deuteronomy. 

Deuteronomy. 

t/hap.  verse. 

Section. 

Chap,  verse. 

Section. 

Chap,  verse. 

Section. 

30.  2,  17 

393 

2.  32,  34 

394  bis 

6.  13 

392 

3,11,14  ibid. 

34 

298 

20—25 

166 

<i  i 

01. 

Zbl 

3.  1—8 

394  bis. 

7.  1—11 

215  I. 

1      't  i 

1  /54 

5515 

1—18 

215  III. 

3 

152 

O  04 

*97 

3—16 

27  II. 

5 

401 1.  II. 

A  1  A 
4,14 — 

\  170VI. 

5 

37 

5 

ibid.  IV. 

1  Q  Q£ 

7 

298 

5 

409 

one 

9 

14  I. 

6 

361 

550 

11 

113  IV. 

6-8 

215 

A  A    1  fT 

14,  lo 

on/? 

11 

205 

6—9 

307 

J  y — 24 

on  e 

12—27 

24 

6—11 

309 

4o 

14 

107 

9,  10 

307 

4  a — 54 

298 

17 

19 

13 

71 

cn 

129, loU 

26 

180 

19 

166 

QO    1  «  CiA  QA 
0/5.  IO,Ai4,00 

4b 

27 

14  V. 

8.   1-6,  | 

309 

QQ  O 

oo.  ^ 

oo 

4.  1—40 

309 

10—18  j 

o« 

ibid.  n.  I. 

12—20 

405 

1  —  19 

ibid. 

Alii  TT 

4UI  11. 

12-20,39  306 

2—20 

307 

40/ 

16—18 

401  II. 

5 

ibid. 

O  /1       1  o 

o4.  l,y 

lo 

19 

190,  407 

7 

21 

6 

ibid. 

20 

22  note 

8 

73 

35.  9—29 

264 

23 

306 

9 

22  note 

9—35 

ibid. 

28 

401  II. 

12 

32 

25 

367 

28—31 

307 

9.  1,2 

27  III. 

30 

248  III. 

32—36 

306 

4,5 

309 

36.  1—9 

219 

32—40 

309 

4—8 

307 

1—10 

219 

35,39 

305 

4—24 

215 

1—12 

152 

39 

306 

10.  1—11 

307 

4 

351 

41—43 

264 

8 

238 

5,6 

219 

46—49 

215 

12 

214,309 

5.  1—6,25309 

14—18 

306 

Deuteronomy. 

4—9 

320 

16 

310 

1.  4 

215,  409 

8 

401  II. 

17 

177, 309 

15 

269 

8,9 

ibid. 

18 

168  V. 

28 

27  III. 

9 

189 

18 

181 

44 

77 

12—14 

348 

18,  19 

215,309 

2.  4—12, 

|297 

14 

171  IV. 

21 

306 

16—37 

14,  15 

309, 347 

28—30 

298 

6—28 

45 

24—28 

309 

11.  1 

309  bis 

9—19 

215  III. 

6.  4 

306,  397 

1, 13 
1,13,14 

214 

9-19,37  ibid. 

4,5 

307,  309 

309 

10 

27  III. 

4—9 

214 

10 

57 

10—23 

27  II. 

4—9 

397 

10 

104  II. 

11,  12 

ibid. 

5—9 

35 

12,15,22  307 

12, 22 

27  I. 

8 

320 

13—20 

35 

12,22 

297  note 

9 

35 

13—21 

320,  397 

24—37 

215 

12,  13, 

}309 

14 

62,71 

29 

ibid.  III. 

20—25 

14,  17 

21 

\ 


INDEX  OF  PASSAGES  ILLUSTRATED. 


543 


Deuteronomy. 

Chap,  verse.  Section. 

!  Deuteronomy. 

Deuteronomy. 

Chap,  verse. 

Section. 

Chap,  verse. 

Section. 

11  10 

11.  lo 

«32U 

15.  9 

350 

18.  10 

100  III. 

19 

loo 

12 

ibid. 

10 

100  IV. 

20 

35 

12—15 

309 

10 

411 

24 

13  bis 

12—17 

171  VIII. 

11 

314  II. 

12/2 

401  I. 

16 

ibid. 

11 

403  II. 

2 

401  IV. 

18 

171 

19.  1—13 

264  bis 

3 

ibid.  II. 

19—23 

388  bis 

2—5 

214 

3 

ibid.  IV. 

20 

141 

3 

107 

4—18 

148 

23 

143  I. 

12 

216 

5—7 

309 

16.  1 

103 

16—21 

256 

6,7 

388 

1—8 

310 

20.  1 

283 

11,17-19  390 

1—8 

354 

1—18 

215  I. 

12—18 

148 

11—17 

353 

2  et  seq 

290 

13, 14 

376 

2,5,6 

354 

5 

216 

15,  16 

ibid. 

2—6 

ibid. 

5—8 

268 

15,  22 

377 

3 

140 

5—9 

85,268 

16,23,  25  143  I. 

8 

354 

9 

269 

17 

7  L 

9 

62 

10 

292 

17,  lo 

1^1  AT 

171  V. 

9 

347  note 

14 

170  I. 

1  1  in 

17 — iy 

OD,  xJ14 

9, 10 

102 

19,20 

293, 295 

Jo 

oan  oro 

ouy,  000 

9, 10 

ibid.  I. 

21.  1—9 

265 

1  ft 
IO 

*}ft9 

9—12 

62 

6 

320 

31 

411 

10 

355 

10,  11 

170  I. 

13.  2,  3 

403  III 

10, 11 

148 

10—14 

155  bis 

2,3 

405 

10—12 

309 

15—17 

165 

2—19 

214 

11 

171  V. 

17 

ibid.  I. 

4,5 

309 

11—14 

148,  309 

18—21 

167 

10 

257 

12—15 

214 

19 

247 

14,  15 

394 

12—15 

356 

22,23 

259  II. 

17 

295 

14, 15 
18 

ibid. 

22, 23 

261 

14.  1,2 

211  bis 

216 

22.  1—3 

309 

1,2,21 

309 

19 

177 

5 

127,  309 

2,21 

361 

21 

401  IV. 

6,7 

52 

21 

143 II. 

17.  1—15 

248  III. 

6,7, 10 

309 

21 

ibid.  VIII. 

3 

406,  407 

8 

34 

21 

309 

7 

257, 263 

9 

61,67 

22, 23 

390  bis 

8,9 

243 

10 

48,  60 

22,29 

214 

12 

238 

11 

119 

22—29 

55, 148 

13 

246 

16 

152 

22—29 

309 

14—20 

232 

18 

255 

23 

388 

17 

151  II. 

19 

253  (4) 

26 

353 

17 

237 

20,21 

150 IV. 

28, 29 

390 

18 

223  III. 

23—29 

ibid.  III. 

15.  1,2 

350 

18, 19 

86 

29 

153 

1—10 

79 

18. 

219 

23.  1 

237 

1—11 

250  III. 

3 

389 

3—8 

215  III. 

7—11 

251 

4 

71,389 

4—7 

ibid. 

7—15 

309 

9—14 

4021. 

5 

215  III. 

544 


INDEX  OF  PASSAGES  ILLUSTRATED. 


Deuteronomy. 

Deuteronomy. 

Deuteronomy. 

Chap,  verse. 

section. 

Chap,  verse. 

Section. 

Chap,  verse. 

Section. 

23.  7,8 

309 

26.  1—10, 

32 

2 

21 

8 

181 

13—15 

6 

307,309 

10—15 

287 

1—11 

308,  389 

13 

77  bis 

13 

59 

3—10, 

/  OiJU 

14 

66 

13—15 

334 

13—15 

17 

415  I. 

14, 15 

160 

10,11 

148 

22 

314  II. 

15, 16 

171ad  fin. 

11 

353 

23,  42 

278 

15, 16 

309 

11  —  15 

309 

24 

ibid. 

18 

51 

12—15 

390 

30 

100  I. 

18, 19 

150  I. 

19 

361 

32 

19 

18, 19 

309 

27-30. 

214,219 

39 

306 

19 

150  II. 

27. 

14  IV. 

42 

91  III. 

20, 21 

242,  251 

1—9 

87  III. 

42 

144 

22, 23 

309 

2,4 

32 

48—50 

14  V. 

23 

393 

8 

85 

50 

203 

23, 24 

ibid. 

15—26 

392 

33.  10 

371 

25 

62,  67 

18 

309 

13 

21 

25 

138 

19 

181,  215 

17 

47,  60 

24.  1—3 

86 

19 

309  bis 

34.  1,2 

14  V. 

1—4 

160 

25 

177 

3 

75 

6 

40,  138 

28-30. 

221 

7 

314  I. 

6 

139 

28.  5,  17 

140 

8 

211 

6,  12 

250  II. 

9 

361 

7 

170  IV. 

12—24 

62 

Joshua. 

8,9 

105,  189 

22 

62  bis 

1. 

4 

13 

10,  11 

250  I. 

22—49 

23  V. 

11,12 

233 

13 

122,  251 

27 

185 

14 

269,290 

14, 15 

248 

27,  35 

189 

2. 

1 

15  III. 

16 

ibid. 

49,  63-65  221 

1—6 

149 

17 

168  V. 

29.  1 

309 

6 

34 

17 

181,215 

9, 10 

218  (3) 

3. 

1 

15  III. 

17 

309 

9—14 

ibid.  (4) 

2  et  seq 

233 

19 

62,  63 

9—14 

219 

15 

13 

20 

71 

11 

283 

4. 

12 

290 

25.  1 

248  I. 

17 

401  II. 

18 

18 

2,3 

255  bis 

17—27 

221 

5. 

9 

163  bis 

4 

64  bis 

18,  19 

61 

15 

368 

4 

171  VI. 

22 

22 

6. 

4,5 

288  note 

4 

309  bis 

23 

19 

6 

291 

5—10 

157 

30.  1—10 

307 

17—19 

394 

6,7 

247 

6 

310 

24—26 

298 

7—9 

180 

20 

309 

7. 

1,26 

394 

8,9 

216 

31. 

90 

6 

212 

9 

123  bis 

10—13 

79, 350 

7,11,12  267 

13—16 

111,309 

16 

314  1. 

8 

392 

13—18 

115 

26 

333 

13—21 

370  III. 

17 

215  II. 

28 

216  bis 

14—18 

ibid,  note 

26.  1—10 

309 

32. 

308 

14—24 

248  IV. 

INDEX  OF  PASSAGES  ILLUSTRATED. 


545 


Joshua. 

Chap,    verse.  Section. 

7.15,25  259  1. 

16—22  219 

21,24  122  III. 
22  et  seq.  248  V. 

25  254, 257 
25,26  259  III. 

26  209 


8.  2 

394 

12 

291 

18,26 

277  II. 

26—28 

298 

27,29 
30—35 

209 

14  IV. 

32 

88 

32  et  seq. 

87  III. 

33      216,  218  (4) 

9.  1—27 

169 

3—26 

297 

14, 15 

392 

15-21 

218  (4) 

18, 19 

219 

19 

149 

23—29 

363 

10.  5 

292 

12—15 

291 

16 

14  IV. 

16 

27  note 

21 

51 

24 

269, 295 

27 

207 

11.  4—9 

50 

11 

298 

16 

24 

16, 17 

13 

17 

14  I.  407 

19        215. 1.  297 

20 

190 

21,22 

27  III. 

12.  1—6 

24 

1—7 

13 

5 

107 

7 

407 

23 

25 

13.  2 

107 

2—6 

13 

5 

407 

8—33 

24 

13 

107 

15—33 

13 

Joshua. 

Joshua. 

Chap,  verse. 

Section. 

Chap,  verse. 

Section. 

14. 

295 

24.   1  et  seq. 

218  (4) 

15 

27  III. 

2  et  seq. 

219 

15.  1—15 

24 

3 

303 

2—12 

ibid. 

25 

383 

8 

335 

32 

115, 204 

9 

57 

9, 10,60 

16 

Judges. 

15—19 

153 

Judg. 

221 

16 

ibid. 

L  1—11 

216, 289 
219 

18 

48 

1,2 

18, 19 

153 

1—3,22  217 

25 

200 

6,7 

295 

35 

14 IV. 

14 

48 

61,62 

17 

15 

57, 153 
75, 325 

16.  1—4,8 

24 

16 

4 

ibid. 

16, 17 

153 

10 

234 

19 

50,  283 

17.  5,14 

55  bis 

21 

335 

7—10 

24 

21,27-33  217 

8,9 

20  III. 

Oil 

9, 10 

24 

13 

407,  409 

15 

16 

3.  7 

408, 409 

16—18 

283 

10 

191 

18.  1,8,9 

334 

12—30 

215  III. 

9 

104  III 

13 

75 

12 

17 

16 

113  V. 

16—28 

335 

16 

276  I.bis 

19.  1-9,40-47  24 

18 

178 

9 

55 

20 

36 

10—15 

24 

20, 24 

ibid. 

17—23 

ibid. 

24 

ISO 

24-31 

13, 24 

25 

37 

28,  29 

13 

27 

288  note 

32-39 

24 

27 

289 

34 

17 

31 

59,  83 

20.  1—9 

264 

4.   1  et  seq. 

15  II. 

7 

25 

5 

29,75 

21.11—13,21 

L  |  264 

10 

217 

27,  32,  38 

11 

325 

13—20 

'218  (4) 

15 

50 

34 

14  III. 

17—22 

149,291 

22.  9—34 

217, 376 

18 

40 

23.1,2 

216 

19 

49 

1,2 

218  (3) 

25 

14  II. 

1  et  seq. 

219 

5. 

396 

2 

216 

1—31 

295 

2  et  seq. 

218  (4) 

6 

110 

24.  1 

216  bis 

8 

83 

1 

218  (3) 

10 

48  bis 

69 


546 


INDEX  OF  PASSAGES  ILLUSTRATED. 


Judges. 

Chap,    verse.  Section. 

5.11  45  1. 

17  107 
20, 21  291 
22, 28  50 

25  47, 49 

28  38 

30  119,298 

6.  3—5  215  II. 
5  23 IV. 
5  49 

11  76 

13, 15  392 

15  213 

19  114  IV. 

19  140, 141 

19, 20  141 

23—  28  409 
25—33  405  II. 

32  164 

33  15  II. 

34  191 

34  288  note 

34  289 

37  63 

7.  1  164 

8  15 II. 

11  269,290 

12  23  IV. 
13,15  403  III. 
16—19  290 

16, 20  269 

18  288  note 

19  286, 101 

20  291 

22  289 

23.24  217 

8.  1—3  ibid. 
4—21  296 

7  64,295 

9, 17  275  II. 

14  86,216 

21  257 
21,26 

21—26  409 

23  173 

24  129 

24.25  298 

24—  27  405  II. 
33  408  II. 


49, 130 


Judges. 

Chap,   verse.  Section. 

8. 33  408 

9.3—46  216 

4  327,40811. 
4,  46  401  HI. 

15—21  218  (4) 

23  191 

25  53 
27  69 
45  19 
46,  49,51  275  II. 
50  292 
53  138 

10.  4  48 

6  407, 409 
6, 10  408 

11.  i_7  168  II. 
1—11  217 

5  216  bis 
6, 11  269 

12—  28  289, 297 

13— 23  215 

24  297 
29  191 
30—39  394 

34  97 
34—37  295 

35  211 
35, 36  393 

12. 14  48 
13.2-5,12-23395 

7  125 

14.  1,2  152 
1_4  ibid. 

6  191 

8  154 
11—16  ibid. 

12, 13, 19  122  HI. 

17  154 

18  91  III. 

15.  4  40,51 
5  63 

8  27  note 

14  51 

16.  3  37 

4  20  IV. 

17  125 

21  139 

23—26  414 

26  36 


Judges. 

Chap,    verse.  Section. 

16.26,27  34 

31  206  bis 

17.  3—5  83 
3—13  405  III. 
4  83 

4  401  II. 

5  413 

18.  24 
3-6,15-31405111. 
5,6, 14-20413 

19.  2—10  149 

3  48 
10  ibid. 
20  175 
29,30  289 

20.  218  (3) 
267 

1  334 
1  et  seq.  217 
1,11-14  218  (4) 
1,27, 28  218  (3) 
1—30  296 

6  279 
10  269,298 

11—  46  217 

12—  24  216 

16  284 
18, 27,28  219 
26  358 
27, 28  289 
39  291 

45  27  note 

45—47  14  IV. 
47, 48  295 

Ruth. 
Ruth  168  V. 

1.17  392 
20,21  164 

22  62 
2.  2,23  62 

4  175 
4, 8,21,23  62 

5  171 
7,15,16  62 

14  144,  147 

14,  18  138 

17  64 

23  62 


INDEX  OF  PASSAGES  ILLUSTRATED. 


547 


Ruth. 

Chaj).    verse.  Section. 


Q  O 

O.  /4 

DO 

3 

125, 180 

13 

392 

15 

127  IV. 

4.  1  et  seq. 

247 

4 

55 

7 

123 

7,8 

ibid.  157 

11 

180 

11,12 

154 

18—22 

99 

1  Samuel. 

1—8. 

221 

1.  3—24 

334 

4,5 

147 

6,7 

156 

9 

225 

11 

125 

12—15 

396 

22-24 

166 

24—28 

ibid. 

26 

392 

2.  12 

147 

14 

334 

19 

83 

35 

147 

3.  3—21 

334 

4.  3,4,13-18  ibid. 

12 

212 

18 

225 

5.  1—5 

414 

4,5 

ibid. 

6 

185 

6, 12 

ibid. 

6.  5, 11, 18  ibid.  bis. 

7 

60 

7,8,10, 

j  59 

11, 14, 

18 

185 

20 

334 

7.  2 

ibid. 

3,4 

409 

4 

407, 408 

5 

334 

6 

358 

6,7 

ibid,  note 

10 

291 

8. 

234 

1  Samuel. 


Chap,  verse. 

Section. 

8.  4 

216 

5 

231 

7 

221 

11 

50 

12 

269  bis 

13 

140 

15 

234  IV. 

20 

220 

9.  7 

178 

11, 12 

166 

13 

145 

22 

ibid. 

22—24 

147 

25 

34 

10.  1 

223 

3 

14  III.  76 

5—10 

1 79  note 

5—11 

344 

17 

218  (3) 

17 

334 

17—23 

221 

19 

213 

24 

218  (4) 

24 

219,223 

25 

223  III. 

25 

232, 234 

27 

177 

27 

234  I. 

11.  1 

292 

3,10,11  ibid. 

6 

191 

7 

56,  233 

7 

267 

7,8 

289 

11 

101 

11 

ibid.  III. 

11 

269 

14 

218  (4) 

14, 15 

ibid.  (3) 

14,  15 

ibid.  (4) 

14,15 

219 

15 

383 

12.  3,4 

173 

3—5 

230 

10 

407, 408 

10 

409 

12 

231 

14,15,20 

^221 

—22,24,25 

1  Samuel. 


Chap,  verse. 

Section. 

12. 17 

21 

13.  3 

288  note 

5 

50 

5—14 

221 

6 

27  note 

8—13 

290 

8—14 

376 

19 

83 

20,21 

59 

21 

ibid. 

22 

277  I. 

14. 

248  IV. 

6 

269 

14 

61 

16 

286 

24  et  seq 

394 

25—27 

77  bis 

37 

219 

37 — 40 

248  III. 

37—45 

370  note 

40 — 43 

ibid.  III. 

41 

ibid,  note 

41,42 

ibid.  III. 

45 

289,  392 

47 

215  III. 

49 

164 

15.   1  et  seq 

C%  1  r*  TT 

215  II. 

1 — 31 

221 

6 

325 

20 

230  \o) 

22 

384 

23 

4lo 

16.  1 — 3 

221 

1 — 5 

376 

1—13 

223 

4 

175,216 

14 

191 

14, 15 

ibid. 

16 

105  bis 

20 

tit  1 

141, 178 

20 

no  a  T 
2o4  1. 

17,  4 

27  III. 

4 

113  III. 

4 

113  IV. 

5,  38 

273 

6 

274 

6 

277  II. 

7 

269 

17—20 

298 

1 


548 


INDEX  OF  PASSAGES  ILLUSTRATED. 


1  Samuel. 

Chap,   verse.  Section. 


li.  18 

47 

25 

234  IV. 

25 

295 

38 

270 

on 
«39 

276  I. 

40 — 43 

42 

43 

51 

44 

295 

44 — 46 

205 

49 

279 

50 

284 

52 

291 

18.  1 

173 

4 

122  II. 

4 

178 

6 

96  III. 

/>  * 

O,  / 

97, 295 

10 

191, 226 

10 

227  I. 

1  1 

11 

ibid. 

1  o 
Id 

259  bis 

17 

295 

23—26 

153 

24—27 

ibid. 

19.  9 

191 

10 

277  I. 

13 

413  IV. 

13 

413 

13—17 

ibid. 

16  et  seq 

86 

18—24 

344 

20.  3,21  392 
4-8,41,42  173 
5,  24—27  352 
20,35-40  284 


27 

352  note 

33 

277  I. 

21.  1,2 

14  IV. 

3—6 

385  I. 

7 

171 

7,8 

234  II. 

8 

277  I. 

12 

230  (5) 

22.  1  et  seq. 

27  note 

5 

16 

6 

180, 226 

6 

277  I. 

6,7 

238 

18 

248  V. 

1  Samuel. 


Chap,  verse. 

Section. 

25.  18 

257 

23.  2 

289 

9 — 12 

219 

14 — 16 

16 

16 — 18 

173 

19 

17 

23 

213 

24.  4 

180 

4—15 

230 

6,10 

223  I. 

7—11 

230 

7—12 

173 

14 

51 

25. 

43 

1 

205,  211 

2,4,18,36  46 

3,4 

ibid. 

5 

14  II. 

6 

175 

13 

121 

18 

69,72 

18 

114  IV. 

19—30 

153 

20,  23 

48 

1      22, 34 

120 

26 

392 

27 

178 

26.   5  et  seq. 

286 

6—20 

230 

9— J  2 

173 

9,11,16,23223  1. 

9-11,16,23230 

11,12,16 

110 

14—17 

286 

21 

231 

27.  3 

14  II. 

8,9 

215  II. 

8—10 

107 

28.  1—10 

289 

3 

206 

3—10 

314  II. 

3—10 

403  II. 

6 

289 

6 

370  III. 

7 

314  II. 

8—24 

27  note 

24 

141 

29.  1—11 

15  II. 

o 

269 

1  Samuel. 


Chap,  verse. 

Section. 

30. 

215  II. 

8 

219, 289 

8, 15,23  269 

10 

409 

12 

72 

17 

49  bis 

20—25 

298 

31.  2 

164 

8 

295 

8—13 

205 

10 

295,  414 

12 

210 

13 

206,211 

13 

358 

2  Samuel. 

1.  2 

211 

2—4 

ibid. 

6 

50 

10 

223  II. 

10 

224 

11,12 

211  bis 

15 

257, 263 

17 

211 

17, 18 

295 

18 

88  note 

21 

264,271 

21,22 

271 

22 

284 

2.  1 

219 

4 

218  (4) 

4 

223  bis 

19 

284 

19—24 

291 

28 

288  note 

32 

206,  295 

3.  3 

14  II. 

3 

107 

8 

51 

9,35 

392 

10 

225 

17 

217 

17—19 

218(4) 

22 

269 

31 

211 

31,32 

205 

33 

211  bis 

35 

211, 35S 

4.  2 

269 

INDEX  Of  PASSAGES  ILLUSTRATED. 


549 


2  Samuel. 


4.  5 
8 

12 
12 
12 

5.  1—3 
1—3 
3 

3 
3 
21 

6.  1—20 
5 

5 
13 
14 
14 

16—23 
19 

7.  2 
8 

12 
14 

8.  2 

2  et  seq. 
4 

5,6 

6 

7 

11,12 

13 

16 

17 

18 

9.  8 
10 

10.  1—5 
1—12 
4—10 


11. 


12 


6,7 


18 
1 

2 

2, 
11 

14  et  seq. 

3 

5 
16 


Section. 

180 

257 

205 

260  V. 

263 

218(4) 

221,223 

223 

ibid.  III. 
232, 234 
295 
334 

94  II. 
961.  III. 
141 
122  II. 
349 

97 
140 
235 II. 

46 
203 
230 
296  bis 
215  III 

50  bis 

16 
295  bis 
271 
298 
295 

235  III. 

268 

231,362 
51 

171  X. 

296 
289 
124 
298 

50 
289,  296 
180 

34 
392 

89 

46, 149 
254 
211 


2  Samuel. 

Cliap.   verse.  Section. 

12.  26  et  seq.  215  III. 


2  Samuel. 


30 
31 
31 
13.  6,8 
7 
18 
19 

20—29 

23 

23 

29 

29 

34 

37 


14. 


15. 


2 

2,3 
19 
26 

1 

1 

1 


224, 298 

39, 64 
295,  296 
140 
166 
119 

211  bis 
152 
46 

234  II. 

48  n.  I. 
228 
275  II. 
107 
232 

125,  211 
238 
392 
125  bis 
50,  59 
179 
236  V. 


Cl.a 

18. 


19. 


20. 


1  et  seq.  231 


21. 


17 
17 

26,  27 

4 

7 
21 
24 
26 
32 
35 

37, 38 
1—22 

8 

8—10 

9 
15 
15 
19 

21,22 
23 
24 
25 


14 


2 
2 

2,3 

8 
30 
30 

16.  1 
6,7 
9 

10 
16 
22 

17.  13 
18 
23 
23 

27  et  seq. 
28 
29 
2 
4 

6,8, 17 
9,  10 
11 
16 


18 


203, 229 
231 
238 
107 

123,211 
212 

48,  69 
180 

51 
190 
179 

34 
294 

35 

48  bis. 
228 

43 
138 

47 
269 
228 

16 

48  n.  I. 
121,295 
288  note 


22. 


23 


24. 


1 

6 

9, 10 
14 

5 
6 
30 

31,36 
35 

1 

1 

8 

8—39 
18 

1 

12,  15 
15,  16 
16 

16, 24 


Section. 

209 

259  III. 

275  II. 
211  bis 

228 
230 
124 

48  - 

43 
227 
206 

288  note 

276  I. 
121 

175  bis 
275  IV. 
293, 294 

41 
257 
236  V. 
235  III. 
268 

23  V. 
232 
259  II. 
205 
295 

91  II. 
203 
269 
271 
284 
223  I. 
230 
164 
295 

277  1. 
267 
190 
ibid, 
ibid. 

190  note 
63 


1  Kings. 
1,11,19,) 
24,34,  \  223  IV. 
39, 40  ) 
2—4  105 


550 


INDEX  OF  PASSAGES  ILLUSTRATED. 


1  Kings. 


Chap,  verse. 

— a 

Section. 

1.  5 

179, 228 

9  et  se( 

\.  383 

32 — 34 

223  I. 

33 

48  n.  L 

oo,  oo 

OOO 

33 — 38 

228 

35, 48 

223  V. 

38 

236  V. 

40 

179 

2. 1—9 

232 

10, 11 

314  11. 

13 — 15 

\  237 

et  seq. 

s 

19 

1  /5 

23 

C%  AO  "f  T 

248  V. 

23 

392 

25,  34 

2oo  V. 

25, 29, 
31,  34 

[  257 
S 

26,  27 

366 

28 — 34 

264 

40 

A  O 

4» 

8.  5—15 

334 

9 

220 

17,  26 

392 

4. 

224 

3 

86 

3 

235  III. 

4 

269,  366 

5 

236  IV. 

5,7— 19  ibid.  I. 

6 

ibid.  I.  II. 

6—19 

234  IV. 

21 

ibid.  V. 

22, 23 

227 

30 

98 

33 

106 

5.  9—14 

98 

11 

71 

6,  7 

338  n.  I. 

6.  1 

103  II. 

1—38 

337 

2—4 

338 

3 

ibid. 

5,  6,8 

ibid. 

18 

39 

23—28 

338 

31,32 

ibid. 

1  Kings. 

Chap,  verse.  Section. 


6. 32 

75 

33—35 

338 

36 

39,  337 

38 

103  VIII. 

7.  2 

16 

2—6 

36 

3,7,11 

39 

7 

36 

8 

35 

9,11,12  39 

9—12 

ibid. 

10 

73 

12 

337 

13—51 

ibid. 

15—20 

338 

17 

38 

21 

113  II. 

26 

144  I. 

26 

337 

27—39 

ibid. 

40—47 

ibid. 

48—50 

338 

8.  1—9 

334 

2 

103  VII. 

2 

396 

8 

333, 338 

9 

333  note 

10—12 

339 

14—21, 
23—53 

[39(5 

37 

62 

38,42,  j 
44,48  j 

396 

51 

22  note 

54 

396 

9. 16 

153 

26 

111 

10.  2 

49 

8 

238 

11,12 

39 

12 

94  II. 

15 

234  VI. 

16,  17 

271  tris 

17 

115 

18—20 

225 

21 

144  II. 

21 

227 

26 

283 

1  Kings. 

Chap,  verse.  Section. 


10.  28 

50  bis 

11.  1—3 

237 

2—5 

153 

3 

237 

5,  33 

409 

21 

203 

29—40 

223 

43 

206,314  I. 

12. 

217 

218  (4) 

1 

ibid.  (3) 

1—18 

232 

1—24 

217,  235 

6—8 

238 

6—12 

235  I. 

11 

255 

13 

234  IV. 

20 

223 

27,  28 

229 

13  4—6 

199  IV. 

13 

48 

29,30 

211 

30 

205 

14.  10 

258 

11 

51 

11—14 

205 

13 

ibid. 

24 

150  IV. 

25—28 

271 

26 

ibid. 

27 

236  V. 

31 

206 

15.  8 

ibid. 

12 

150  IV. 

13 

409 

18 

230  (4) 

19 

177 

23 

105 

16.  4 

51 

31 

408  IV. 

33 

409 

17.  12 

140 

19 

36 

18.  3 

236 II. 

19 

409 

19—29 

408  IV. 

21—40 

376 

22 

235  II. 

INDEX 


OF  PASSAGES  ILLUSTRATED. 


551 


408 IV. 


1  Kings. 

Chap,  verse.  Section. 

18.  26—29  402 II. 
27, 28  400 
42  396 
42—45  21 
46  121 
46  179 

19.  1,2  153 

6  140 1. 

13, 19  122  III. 

18  396 

18  408 IV. 

19  56 

20.  11  276  I. 

15  236 1. 
23, 28  400 
30—43  296 
31  173 
31  260  II. 

21.  2  70 

5-  15,  ) 

23—25  f 

7, 8  153 

7—16  248 

9—16  234  III. 

21  258 

23  51 
27  212 

22.  2  229 

6  235 II. 

6—  13  289 

7, 8  235  II. 

9  237 

11  47 

16  392 

19  225, 406 

24  180 
27  249  (5) 
30—34  290 
32, 35  283 

38  51 

39  39 
48, 49  111 

2  Kings. 

1.  2  35 

2  408  III. 

8  121 

8  122  III. 


203, 283 
125 


2  Kings. 

Chap,    verse.  Section. 

1.  9—14  269 

2.  2  392 

3,5  86 

4  217 

8  122  III. 
12 
23 

24  16 

25  14 II. 
3. 18—25  295 

27  294, 296 

4.  1  170  II. 
1  254 

10  36 

13  127, 238 

21  204 
22, 24  48 

23  344, 349 

23  352 

24  48 

29  121, 175 

38  86 

39  66, 122 
42  42 

5.  1  289 

1  et  seq.  188 

2  269 

5  135,  177 
7,8  211 

9  59 
9—12  176 

10  180 
12  14 1. 

17—19  325 

18  415  IV. 

69  113  X. 

23  133 

6.  1  86 
21—23  296 

25  114  VI. 
25,28  23  V. 
28—31  293 

30  211 

31  392 

7.  2,17,19  269,  290 
16,18  114  IV. 
18  41 

8.  6  237 


9. 


2Ki 

Chap,  verse. 

8.  9 
9 
9 

11—  14 
12 

13 
15 
18 
29 
1 
3 
8 
13 
13 
15 

17—  19 
17,21 

25 
26 
27 
28 
30 
30 

32,  33 
36 
37 
6—8 
13 
15 

18—  27 
22 

22 
25 
25 
29 

11.  2 
5 

10 
12 
12 

12,  19 

12—  20 
12—20 
18 

19 

12.  11 

13.  2,11 
6 


10. 


ngs. 

Section. 

49, 177 
178 

230  (4) 
223 
295  bis 

51 

40 
408  IV. 
105 
121 
223 
258 

179, 223 
223  V. 
105 

275  II. 
228 
269 
248 

70 
206 

38,  125 
134 
237 

51 

57 
257 
175 
228 

408  IV. 
178 

236  III. 

ibid.  V. 

290 

405 

166 

365 

271,295 
223  III. 
224 

223  IV. 
223 
ibid.  I. 
408  IV. 
223  V. 

86 
405 
409 


552 


INDEX  OF  PASSAGES  ILLUSTRATED. 


2  Kings.  j 

2  Kings. 

Chap,  verse. 

Section. 

Chap,  verse. 

Section. 

13.  14 

283 

20.  18 

237 

17 

38 

20 

41 

21 

207 

21.  3 

406 

14.  7 

15  III. 

6 

403  II. 

8 

289 

6 

411 

13 

294 

7 

409 

20 

206 

18 

70,  206 

24 

405 

18,  26 

206 

15.  5 

188 

22.  10 

228 

16 

296 

14—20 

235  II. 

25 

35  bis 

23.  4,5 

406 

25 

269 

5 

100  III. 

16.  3 

41 1 

5 

407,  411 

8 

177 

6 

206 

17.  4 

215, 295 

6,7 

150  II. 

14 

190 

7 

409  bis 

16 

406 

10 

15  III. 

24 

326 

10 

411 

24—34 

400 

11 

237,  407 

26—34 

326 

12 

36,  337 

30,  31 

415  IV. 

13,  14 

409 

31 

412 

16 

206 

18,  19. 

215 

16,  17 

209 

18.  4 

409 

24 

314  II. 

14 

177 

24 

403  II. 

18 

236  II. 

24 

413 

18,  37 
23 

235  III. 

29 

15  11. 

190 

30 

205 

31 

292 

34 

223, 295 

19.  1 

212 

34,  35 

164 

2  et  seq.  289 

24.    1, 14 

295 

2—20 

235  II. 

12 

292 

3 

187 

14 

83 

6—8 

190 

17 

164,  223 

8—13 

295 

25.  1 

292,  293 

14 

88 

3 

23  V. 

15 

225 

4 

70 

20  et  seq.  289 

7 

255  note 

21 

41 

7 

295 

23 
26 

16 

62 

8,  10, 
11—20 

j  236  V. 

28 

60 

17 

338 

32 

294 

27 

352  note 

35 

190 

29 

249  (5) 

37 

415  IV. 

20.  1 

168  I. 

1  Chronicles. 

7 

72,  190 

4.  14 

83 

9,  10 

101 

21 

118 

1  Chronicles. 


Chap,  verse. 

Sect  ion. 

5.  1 

165  I. 

9,  16 

13 

10,18,19  217 

lo 

A  i  1  D1S 

1  O 

A  /O 

lo — A  1 

Ad 
4o 

iy 

1  o 

iy — zi 

A(K 
40 

1  A  T 
14  1. 

o.  54 

/  / 

1  A  TTT 
14  111. 

123 

21,24 

297 

8.  40 

278  bis 

9.  26,  33 

337 

10.  2 

164 

10 

414 

13 

314  IL 

11.  1,2 

223 

3 

ibid.  IIL 

10—50 

295 

12.  1 

284 

8 

291 

8,24  v 

271 

8,24,34  271 

15 

18 

24,  34 

269 

34 

277  I. 

40 

48  n.  L 

40 

49,  69 

40 

72 

13.  1—3 

269 

1—14 

334 

6 

225 

14.  1 

83 

15.  1—16 

334 

18 

96 n.  IIL 

20 

ibid. 

21 

94  I. 

27 

122  IL 

27 

364 

27—29 

179 

16.  5 

93 

.39—43 

334 

17.  13 

230 

18.  4 

16,  50 

7,8 

271 

10 

175 

INDEX  OF  PASSAGES  ILLUSTRATED. 


553 


1  Chronicles. 

2  Chronicles. 

2  Chronicles. 

Chap,  verse. 

Section,  j 

Chap,  verse. 

Section      j  Chap,  verse. 

Section. 

18.  12 

15  III. 

1.  14 

283  note 

1  o  i q  in 
lo.  lo — lO 

271 

15 

235  III. 

15 

72  note 

91 
~  1 

237 

15,  1G 

269 

16,  17 

50 

1 J  ft 
14.  O 

407 

16 

235  IV. 

2.  1,  16,  17 

181 

7 

271 

16 

268 

8 

39 

Q 
O 

269  bis 

17 

231,  362 

14 

119 

g 
O 

271,  278 

19.  3—5 

124 

3.  1—4,22  337 

1  CZ 

49 

20.  1 

295 

Q  A 

3,  4 

ooo  n.  l. 

1  <5  11 
ID.  lo 

371 

3 

260,VII. 

Q  Q 
O.  O 

1  lo  IV. 

1 R 
ID 

409 

3 

295 

A 

4 

ooo 

i  (i  i  n 

lO.  1U 

249  (7) 

21.  1 

190 

a 
O 

QQ 

1  9 
119 

105 

16 

ibid. 

in    i  q 

J 11 — J  o 

ooo 

1 A 
14 

206,  210 

22.  2 

39,  181 

1  A 
\  4 

1  1  Q  HQ 

i  iy,  OOO 

17  9 
1  / .  /5 

2/5  11. 

15 

83 

1  ^  IT 
lO  1  / 

HQ 

OOO 

9  10 

4,  U 

275 

23.3-5,24-32  365 

J.    1  in 

4.       1,  1U 

H7 
OO  / 

c 
D 

234  IV. 

4 

231,  235 

o — o 

lDlu. 

7  Q 
/  — y 

371 

4,5 
24,27 

93 

n 
D 

111)  11. 

19 

1/5 

298 

365 

a 

O 

H7 
oo  / 

269 

28 

337 

lDia. 

1  A  1  7 

14— -1  / 

ibid. 

29 

331 

1Q  99 

iy — 44 

HQ 
OOO 

17 
1  / 

269  bis 

24.  1,2 

366 

*i    9  90 

O.    /5  4U 

004 

17 
l  / 

2/8  bis 

3—19 

ibid. 

Q 

HQ 
ooo 

IQ  Q 
lo.  V 

A  1 

41 

20—31 

365 

19 
14 

364 

IQ 

lo 

406 

25.  1—31 

93 

19  11 

14,  lO 

0s* 

IQ     ^  11 
La.    D  11 

231 

26.  1—28 

365 

19  1/1 
14 — 14 

luia. 

1  I 
1  I 

232 

17—19 

ibid. 

I4*  1/1 
Jo,  14 

HQ 

90  K 
/50.  D 

337  bis 

29  et  seq.  231,235 

R  1 
O.  1 

:u:  j 
lDia. 

19 

1/5 

289 

27.  1—15 

269 

1<* 
lo 

oyo  Dis 

90 
4U 

17,  290 

28 

65 

99 
44 

iqi 

91 
41 

291 

28 

234  IV. 

9Q 
4o 

R9 
D/5 

1R 
OO 

ill 
111 

25—31 

236  i. 

H  *3Q 

04,  OO 

oyo 

91 

41 .  o 

1  a  f  TTT 

165  III. 

28 

72  note 

7.  1 — 3 

339 

O 

237 

28 

234  III. 

8.  11 

35 

14— ID, 

[l86 
S 

29,  30 

171 

14 

366 

IQ  10 

lo,  iy 

29—31 

43 

9.  8 

225 

1  Q 

iy 

210 

32 

235  I. 

10,21 

39 

90 

4U 

206  bis 

33 

236  IV. 

14 

10 

99  9. 
44.  O 

237 

28.  1—21 

235 

15 

271 

1 1 

i  at* 

156 

2 

225 

16 

115,  271 

225 

!  23.  1—21 

223 

4—6 

221 

17 

1—21 

99Q  T 

4^0  1. 

7—10 

ibid. 

21 

111 

4 

365 

12 

337 

24 

178 

9 

271 

29.  5 

367 

27 

72 

11 

223III.IV. 

6 

235 

11.  15 

413  III. 

11 

224 

.  7 

117 

21 

237 

17 

408  IV. 

13.  4 

290 

24.  16 

206 

2  Chronicles. 

5 

142  note 

25 

ibid,  bis 

1.  2—6,13  334 

12—14 

290 

25.  5 

269,  271 

70 


554 


INDEX  OF  PASSAGES  ILLUSTRATED. 


2  Chronicles. 

Chap,  verse. 

Section. 

25.  6—9 

298 

11 

15  III 

12 

296 

14 

295 

17 

289 

23, 24 

294 

26. 10 

56, 234  II. 

10 

234  III. 

10 

275  II. 

11 

268, 269 

12, 13 

269 

14 

271  bis 

14 

272,  273 

14, 15 

275 

16  et  seq.  188, 231 

19 

189 

21 

231 

23 

206 

27.  4 

275  II. 

5 

234  V. 

28.  3 

411 

7 

236  II. 

8 

296 

14—19 

298 

27 

206  bis 

29.  10 

383 

23 

378  II. 

24, 34 

ibid.  III. 

27 

93 

29 

396 

30.  1—10 

326 

31.  2 

366 

5 

69 

12 

337 

16 

166 

17 

365,  369 

32.  5 

275 

5 

ibid.  I. 

6 

41 

28 

298 

28, 29 

234  II. 

30 

41,335 

33 

205,  207 

33 

207  n.  I. 

33.  3 

406 

6 

411 

14 

78, 275 

2  Chronicles. 


Chap,  verse. 

Section. 

33.  14 

335 

34. 4_7 

407 

8 

235  III. 

31,32 

383 

35,|4,5 

366 

15 

93 

22 

15  II. 

25 

211,295 

36.  4 

223 

21 

79 

22 

233 

Ezra. 

1.  1 

233 

5 

239 

2.25 

16 

36—39 

366 

54,58 

363 

62 

369 

69 

117 

3.  8 

365 

8,9 

339 

10 

93 

12 

339 

4.  2—11 

326 

3 

239 

4—24 

326, 339 

7—10 

89 

13,  19, 20  234 

15—17 

89 

5.   1—6,22  339 

5 

239 

7 

89 

6.  2 

88 

3,4 

339 

4 

39 

8 

239 

7.  1—5 

99 

6,7 

229 

25 

239, 243 

8.  20 

363 

27 

117 

9.  2—12 

152 

5 

396 

7—15 

312 

10.  3 

152 

Nehemiah. 


Chap,  verse. 

Section. 

1.  1 

103  IX. 

2.  1 

ibid.  I. 

16 

239 

3.  3 

78 

8 

275  IV. 

15 

335 

4.  3 

67 

13 

239 

5.  1—12 

250 

4,5 

170  II. 

18 

148 

6.  1—14 

326 

5 

89 

15 

103  VI. 

17, 18 

239 

7.  29 

16 

39—42 

366 

64 

369 

70,72 

117 

8.  1,3 

41 

6 

396 

7 

371 

15 

356 

18 

344, 356 

9.  32—37 

312 

10.28 

390 

29 

363 

36—38 

389 

11.  3 

363 

oo 

12.  1 

366 

39 

78 

45—47 

93 

13.  5,12 

390 

10—14 

ibid. 

17, 18 

312 

23 

152 

28 

326 

Esther. 

1.  5 

35 

5—8 

148 

6 

39 

6,9 

146 

9 

227 

19 

232 

2.  3 

35 

16 

103  X. 

INDEX  OF  PASSAGES  ILLUSTRATED. 


05 ") 


Esther.  Job.  Job. 


Chap,  verse. 

Section. 

Chap,  vorse. 

Section. 

Chap,  verse. 

Section. 

2.  19, 21 

229 

11,12 

48n.II. 

32.  19 

69 

3.  2,3 

ibid. 

13.  4 

105 

33.  11 

249 

7 

103,  XII. 

27 

249 

36.  16 

148 

7 

359 

14.  2 

21 

37.  18 

132 

10, 12 

128 

17 

248 

38.  10 

37 

12 

235  III. 

15,  2 

21 

14 

89 

4.  1,3 

211 

16. 12,  14 

284 

17 

203 

11 

228 

15  , 

135 

31,32 

100  III. 

5.  1 

36 

17.  1 

207 

39.  5 

48  n.  II. 

4,7 

227 

6 

96  I. 

5—8 

ibid. 

6.  1 

235  III. 

18.  5,6 

40 

8 

ibid. 

7—9 

179  note 

13 

165  III. 

10 

61 

8, 10, 11 

224 

19.  6 

78 

19 

50 

7.  1 

227 

23 

88 

23 

277  II. 

8.  2 

128 

24 

87  III. 

40.  24 

60 

9 

103  III. 

20.24 

278 

41.  1 

78 

10 

48  n.  I. 

21.  12 

96  I. 

7 

78,  271 

15 

126, 178 

17 

40 

15,  16 

138 

15 

224  bis 

18 

65 

28 

279 

9. 18, 19 

148 

32 

209 

29 

277  II. 

26 

359 

22.  6 

122,250 1. 

42.11 

115 

10.  1 

234 

7 

45, 149 

2 

235  III. 

7 

182 

Psalms. 

23.  3 

225 

Psalms. 

90 

Job. 

24.  2 

55 

1.  1 

180 

Job 

90, 106 

3,7—9 

250  I. 

3 

57,70,75 

1.  3 

46,47,54 

5 

48  n.  II. 

4 

65 

4 

161 

7 

122 

2.  2 

223  I. 

14 

59, 60 
269 

7,  10 

120 

6—8, 12  230 

17 

10 

62 

9 

276 

20 

211 

10, 11 

171  VI. 

12 

223  III. 

2. 10 

180 

11 

71 

5.  1 

95  II. 

12 

211 

26.  5,6 

314  II. 

9 

207 

3.  3 

161 

28. 

22  note 

6.  1 

94  I. 

12 

ibid. 

29.  7 

41 

5 

314  II. 

13 

314  II. 

14 

122 

7.  9 

289 

13—19 

ibid. 

19 

21,  70 

12 

276  I. 

14 

207 

23 

21 

13 

278 

5. 10 

43 

30.  1 

30, 51 

14 

187 

6.  4 

278 

4 

278 

8.  1 

96n.II. 

15—20 

110 

31. 10, 11 

139 

9.  1 

96n.III. 

15—22 

45  1. 

13 

171 

7 

225 

18—20 

110 

13—15 

309 

9 

289 

7.  6 

118 

16 

182 

13 

203 

15 

189 

17 

149 

16 

52 

8. 16 

70 

20 

118 

16 

96  n.  I. 

9.S9 

100  III. 

26, 27 

408  IV. 

20 

295 

10.  21 

314  II. 

29—31 

309 

11.  6 

23  VI. 

556 


INDEX  OF  PASSAGES  ILLUSTRATED. 


Psalms. 


Psalm,  verse. 

Section. 

Psalm,  verse. 

11.  6 

147       |37.21, 26 
941.      39.  I 

12.  1 

14.  1 

180 

12 

15.  5 

177 

13 

15 

251 

40.  2 

16.  6 

55 

5,  6 

17.  13 

276  I. 

7 

18.  4,5 

203 

41.  3 

4—6 

91  II. 

9 

5,6 

203 

42.  7 

8—15 

23  III. 

43.  1 

10 

91  II. 

44.  5 

11 

225 

12 

30 

269 

45.  3 

33 

291 

6 

34 

278 

6 

19.  5,6 

91  II. 

7 

8—10 

91  III 

7,8 

20.  6 

289 

8 

21.  3 

224 

9 

22.  1 

101  I. 

46.  3 

11 

161 

3 

12 

47 

47.  2 — 9 

16—20 

51 

9 

23.  1 — 4 

42  note 

48.  7 

4 

42, 226 

13 

5 

125, 148 

49. 15 

24.  3 

238 

50.  5 

5 

182 

8 — 13 

26.  1 

289 

20 

4,5 

180 

51.  11 

5 

ibid. 

19 

6 

320 

52.  8 

10 

177 

53.  1 

27.  5 

28 

56. 

29.  1—10 

eta  TTT 

23  III. 

57.  4 

32.  4 

21 

9 

48  n.  I. 

17 

9 

50  bis 

58.  4,5 

S3.  2 

94  II. 

59.  6,14, 

17 

50 

60. 

34.  1 

230  (5) 

1 

7 

190 

1 

35.  3 

276  I. 

2,3 

5 

65 

63.  1 

24 

289 

10 

37.  39,73. 

106 

11 

37.  10,36 

203 

64  2 

Psalms. 


Section. 

Psalm,  verse. 

Section. 

251 

65.  10 

57 

tit 

96  n.I  V. 

66.  12 

50 

203 

13, 14 

379 

ibid. 

14 

393 

A  f?  TT 

45  II. 

67.  1 

96n.IV. 

384 

68.  4 

148 

oo 

88 

25 — 27 

349 

A  A 

40 

26 

97 

149 

31 

47 

r»>"»  TTT 

23  III. 

69. 12 

180  bis 

289 

15 

45  II. 

ibid. 

21 

61 

295 

72. 10 

234  V. 

223  I. 

20 

396 

ibid.  II. 

75.  3 

35,  289 

226 

8 

147, 295 

148 

10 

47 

230 

76.  6 

50 

39, 135 

13 

289 

119  . 

77. 18, 19 

t\t  TTT 

91  111. 

r»o  tt 

23  11. 

78.  9 

269, 289 

OO  tt 

33o 

9 

278 

223  IV. 

47 

72 

271 

49,  50 

190 

21 

49 — 51 

ibid. 

275  IV. 

55 

55 

203 

57 

278 

383 

65 

144 

384 

79.  2,3 

205 

180 

80. 

88  note 

191 

9 — 13 

68 

3/9 

12 

57 

'  71 

18 

392 

96  n.  V. 

81.  1 

t  w>  XT 

96  n.Il. 

88  note 

1,  2 

223  IV. 

2/7  I. 

17 

77  bis 

52 

82.   1 , 6,  7 

230 

396 

8 

289 

403  III. 

83  10 

57 

51 

13 

65 

88  note 

1  14 

21 

96n.V. 

84.  1 

96  n.  II. 

295 

86.  16 

170  V. 

23 II. 

87.  7 

45  I. 

17 

88.  1 

96  n.  V. 

51,205 

6 

207 

392 

11,  12 

314  II. 

180 

89.  7 

180 

INDEX  OF  PASSAGES  ILLUSTRATED.  557 

Psalms.  Psalms.  Proverbs. 


Psalm,  verse. 

Section. 

Psalm,  verse. 

Section. 

Chap,  verse. 

Section. 

89. 17, 24 

47 

113.  5,6 

91  III. 

Prov. 

90, 106 

27 

165  III. 

114.  1—8 

ibid. 

2. 11—19 

150  IV. 

27 

230 

115—118. 

354 

17 

153 

32 

255 

115. 17 

314  II. 

3.  3,22 

130 

38 

223  I. 

116.  3 

203 

18 

105 

39 

224 

16 

170  V. 

27, 28 

182 

44 

225 

118.  11,  12 

77 

5.  3—6 

150  IV. 

91.  1 

149 

22 

39 

6.  1—5 

250 

3 

52 

119.  19 

149 

21 

130 

4 

271 

83 

46 

30, 31 

254 

6 

190 

85 

52 

7.  5—27 

150  IV. 

92.  3 

94  II. 

103 

77 

6 

38 

4 

96  n.  I. 

119 

22  note 

13—15 

91  III. 

i  10 

47 

162 

298 

9.  1 

35 

10 

125 

120—134. 

356  II. 

2  et  seq.  148 

12 

75 

120—137. 

354 

10.  13 

255 

12—14 

70 

120.  4 

278 

11.  1 

115 

94.  13 

52 

126.  6 

62  bis 

15 

250 

95.  4 

22  note 

127.  3—5 

156 

30 

105 

6 

396 

5 

180, 247 

12. 18 

ibid. 

97.  1 

223  IV. 

128.  3 

71  bis 

13.  9 

40 

99.  1 

91  II. 

4 

156 

14.  4 

47 

1 

223  IV. 

129.  3,4 

61 

16.  11 

115 

5 

225 

8 

175 

i  tz 

ID 

/41,  1UO 

101.  8 

246 

132.  2,5 

405 

33 

370  note 

103. 15 

21 

3 

40 

17.  2 

168  IV. 

15, 16 

23  VI. 

7 

225 

3 

22  note 

16 

203 

17 

230 

6 

156 

104.  2 

35 

133.  2 

125,  367 

18 

250 

4 

190 

137.  8 

41 

26 

255 

11 

48  n.II. 

138.  1 

230 

18.  16 

177 

105. 18 

249 

139.  9 

91  II. 

18 

248 IV. 

106.  26 

392 

20 

91  III. 

18 

370  note 

37 

415  I. 

141.  7 

207 

19 

35 

38 

411 

142.  7 

249  (8) 

19.  17 

251 

107.  10 

249 

144.  2 

271 

20.  20 

40 

16 

275  V. 

9 

94  II. 

21.  1 

57 

18 

203 

147.  10 

50 

17 

125 

23 — 30 

109 

15, 18 

21 

21 

182 

Of) 

JoU 

lb 

AO. 

40 

31 

50 

109.  6 

248  II. 

148.  8 

190  note 

22.22 

247 

10 

182 

149.  3 

349 

26 

250 

110.  1 

225 

6 

276  I. 

27 

ibid. 

2 

276 

150.  4 

94  II. 

24.  7 

247 

3 

290 

4 

349 

13, 14 

77 

111.  1 

180 

5 

96  II. 

20 

40 

112.  5 

251 

31 

57,  67 

113—118. 

356  I. 

- 

25.  4 

22  note 

558 


INDEX  OF  PASSAGES  ILLUSTRATED, 


Proverbs. 


Chap,  verse. 

Section. 

25.  13 

14  I. 

14 

21 

16,  17 

77 

18 

276 

23 

21 

26.  1 

21 

3 

48 

11 

51 

14 

37 

15 

147 

23 

22  note 

27 

52 

27.  9 

176 

21 

22  note 

27 

46 

29.  1 

105 

17 

91  III. 

24 

392 

26 

228 

30.  5 

271 

27 

23  IV. 

31.  6 

261  note 

10—31 

166 

13 

ibid. 

15 

171 

16 

250  III. 

17 

121 

18 

40 

18—31 

83 

24 

122  III. 

Ecclesiastes. 

Eccles. 

90, 106 

2.  5 

70 

3. 13 

314  II. 

4.  1 

182 

14 

249  (3) 

5.  16 

145 

6.  3 

156 

9.  8 

148  bis 

10.  11 

403  III. 

12.  5 

206 

7 

203  bis 

7 

314  II. 

11 

38 

14 

314  II. 

Canticles. 


Chap,  verse. 

Section. 

1.  5 

30 

6 

67 

11 

130 

2.  9 

38  bis 

13 

/2 

15 

51, 67 

4.  1,2 

46 

1,3 

f  Cl~?  TT 

127  11. 

4 

271 

11 

77,  135 

13 

70 

5.  4 

37 

5 

ibid. 

7 

127  I. 

11 

125 

15 

39 

6.  5 

46 

6 

ibid. 

7 

127  II. 

11 

70  bis 

7.  8 

75 

18 

156 

8.  6 

128 

9 

28 

Isaiah. 

1.  6 

105 

11—15 

384 

11—18 

374 

15 

396 

17 

168  V. 

18 

46 

22 

144 

22, 25 

22  note 

23 

177 

2.  4 

68,91  II. 

4 

284 

3.  3 

235  1 

16—26 

130 

18 

129, 130 

19 

127  III. 

20 

130, 131 

21 

129 

22 

127  IV. 

22 

133 

!  23 

122  III. 

23 

127  I. 

1  24 

125 

Isaiah. 


Chap,  verse. 

Section. 

4.  1  , 

156 

1,2 

152  - 

2 

62 

4 

23  VI. 

5.  1 

67 

1—7 

68 

2 

67,  69 

5 

67 

6 

68 

11,22 

144 

12 

95  II. 

12 

148 

18 

59 

23 

177 

24 

39,  65 

26 

288  III. 

26 

289 

27 

121,  123 

27 

274 

28 

50,  278 

29,  30 

291 

30 

23  III. 

6.  1 

225 

13 

76 

7. 

215 

3 

41, 119 

14 

164 

15 

47, 301 

18 

77 

20 

124, 125 

20 

295 

23 

57 

8.  1 

85,87  I. 

3 

164 

6 

335 

7,8 

23  III. 

19 

403  II. 

9.  2,3 

298 

3 

62 

4 

61,274 

10 

39,70,72 

14 

75 

18 

21 

10.  1 

232 

1,2 

2481. 

2 

168  V. 

6 

39 

19,33,34  70 

INDEX 


OF  PASSAGES  ILLUSTRATED. 


559 


Isaiah. 

Isaiah 

Isaiah. 

Chap,  verse. 

Section. 

Chap,  verse. 

Section. 

Chap,  verse. 

Section. 

10.  26 

59 

20.  3,4 

295 

28.  25 

58 

27 

61 

4 

123 

27 

64 

34 

14  I. 

21.  5 

271,290 

28 

50,59,64 

11.  1 

70 

6 

275  II. 

29.  3 

292 

4 

220 

7 

50, 282 

4 

314  II. 

5 

121 

10 

63 

4 

403  II. 

6—9 

91  II. 

13 

110 

6 

23 II.  III. 

15 

23  III. 

14 

ibid. 

11 

88,  89 
83 

12.  3 

356  I. 

15 

278 

16 

13.  2 

288  III. 

22.  1 

34 

17 

141.11. 

2 

289 

9—11 

292 

18 

86 

3 

ibid. 

10 

294 

30.  2—6 

177 

8 

187 

12 

212 

2—12 

215 

10 

100  III. 

13 

148 

6 

49  bis 

16—18 

295 

15  et  seq. 

236  II. 

14 

83 

17,  18 

ibid. 

16 

207 

17 

288  III. 

18 

278 

22 

37 

17 

289 

14.  9 

46 

22 

236  II. 

22 

405  II. 

9  et  seq.  314  II. 

23 

38 

23 

21 

9—20 

91  II. 

24 

128 

24 

60,65 

12, 13 

196  III. 

23. 

108 

24—28 

91  II. 

15 

207 

12 

41 

25 

57 

18 

206 

24.  2 

295 

29 

93,9511. 

19 

205 

7,9 

148 

29 

180 

30 

165  III. 

13 

71 

33 

411 

31 

180, 290 

17 

52 

31.  1 

50 

15.  2 

212 

18 

23  III. 

1—3 

215 

3 

34 

20 

62 

4 

91  III. 

16.  1—6 

295 

21—23 

91  II. 

32.  2,20 

57 

2,3 

212 

22 

249  (8) 

6 

180 

5 

231 

23 

91  II. 

13 

57 

9, 10 

69 

25.  10 

57 

14 

35 

10 

ibid. 

26.  1 

275  IV. 

14 

48n.II. 

17.  6 

69,  71 

4 

295 

15 

14  II. 

8 

407 

9, 10 

314  II. 

20 

60 

10 

70 

17 

187 

33.  13 

44 

12 

291 

18 

ibid. 

15 

177 

12,  13 

ibid. 

20, 21 

91  III. 

16 

45  I. 

18.  3 

288  III. 

27.  2 

66 

17 

228 

3 

288  note 

2,3 

67  • 

18 

269 

3 

289 

& — o 

DO 

do  oi  TT 

oo,yi  11. 

5 

68 

8 

23  VI. 

6 

148 

19.  3 

314  II. 

9 

407 

7 

47 

3 

403  II. 

28.  1 

148 

9, 10 

20 

8 

78  tris 

1—11 

144 

35.  2 

14  I. 

11—13 

235  I. 

2 

23  III. 

2 

14  II. 

15 

75 

2 

291 

36,  37. 

215 

18  et  seq.  324 

16 

39 

36.  1—20 

292 

25.  2—4 

120 

24,25 

59, 61 

3 

235  III. 

560 


INDEX  OF  PASSAGES  ILLUSTRATED. 


Isaiah. 

Isaiah. 

Jeremiah. 

Chap,  verse. 

Section. 

Chap,  verse. 

Section. 

Chap,  verse. 

Section. 

36.  3 

236  EL 

50.  1 

170  II. 

1.  17 

121  bis 

9 

50 

11 

137 

2. 13 

45  r 

37.  2 

236  II. 

51.  1 

22  note 

21 

66 

8—20 

292 

1,2-5,8  91  III. 

22 

22  note 

29 

60 

20 

78 

22 

134 

38 

415  IV. 

22 

147 

23 

49 

38.  8 

101 

52.  7,8 

295 

25 

123 

10, 18 

203 

53. 

384 

28 

400 

18 

314  II. 

5—12 

ibid. 

3.  1 

160 

21 

190 

6,7 

91  III. 

2 

10,  53 

40.  7 

21 

54.  3 

41 

2 

150  IV. 

11 

42  note 

10 

23  II. 

3 

21 

24 

91  III. 

56.  9—11 

30 

8—14 

41 

41.15 

276  T. 

57.  4 

180 

4.  5,15,21  288  note 

15, 16 

65 

7 

409 

6,21 

ibid.  III. 

17, 18 

45  II. 

9 

314  II. 

11 

23  VI. 

19 

39 

58.  3 — 12 

358 

11, 12 

65 

21—24 

289 

7 

140 

16, 17 

62 

42.  7 

249  (8) 

13 

349 

19 

291 

11 

295 

59. 17 

273,  289 

24 

23  II. 

22 

52 

60.  6 

49  bis 

29 

295 

43. 14 

228 

10 

39 

30 

134 

19, 20 

45  1. 

16 

405 

31 

187 

44.  3 

45  II. 

19, 20 

91  II. 

5.  5 

61 

14 

39 

61.  1,2 

351 

7 

150  IV. 

15, 17, 19  175 

76,  212 

1  "7 

o  / 

16 

36 

/ 

62 

24 

21,62 

45.  1 

230 

10 

154 

27 

52 

2 

37 

11 

415 

6.  1,17 

288  note 

2 

275  V. 

62.  4 

41 

4 

289 

46.  1 

400,41511. 

10 

289 

6 

294 

6 

175 

10 — 12 

228 

20 

374 

47.  1 

225 

10—13 

288  III. 

21 

52 

1—8 

41 

11 

179 

26 

211 

2 

127  II 

63.  1—3 

69 

7.  2,3 

233 

2 

139 

9 

1 14  TY 

6 

168  V. 

3 

295 

11 

42  note 

18 

409 

9 

100  IV. 

64.  1 

137 

18, 19 

140 

9 

156 

65.  1 

415  III. 

31 

15  III. 

11 

91  III. 

4 

141,403  V. 

31 

411 

14 

36,65 

4—25 

91  II. 

31,32 

ibid. 

48.  2 

335 

10 

43 

33 

205 

16 

228 

17 

91  II. 

34 

154, 180 

49.  6,16 

91  III. 

66.  1 

225 

8.  2 

57,  203 

8 

91  III. 

1—5 

91  II. 

2 

205, 406 

10 

45  I. 

3 

60 

13 

67 

22 

288  III. 

9 

41 

14 

61, 144 

22 

289 

15, 16 

289 

17 

403  III. 

26 

144, 405 

20 

49 

22 

74, 105 

INDEX  OF  PASSAGES  ILLUSTRATED. 


561 


Jeremiah.  i  Jeremiah.  Jeremiah. 


Chap,  verse. 

Section. 

Chap,  verse. 

Section. 

Chap,  verse. 

Section. 

9.  2 

110 

21.  12 

246 

32.  44 

24 

12 

21 

14 

21 

33.  4 

294 

t  4 

14 

1  A  4 

144 

22.  3 

168  V. 

11 

154 

20 

mi 

211 

14 

33,36,39 

13, 

24,  390 

oi  no 
21,  22 

o2 

16 — 19 

206 

34.  5 

210,  211 

bl 

20 

295 

7  et  seq 

.  351  I. 

24,  2o 

loo 

23 

187 

8,  9 

233 

9c.  9ft 

/SO,  /SO 

1  ftQ 

lOo 

24 

128 

8—22 

172 

9ft 
-40 

1  Of 

124 

23.  1 

42  note 

14 

350 

/1A1  TT 
4U1  11. 

12 

21 

17 

293 

4/6  note 

15 

61 

18,  19 

383 

11  /1 
11.  4 

22  note 

32 

403  III. 

20 

205 

o 

9QQ 

Zoo 

24.  1 

83 

35. 

325 

1ft   1 7 
ID,  1< 

/  1 

2 

72  bis 

2,4 

337 

1  Q 

/1ft 
40 

25.  10 

139,  154 

5 

147 

19  ^ 

1  ft 
ID 

15,  27 

147 

36.  4 

86 

97ft  T 
/4  <  O  1. 

15 — 31 

29d 

9 — 19 

233 

I4*  1 

191 

1 ,41 

23 

124 

10 

337 

1  ft 

1  o 

91 

24 

10 

18 

87 

91 

1  ft7 

30 

69  bis 

22 

21,  36 

9*1 

or  OQ7 
OO,  -40/ 

30 

291 

23 

86,87,88 

9/1 

ft4; 

DO 

33 

57,  203 

30 

206 

9ft 

,40 

33 

295 

32 

36 

11  ft 
14,  O 

1ft  n  TT 

n.ii. 

34 

211 

37.  4 

249  (6) 

19  ift 

1-4—  1U 

97ft  T 

/-  /  O  1. 

34,  35 

46 

15 

ibid.  (4) 

lO.  1 

9 '3ft 

/400 

26.  11 

CIO  f  T 

235  I. 

15 — 20 

249,  255 

Q 
O 

91 

23 

206  bis 

21 

140 

7 

ftc.  Lie 

DO  D1S 

27.  2,8-12 

61 

38.  6 

45  II. 

1  ft 
lo 

/f  T 
40  I. 

9 

100  IV. 

7 

228,  237 

16  4 

O / ,  -4UO 

9 

235  II. 

17, 18 

292 

1  7 

91  1 

28.  5 

238 

39.  9 — 11 

236  V. 

ft 

o 

141 

13 

83^ 

83,  237 

16 

237 

1ft 

9Q^ 

<4yo 

29.  2 

40.  1 — 5 

236  V. 

17  1 

«7 
o  / 

22 

260  in. 

4 

249 

Q 

O 

70 

30.  6 

187 

4 

358  III. 

1  1 
1 1 

46  note 

8 

61 

41.  5 

295 

Lo 

1=;  t 

40  1. 

19 

180 

10 

236  V. 

iq  90 

9QO 

31.  4,13 

97 

lo 

237 

1 1  T 

4 

41 

17 

110 

90 

9<*ft 
,40™ 

5 

67 

42.  5 

392 

22 

52 

ft 
■j 

275  II. 

14 

288  note 

19.  5 

411 

10 

42  note 

43.  3 

39 

6—14 

ibid. 

19 

211 

6 

236  V. 

13 

406, 34 

21 

110 

6 

295 

13 

407 

22 

152 

9 

39 

20.  5,6 

295 

32.  1—14 

248  I. 

13 

407 

5—8 

41 

7 

55 

44.  17,19 

409 

15 

161 

10—13 

248  III. 

46.  3,4 

290 

21.  9 

292 

24 

293,  294 

4 

272 

71 


562 


INDEX  OF  PASSAGES  ILLUSTRATED. 


Jeremiah. 

Chap,   verse.  Section. 

46.  9  271,278 

11  74,  105 

20  47 

23  23  IV. 

25  295 

47.  6  276  1. 

48.  7  295,400 
7,  13  408  I. 

17  226 

25  47 

32, 33  69 

33  1411.69 

36  9511.211 

3S  34 

41  200 

44  52 

49.  3  67 

7  98 
9  69 

12  147 
19  16 
29  46,  49 

32  124 
35  278 

50.  2  295 

6  42  note 

8  46 
9,14,29,42  278 
16  62 
19  43 

35  100  IV. 

44  16 

51.  2  65 
2,12,27  288  III. 
8  74,  105 

11  271 

14  23 IV. 

23  42  note 
27      288  not.  289 

33  63 
58  275  I. 

52.  4  293 
6,  7  358  I. 

ft       249, 255  n. 

12—20  236  V. 

21  113  II. 

24  366 

31  249  (6) 

31  352  note 


Lament. 

Chap,    verse.  Section. 

1.1—8,17  41 
15  69 

2.  3  47 
6  349 

19  101 

3.  53  45  II. 

4.  4  140 

5.  13  139 

Ezekiel. 

Ezek.  112 

1.  338  n.  II. 
2-28  91  n.II. 
3  et  seq.  225 

2.  6  180 

9  88  bis 

3.  1  87  III. 
17  275  II. 

4.  1,2  281 

2  293, 294 

10—15  293 

15  16 

5.  1  125 
10—15  293 

6.  4,6  407 

11  211 

13  76, 409 

7.  7  295 
7, 17  ibid. 

19  ibid. 

8.  7—13  407  bis 

14  410 

16  396 
16, 17  407 

9.  2,3,  11  86 
2—12  134 

11.19  191 

12.  3  1 10 

5—7  39 

13.11,14  ibid. 

18,21  40 

14.  1  239,  344 

15.  1—5  67 

16.  8  153 

10  119,123 
10  etseq.  130 

10,13  118 

12  129  bis 

13  141 


Ezekiel. 

Chap,  verse.  Section. 

16.  14  41 
20,21  411 
24,31,39  36 

38, 40  158,  257 

17.  1—8  67 
3,4  70 
6,7  67 

10  21 
15  50 

17  293 

17—  23  294 

18  392 

18.  8  251 
31  191 

19.  4  52,60 
8  52 

10,11  67 

11  226 

12  21,67 

20.  1  344 
1—8  239 

20. 21  347 
21.12  211 

21  413 

21.22  403  III. 

22  281 

26  223 II. 

27  294 
37, 38  390 

22.  7  168  V. 
18,  19       22  note 

18—  22  ibid. 

23.  6  119 
12,13,23  269 
18  166 

24  272 

25  158 
29  41 
31—34  147 
40  134 

24.  7,8  264 
16,17  211 
17  123 

25.  4  28,  49 

5  46 

6  180 
11  289 

26.  1—18  212 
2  111 


INDEX  OF  PASSAGES  ILLUSTRATED. 


563 


Ezekiel. 

Chap,    verse.  Section. 

26.  5,14  78 

8  294 

9  281 

10  290 

16  122 II 
30  91  II. 

27, 28.  108 

27.  1—36  212 

7  288  III. 

10, 11  271 

11  275 II. 
11  298 

14  48  n.  I. 

17  71, 77 

18  46, 66 
24  122  III. 

26  21 

28.  13—20  224 
13  95 II. 

29.  5  205 
18—20  298 
21  47 

30.  2  et  seq.  212 
21  105 

31.  3,13  70 
14—18      91  II. 

32.  2—32  212 

4  205 
7,8,17-32  91  II. 

27  208 

33.  1—9  275  II. 

34.  2  —28  42  note 

37.  1—14  314 II. 
16  87  I. 

24  42  note 

38.  4,5  271 
39. 11—14  295 

17—20  148, 205 

40.  3  55 

5  113 IV.  VI. 

25  337 
42  39 

41.  8  113  IV. 
42. 14  368 
43. 13  113  IV. 
44. 18  368  I. 

19  368 
45.  12  117 

13—16  234 IV. 


Ezekiel. 

Chap,    verse.  Section. 

46.  6—18  234  III. 
23, 24        36  note 

_  24  378  III. 

47.  1  et  seq.   45  I. 

10  78 

11  19 
16—18      25  VI. 

Daniel. 

1.  6  164 
18  238 

20  100 IV. 

20  235 II. 

20  403 1. 

2.  2  100  IV. 
2  235 II. 
2, 10  403  I. 
5  260  V. 

13,  48  100  IV. 

14, 15  236  V. 

46  175 

49  229 

3.  260  III. 

4  233 

5  95  1. 175 
5,7,10,15  94 1.  II. 
5, 10       95  III. 
6, 15  101 

21  120, 126 

4.  4_6  403  1. 
10—16  70 
10, 14,  20  191 
23  406 

28  191 
31,33  ibid. 

5.  1  227 

2  146,227 
5  39, 101 

7  130 

8  235 II. 
11  403  1. 
21  48n.II. 

29  233 

6.  260 IV. 
2, 3  234 

10  101, 396 
10, 13, 17  128 

11  344 
11, 14  396 


Daniel. 

1  Chap,   verse.  Section. 

i  6.15—25  263 

16  232 

24  248 
'  7.  7,8,24  47 
9  46 

I      10  248 
8.  3—5  47 

21  413  III. 

9. 24  335 

12.  2,3,13  314 II. 
4  88 


1.  4, 

2.  11 
12 
16 

3.  1 

h 
4 

4.  6 
12 
12 
13, 
15, 

5.  8 
8 

15 

6.  1, 
3 
4 
6 

7.  1 
4- 
4- 
8 

11 
16 

8.  1 
9 

9.  4 
10 
13 
14 

10.  4 
5 
5, 
11 
14 


Hosea. 
6,9  164 


14 
16 


-7 
-10 


349 

67 
408 

69 
153 
413 
371 
191 

403  III. 
409 

47 
275  II. 
288  note 
215 

91  III. 

21 
ibid. 

374, 384 

269 

140 

139 

140  I. 

215 

278 

288  note 

48n.II. 
211 

72 

70 
156 

61 
400 
295 

47,  61 
295 


564 


INDEX  OF  PASSAGES  ILLUSTRATED. 


Hose  a. 


Chap,  verse. 

Section. 

12.  1 

71 

1  et  seq 

215 

11 

57 

13 

275  II. 

13.  2 

408  IV. 

3 

36  note 

14 

52 

15 

21 

14.  6 

71 

6,7 

70 

6—8 

16 

7 

66 

Joel. 

1,  4,7,10, 

12,16,18, 

1 23  IV. 

20 

5 

23 IV.  bis 

12, 13 

212 

19 

21 

2.  2,10 

23  IV. 

3,4,5 

ibid. 

5 

65 

7—9 

23  IV. 

11 

ibid. 

20 

19,23  IV. 

23 

21 

3.  9 

289 

10 

68 

13 

62 

18 

45  I. 

Amos. 

1.  3 

64 

5,8 

226 

13 

295, 296 

2.  1 

296 

2 

200 

6 

123 

7 

150  IV. 

8 

403  V. 

13 

59,62 

13 

62,  63 

3.  12 

44 

15 

36, 39 

4.  1 

47 

5 

140, 233 

9 

62 

5.   1  et  seq. 

212 

Amos. 


Chap,  verse. 

Section. 

5. 

1,2 

ibid. 

8 

100  III. 

11 

39 

16 

205,211 

26 

327, 412 

6. 

4 

40 

4,5 

148, 180 

6 

148 

10 

210 

12 

50 

47 

7. 

14 

72  note 

14 

177 

17 

55 

17 

150  IV. 

8. 

6 

123 

9, 10 

91  II. 

9. 

3 

14  II. 

9 

65 

13 

67 

Obadiah. 

1 

289 

18 

65 

Jonah. 

1. 

3 

111 

3. 

5 

135 

5—7 

212,223 

6 

122  III. 

4. 

5 

28 

8 

21 

Micah. 

1 

4 

91  III. 

6 

67 

8 

120 

11 

295 

2. 

3—5 

212 

5 

55 

8 

53 

9 

160,  250 

3. 

11 

371 

4. 

3 

59,  68 

3 

284 

4 

67,72 

4 

180 

8 

44 

9,  10 

187 

Micah. 


Chap,  verse. 

Section. 

4. 12 

62 

12, 13 

64 

1  Q 

DO 

13—16 

47 

5.  5 

42  note 

7 

21 

6.  6,8 

384 

11 

115 

15 

71 

7.  14 

14 II.  42. 

16 

212 

Nahum. 

1.10 

65 

13 

61 

15 

295 

2.  1 

275  II. 

3.  2 

59 

5,6 

41 

11 

295 

12 

72 

14 

39 

16, 17 

23  IV. 

17 

ibid. 

18 

42  note 

Habakkuk. 

1.  15 

78  bis 

2.  1 

275  II. 

3.  5 

190 

8 

289 

11 

291 

13 

223  I. 

Zephaniah. 

1.  5 

406,  407 

9 

414 

16 

275  III. 

2.  6 

46 

9 

19 

Haggai. 

1.  4 

39 

5—11 

62 

2.  1—9 

339 

6,21 

91  II. 

6,  22 

23  II. 

12 

122 

16 

69 

INDEX  OF  PASSAGES  ILLUSTRATED. 


565 


Haggai. 

Chap,    verse.  Section. 

2. 16  114  IX. 
17  62 

23  128, 203 

23  314 II. 

Zechariah. 


I.  2—6 

312 

7 

103  XI. 

7—12 

238 

3.  1,3 

228 

1—3 

248  II. 

7 

314  II. 

10 

67 

4.  5  et  seq. 

228 

5.  1 

88 

6. 11, 14 

224 

7.  3 

358  II. 

5 

ibid.  III. 

8.  16 

247 

19 

3581.  II. 

19      358  III.  IV. 

19 

358 

23 

122 

9.  3 

39 

9 

48,50 

9 

179 

14 

278 

15 

378  IV. 

10.  1 

21 

2 

413 

3 

40 

4 

38 

11.  1 

91  III. 

2 

16 

3 

ibid. 

15 

42  note 

17 

199  IV. 

12.  2 

295 

3 

285 

13.  2—6 

314  II. 

4 

122  III. 

14.  8 

19 

10 

69 

18 

45  I. 

20 

96  II. 

Malachi. 
1.  8  377 
10  374 


Malachi. 


Chn.p.  v©rs6« 

Section. 

1    1 A 

1.  14: 

fin 

6  9 

371 

11—14 

160 

14 

153 

3.  1 

228 

2 

22  note 

8—10 

390 

10,11 

62 

4.  1 

65 

2 

91  II. 

Tobit 

1.  7 

390 

12—19 

205 

2.  4-8 

ibid. 

3.  6,13 

203 

4.  17, 18 

s  205 

7.  15 

154 

12.  12, 13 

205 

Judith. 

10.  3 

123, 125 

4 

123 

16. 11 

ibid. 

Wisdom. 

Wisd. 

98, 106 

2.  7 

148 

19 

249 

3.  1—11 

314  II. 

4.  7—16 

ibid. 

10 

203 

10.  7 

19 

13.  14 

134 

Ecclesiasticus. 

Eccles. 

106 

43.  22 

21 

44  16 

203 

1  Maccabees. 

1.  14, 15 

285 

15 

163 

16 

285 

41 

349 

2.  1 

366 

31  et  seq 

.  348  I. 

39—42 

300 

42 

317  bis 

1  Maccabees. 

Chap,  verse. 

Section. 

3. 10 

326 

47 

212 

54 

290 

55 

269 

4.  52 — 59 

360 

54 

93,  94  I. 

6.  1, 2 

415  V. 

34 

282 

37 

ibid. 

49 

292 

7.  13 

317 

8,12,14,15. 

215 

8. 22 

87  III. 

9.  37 — 47 

154 

bo — 58 

199  V. 

10.  18 — 20 

366 

65 

236  IV. 

83 

414 

11. 26. 27 

236  IV. 

71 

212 

13. 25—30 

209 

26 

211 

27 

209 

51 

75, 93 

14.  20—27 

87  III. 

32 

298 

35—47 

366 

15, 16 

117 

2  Maccabees. 

1.  7 

334 

13, 14 

415  V. 

4.  12—14 

285 

18—20 

408  IV. 

7.  9,11,14  UJ4II 
23,29,36  $6i 4  Li' 
9-11,14,)     g  n 
23,29,36  i  J1®  11 ' 
27,28      ibid.  , 

10.   1—8  360 

6  356 

7  ibid,  bis 
12.40—45    314 II. 

40—45    318 II. 

13.  4       ,   260  IX. 

14.  6  317  bis 
15. 36  359 


566 


INDEX  OF  PASSAGES  ILLUSTRATED. 


Matthew. 


Cliap.  verse. 

Section. 

Chap,  verse. 

1.  8 

99 

7.  6 

16—18 

230 

17—20 

18—20 

154 

22 

19 

160 

25 

21 

164  bis 

25 

2.  1  et  seq. 

100IV. 

8.  2—4 

22 

240 

4 

3.  1 

17 

5 

4 

49,  77 

9,  10 

4 

121, 142 

12 

10 

70 

16 

11 

123  bis 

28 

12 

65  bis 

28 

4.  3 

318  III. 

28 

5 

342 

28 

8 

14  V. 

28  et  seq 

13 

24 

29 

15 

25  I. 

29 

19 

78 

29-31 

23 

372 

9.  9 

23, 24 

196  I. 

10, 11 

24 

193  V. 

11 

24 

195  I. 

17 

5.  1—12 

319  III. 

20 

13 

142  note 

20 

19 

319  III. 

20 

21,22,  ) 
27—30  f 

319  III. 

23 
32 

22 

180,411 

32 

22 

245 

33 

22,  35-38  372  I. 

36 

26 

117, 249 

10.  4 

31  et  seq 

319  I. 

8 

31,  32 

160 

9 

33 

319  II. 

10 

33—37 

392 

10 

34 

225 

14 

38—40 

256 

17 

40 

122 

25 

41 

113  IX. 

27 

41 

236  V. 

29 

43 

319  II. 

34 

46,  47 

242 

42 

6.  1 

182 

11.  5 

2 

ibid. 

17 

2,5 

319  III. 

1  18 

5 

397 

1  19 

7 

402  II. 

I      29, 30 

9—13 

396 

112.  1 

Matthew. 


Section.  i 

Chap,  verse. 

Section. 

51 

12.  1 

347  note 

70 

1  et  seq. 

319  II. 

193  V. 

1—5 

62 

23  III. 

1—13 

348  II. 

39  bis 

5 

ibid.  III. 

387 

10 

397 

ibid. 

10—13 

199  IV. 

241 

22 

193  II. 

199  V. 

22 

195  II. 

148 

22 

196  I. 

196  I. 

24, 27 

100  IV. 

25  III. 

24—30 

196  III. 

193  I. 

25, 28 

193  X. 

196  III. 

27 

106 

206 

27, 28 

193  V. 

195  I. 

28 

ibid. 

193  VII. 

33 

70 

195  IV. 

43 

193  XI. 

193  VIII. 

43—45 

173 

242 

43—45 

196  III. 

ibid.  361 

44 

40 

106,  320 

13.  8 

62 

69 

25 

180 

122 

25—40 

61 

183  V. 

55 

84 

199  note 

14.  1 

240 

205,211 

2 

318  II. 

193  II. 

6 

161 

195  I  II. 

8—12 

257 

193  V. 

19 

140,  145 

42  note 

15.   1  et  seq 

320 

321  note 

2,3,6 

ibid. 

1961.  II. 

4 

319  III. 

121 

5 

393 

42, 120 

5,6 

167 

123, 135 

22—28 

51 

334 

28 

196  I. 

255 

36 

140, 145 

100  IV. 

16.  2 

21 

34 

14 

318  II. 

117 

16 

230 

276  I. 

18 

91  II. 

149 

18 

203, 229 

196  I. 

23 

180 

205 

28 

203 

196  I. 

17.  4 

28 

106, 242 

15 

193  III. 

61 

15 

195  III. 

138 

!  15 

196  I. 

INDEX.  OF  PASSAGES  ILLUSTRATED. 


567 


Matthew.  Matthew.  Matthew.  - 


Chap,  verse. 

Section. 

Chap,  verse. 

Section. 

Chap,  verse. 

Section. 

17.  25 

242 

23. 27 — 29 

207 

27. 28 

122  III. 

26, 27 

117 

29 

209  bis 

29 

261 

18.  6 

48,260  X. 

29 

319  III. 

32 

236  V. 

10 

318  III. 

24. 

196  III. 

33 

335 

17 

242 

7 

23  II. 

34 

144 

25 

170  II 

16,  17 

35 

34 

261  note 

28—34 

249 

17 

34 

35 

263 

19.  1—9 

160 

20 

21 

48 

144 

3  et  seq 

319  I. 

29 

91  II. 

52, 53 

207 

4—8 

151 

32 

72 

52, 60 

ibid. 

8 

160 

41 

139 

59 

204 

24 

49 

51 

260  V. 

59, 60 

205 

20.  21 

244 

25.  1—10 

154 

28.  2 

,207 

21.  1 — 7 

48 

3 

40 

9 

175 

1—11 

223  IV. 

21,  23 

148 

12 

241 

7,8 

179 

21 — 23 

171  V. 

8 

75 

30 

148 

Mark. 

12 

242 

33 — 46 

248  I. 

1  A 

1.  4 

1  7 
1  / 

12—16 

342 

35 

149 

O 

1 0l 

16 

166 

26.  1 — 19 

354  note 

•7 
/ 

\.ZrS  D1S 

19 

rZ  bis 

3,  57 
5 

244 

21 

oy  / 

31, 32 

242 

246 

24 

193  VII. 

33 

67,  69 

6 — 14 

204 

24 

195  IV. 

33 — 46 

68 

9 

182 

24 

196  III. 

42 

39 

26 

140 

25 

193  VIII. 

22.   1  et  seq. 

227 

26, 27 

354 

32 

193  VI. 

4 

148 

27 

145,  354 

32 

196  I. 

11, 12 
13 

178 

28 

384 

32,  39 

193  V. 

148 

36 

70,71 

40—44 

387 

17  et  seq. 

321 

39 

147,  396 

44 

ibid. 

17 — 19 

242 

49 

175 

45 

43 

19 

117 

55 

233 

2.  4 

34,35 

23 

322  I. 

57 

246 

14 

242 

23 — 28 

157 

57, 59 

244  III. 

15, 16 

ibid. 

24 — 34 

318  II. 

59 

248  III. 

22 

69 

32 

r»  l  *  tt 

314  11. 

63 

ibid. 

23 

347  note 

34 

319  III. 

63 

392  bis 

26 

385  I. 

23.  1 — 9 

106 

64 

180 

3.  1 

397 

2 

ibid.  II. 

65 

212 

2 

348  11. 

A 

'^IQ  TTT 

67 

180 

17 

164 

5 

320 

69 

36 

18 

321  note 

5,14 

ibid,  note 

27.  2—65 

241 

21,22 

196  I. 

6 

345 

3,12,20,41244111. 

22 

100  IV. 

15 

319  III. 

5 

200,  343 

22—30 

196  III. 

16—22 

392 

7 

206 

23—25 

193  X. 

24 

49, 320 

24 

320 

5.  1 

25  III. 

27 

207 

27 

241 

2 

195  I. 

27 

207 nil. 

27, 28 

269 

7 

193  I. 

568 


INDEX  OF  PASSAGES  ILLUSTRATED. 


Mark. 


Chap.  Terse. 

Section. 

5.  7 

193  VII. 

7 

195  IV. 

8 

193  VIII. 

8 

195  I. 

8 

196  III. 

9 

ibid. 

15 

195  I. 

25 

199  note 

26 

105 

26 

199  note 

29,  34 

184 

41 

105 

43 

ibid. 

6.  2 

397 

3 

84 

8 

121 

9 

123 

17 

195  III. 

17 — 29 

160 

21 

145,  227 

21 — 25 

97 

27 

236  V. 

29 

205 

7.  3 

320 

3 — 13 

ibid. 

4 

ibid. 

11 

394 

11 — 13 

167 

29 

196  I. 

34 

398 

9.  1 

203 

17 

196  I. 

25 

193  V. 

25 

ibid.  VIII. 

25 

196  III. 

41 

149  bis 

42 

260  X. 

49 

378  VII. 

49,  50 

142  note 

10.  2—12 

160 

12 

ibid. 

46 

182 

11.  13 

72  bis 

15 

242 

12.  14,  15 

ibid. 

18—23 

318  II. 

28  et  seq.  322  note 

35 

233 

Mark. 


Chap,  verse. 

Section. 

12.41 

342 

42 

117 

13.  15 

34 

14.  3 

125 

8 

204 

12—18 

354  note 

22 

145 

24 

384 

26 

354 

51,52 

122  III. 

65 

180 

15.  16 

241,  269 

17 

122  III. 

17 

261 

21 

236  V. 

22 

335 

23 

261  note 

24 

263 

34 

398 

37 

203 

42 

348  IV. 

43 

320  note 

44 

262  V. 

46 

70 

46 

122  III. 

16.  2 

101  I. 

2,9 

102 

3,4 

207 

17 

196  II. 

Luke. 

1.  2 

366 

3 

174 

9 

369 

13—15 

395 

13,  60,63  164 

27, 28 

175 

39 

24 

61 

164 

63 

87  I. 

69 

47 

2.  5 

154 

7 

110 

22 

161,  388 

22  et  seq 

.  165  I. 

24 

380  I. 

25 

320  note 

25—35 

106 

Luke. 


Chap,  verse. 

Section. 

2.  29 

203 

44 

110 

46 

106  bis 

46 

233 

3.  1 

25  VI. 

1 

25  VIII. 

13 

242 

14 

298 

17 

65 

23  et  seq. 

164 

4.  2 

318  III. 

10 

ibid. 

16  . 

397  tris 

16  et  seq. 

ibid. 

16—21 

372 

16,  32,  33  397 

17—20 

88 

20 

372  IV. 

23 

105 

34 

193  VII. 

34 

195  IV. 

35 

193  VIII. 

35 

196  III. 

40,41 

ibid.  I. 

41 

193  V. 

41 

230 

5.   1  etseq. 

78 

8 

361 

15 

196  I. 

19 

34,35 

27,  29 

242 

31 

105 

6.  1 

347  note 

1—5 

348  II. 

6 

397 

6  et  seq 

319  II. 

15 

321  bis 

17,  18 

193  VI. 

7.  2 

199  V. 

12 

206 

14 

205 

21 

184 

21 

193  VI. 

21 

196  I. 

21,22 

ibid. 

32 

211 

33 

196  I. 

34 

149 

INDEX  OF  PASSAGES  ILLUSTRATED. 


560 


Luke. 

Luke. 

Luke. 

Cbap.  verse. 

Section. 

Chap,  verse. 

Section. 

Chap,  verse. 

Section. 

7.  35 

106 

1 1 .  52 

106 IV. 

2!.  35 

52 

36,  38 

146 

12.  6 

117 

22.  4,  52 

269 

37,  38 

148 

46 

260  V. 

20 

384 

38 

125 

13.  1,2 

321 

22 

203 

39 

320 

4 

335 

31 

65 

44 

123 

6  et  seq 

72 

31 

1  r»i-»  TTT 

196  III. 

S.  2 

193  VI. 

10 

397 

38 

180 

2 

195  IV. 

10—17 

348  II. 

41 

396 

2 

196  I. 

11 

193  XII. 

61,  62 

36 

2,30,38  193  V. 

11 

195  I. 

23.  1-5,13- 

15261 

9fi 

9^  TTT 
111. 

11 

196  I. 

31 

70 

97 

lfu  1. 

11—13 

ibid. 

34 

263 

97 

LiJO  1. 

12 

196  III. 

36 

261  note 

lQfi  TTT 

jyo  in. 

14, 15 

372  I. 

43 

197  II. 

30—32 

193  VIII. 

16 

193  XII. 

51 

320  note 

30—32 

196  III. 

32 

193  VI. 

53 

122  III. 

35 

195  I. 

32 

196  I. 

24.  1 

102 

41 

372  I. 

33 

244 

43 

105 

14.   1  et  seq.  319  II. 

John. 

43 

199  note 

7 

148 

1.  27 

123 

44 

122 

8 

145 

29,  36 

384 

9.  1 

196  1. 

8,  10 

146 

41,49 

230 

3 

42 

13 

148 

42 

164 

3 

120 

24 

145 

2.  6 

114  III. 

7 

240 

34,35 

57 

6 

320 

27 

203 

15.22 

128 

8 

146 

38—40 

195  III. 

23 

141 

12—22 

342 

39 

196  I. 

16.  2 

238 

15 

242 

42 

ibid. 

14 

319  III. 

20 

340 

49 

193  V. 

18 

160 

3.  3 

325 

62 

59 

19 

119,  224 

10 

ibid. 

10.  4 

42,  175 

20 

182 

29 

154 

15 

196  III. 

21 

51,  182 

4. 

25  II. 

17       196  II.  III. 

22,  23 

146 

5 

326 

18 

193  IX. 

22  et  seq 

197 II. 

9 

166 

30 

14  IV. 

17.  16 

326 

9  etseq.  326 

33 

319  II. 

18.  10—14 

396 

20 

326  II. 

34 

110 

11 

319  III. 

25 

230 

11.  14 

193II.V. 

11 

320 

25  et  seq.  326  I. 

"  14 

195  I.  II. 

11, 13 

238 

27 

106 

14 

196  I. 

13 

396 

35 

62 

15—19 

100  IV. 

18 

320  note 

36 

ibid. 

16—24 

196  III. 

19.  2 

242 

46^ 

196  II. 

17—19 

193  X. 

4,5 

72 

5.  2 

198 

19 

193  V. 

20 

133 

2-4, 6, 7  ibid. 

24 

193  XI. 

29—36 

48 

2—18 

348  II. 

24—28 

196  III. 

20.  27—36 

318  II. 

3 

196  II. 

44 

207 

21.29,  30 

72 

3 

199  IV. 

570 


INDEX  OF  PASSAGES  ILLUSTRATED. 


John.  John.  Acts. 


Chap,  verse. 

Section. 

Chap,  verse. 

Section. 

Chap,  verse. 

Section. 

O.    4,  0 

i  no 

iyy 

1  e  on 
15.  oO 

OIO  TT 

olo  11. 

2.  5 — 13 

355 

fi  9 

1  C\Ct  TT 

lyo  11. 

1  a  10 
lo.  1,2 

ftrn  TT 

25o  11. 

11 

0 1  f 
315 

1Q 

111 

1  1  O  17"TT 

1  lo  Vll. 

2 

245 

13 

69 

7     9  Q7 

ODD 

0 

A 

O^O  TT 

o/2  11. 

15 

1  a  1  boa/! 

101,1396 
399 

Q  on 
if — Z\) 

1  act  TT 

lyb  11. 

lo,  17 

ono 
20o 

42 

iy,  ,4U 

1  C\Ct  T 

iyo  l. 

01  on 
A\  22 

lo7 

4o 

O/i  cr 
o45 

9** 

10,4 

1  Q  1 

lo.  1 

19,70,71 

0  1 

3.  1 

i ni  onp 

101,  o9o 

9<* 

/SO 

O/IQ  TTT 

o4o  111. 

1,2 

70 

2 

182,  o41 

oo 

ono 

2Uo 

0,  12 

2o9 

11 

2o3 

oO 

OO  1 

o24 

lo — 18 

246 

A  1 

4.  1 

269 

37 

OC^i  T 
ODD  1. 

lo,  17 

35 

5 

C\AA  TTT 

244  ill. 

OS 

OO 

22 

0,1 
24 

244 

1 1 
11 

on 
o9 

fl       1  Q 
O.     1  O 

ow  TTT 

o7  111. 

Ork 

29 

241 

0.   0,  10 

205 

J  O 

i  fn 

ioy 

0  1 

ol 

C%  A  A  U" 

244  bis 

1  0 

12 

OOO  O/IO 

2oo, o42 

f 

o 

i  fQ  Of  >y 
1 oo,  257 

J9.  2,5 

261 

C\  A 

24 

nark 

2o9 

4 

257 

2,  23 

241 

O  A 

34 

lOo 

91 

ono 
2Uo 

6 

244 

O/t 

o4 

onn  a.  * 

o2U  note 

9.1  O/l 

o  I — o4 

1  *70 
172 

17 

335 

ol 

001 
o21 

Q9  O/i 
o,4,  .54 

oo 

ibid. 

23 

368  II. 

00  on 
00,  oy 

OiQ  T 

olo  1. 

1  *70    1  ^O 
1 /2,  I/O 

23,24 

263 

vIO 

42 

OA  K 

o45 

*44 

OI  Q  TTT 

olo  111. 

29 

261  note 

tt  t 
O.  1 

OO/I 

o24  bis 

<^9 

OO 

2o 

31 

347  note 

1  et  se 

«    O'VO  TTT 

q.  o72  ill. 

O      1  O/l 

y.  i — o4 

O40  D1S 

31  etseq.  259  II. 

5 

0 1  c 
olo 

O  o  I 

Z,  o4 

OIO  TT 

olo  11. 

31—37 

262  V. 

9 

o24 

7,  11 

OOf 

000 

36 

254  bis 

1 0 
12 

CIA  A  TTT 
244  111. 

in  i i  ta 

Act 

4o 

36,  37 

384 

7. 

1  ^O      O/l  /1 

17o,  244 

Q 

o 

000 
2oo 

38 

241 

to 
00 

1  nn 

lyU 

O     1  A 

o,  14 

4o 

38 

320  note 

oO 

one 

i  o  ii 

1» — 14 

42  note 

39 

117 

Ci  0 

0.  2 

oner 
205 

on 
20 

1  (\d  T  TT 

lUol.il. 

39,  40 

204 

5,  15 

oon 
22U 

oo 

00O 

41 

70, 206 

27 

oon  iu\ 
2oU  (0) 

oo 
Z6 

O/IO 

o42 

41 

207 

2o 

oy 

40 

17 

20.  1 

101  I. 

9.  B 

O/l  /1 

244 

11.  9 

101 

1,  19 

102 

9n 
29 

OO/f 

o24 

18 

113  VII. 

5,  11 

207 

0^ 
o7 

on/i  one: 
2U4,  ^UO 

24 

318  II. 

7 

204 

o"v  on 
o7 — oy 

0/? 
oO 

31 

211 

15 

70 

on 
o9 

DO 

OO 

38 

207  bis 

21.  7 

120,  121 

41 

ool 

44 

204, 133 

18 

263 

A  O 

4o 

o4 

12.  2 

145 

1  n  1 

IU.  1 

3  117,2231V. 

Acts. 

2,  22 
9  1 

325 

12—16 

48 

Acts 

97  note 

01,34,396 

42 

372  II. 

1.  12 

113  VIII. 

17 

176 

13.  5 

149 

13 

321  note 

25,  26 

175 

18 

ibid. 

18 

200 

32 

84 

23 

146 

2.  1 

355 

38 

193X11. 

26 

147 

5 

325 

38 

1961.  III. 

14.  30 

203 

5—11 

315 

11.  19 

315 

INDEX  OF  PASSAGES  ILLUSTRATED. 


571 


Acts.  Acts.  Romans. 


Chap,  verse. 

Section. 

Chap,  verse. 

Section. 

Chap,  verse. 

Section. 

1  1  OA 

11.  /4U 

o^4 

1  Q      *t  ■    1  O 

lo.   7 — lo 

Ol  R 

ol5 

O    1 0 

<4.  lo 

ob 

io  O 

OKT 

/45/ 

lo 

OAK 

«595 

O  OO  OR 
O.  /4o  /iO 

OOA 

oo4 

4 

/409 

OO 

22 

OOA 

54/49 

A  11 
4.  11 

1  ao 

Q 

o 

121 

19.  9 

O/l  c 

o45 

ft  IT 

b.  17 

1  70 

1  /  2 

1  O 

lo 

OR 

o5 

A    1 A 

9,  10 

OA"? 

o97 

OO 

54o 

OflQ 

549o 

1  R 

15 

Ol  Q  TTT 
olo  111. 

1  o 
12 

1  OO 

loo 

7  OR 

7. 545 

OQA 

oo4 

i  a 

19 

249 

lb 

1  ACT  T 

195  1. 

O    1  R 

o.  15 

1  71    1  TO 

171, 1 /2 

0<21 

obl 

OA 

nor  ,  _ 

2o5  note 

OA 

24 

A  1  O 

412 

i  >v 
17 

2o 

1  r\f\  etna 

190,  202 

OR 

25 

O  A 

o4 

OA 

29 

tftR  TTT 

lb5  111. 

1 O  1 

lo.  1 

OA  A 

240 

OO 

29 

OOP  ■«  - 

2o5  note 

A  1 

9.  1 

OAO 

o92 

o  o 
2,  3 

ob4,  3b7 

29 

ol5 

11  A 

11.  9 

RO 

52 

A  d 

4— b, 

J  315 

20.  b,  7 

onn 

o99 

l  <y  OA 
17,  24 

70,  71  note 

1  o  Ret 
lo — 52 

"V  11 

7 — 11 

ibid,  bis 

to  1 
12.  1 

OTQ  T  OOA 

o/o  1.  oo4 

R    1  R 

5,  15 

oto 
o754 

9 

OA  R 

o45 

13 

149,  361 

1  O 

b — 155 

OA1 

2U1 

Ol    1  A      1  A 

21.  1U — 14 

OftO 

2bo 

13.  13 

148 

1  A 

14 

o97 

OA 

2U 

OOI 

o541 

15.  16 

384 

15 

OTO  T  TT 

0/2 1. 11. 

OO  O/l 

54o,  544 

OAK 

o95 

25, 26 

361 

1  R 

15 

o97  bis 

Ol 

ol 

54b9 

16.  2 

ibid. 

lo 

o,45 

Ol  OA 

ol — o4 

OA  1 

o41 

5 

345 

AO 

4/5 

o4/  note 

OO 
0/4 

OA  1 

/241 

7 

372  V. 

AO 

4o 

Ol  R 

o!5 

OO  o 

<4/4.  3 

1 1  l£t   O0 1 

1UO,  341 

R(\ 

5U 

lDlQ. 

OO  Q 

/4o.  o 

OOO  T 

0/4,4  1. 

1  Corinthians. 

K1 

51 

oo4 

Q  A 

o,  9 

Ol  Q  TTT 
olo  111. 

1.20 

182 

14.    1 — 2o 

OIK 

ol5 

OO 

54o 

2b9 

3.  6 

ibid. 

A 

4 

<j7o  tt 
o754  V. 

OA 

24 

OOA 

2o9 

4.  2 

171 

1  o 
lo 

/1A1  T7" 

4U1  V. 

OA  Oft 

544 — 54b 

Oi  1 

241 

9 

285  note 

\R  O 

15.  53 

54549 

OA  oct 
24 — ob 

ibid. 

5.   1  et  seq 

.  325 

CM 

21 

OTO  007 

o/54,  dy  / 

oa 
2b 

1  T A 

174 

2—9 

258  II. 

1  f?      1       A  A 

lb.    1— 4U 

315 

O/f  i 

24.  1 

OOA 

54549 

5 

ibid. 

1 Q  Id 

lo,  lb 

OAR 

«545 

1       1 A 
1  10 

O  1  1 

5441 

7 

354, 384 

1 Q  OR 

lo  —545 

OQ7 

oy  1 

O 

3 

1  A 

174 

9—11 

402  V. 

1/1 
14 

Ol  k. 
ol5 

O  OO  0"7 

o,  «5/4— /4  / 

OA  1 

/441 

6.  1—7 

239 

1  R 

15 

1  AO 

149 

or? 
547 

ibid. 

9, 13,  18  402  V. 

lb 

1QQ  TV 

l9o  lv. 

OK  IO 

25.  154 

ibid. 

7.  18 

163 

i  ft 
lb 

IOC  TTT 

195  lv . 

OO 

2o 

ibid. 

21—23 

172 

i  ft 
lb 

1Q«  TTT 
19b  111. 

26.  5 

174 

8.  4 

196  III. 

OO  OR 
54/4,  ZO  

>255 
) 

10 

361 

5 

408 

OA  OT 

oU,  37 

24,25 

241 

10 

143  VII. 

547 

OAO 

544» 

27.  1 

269 

9.  7 

298 

17.  1—17 

315 

14 

21 

9 

171  VI. 

2 

397 

28.  7 

149 

9—12 

64 

4 

315 

16 

249 

24 

285 

7 

149 

24—27 

ibid. 

19 

247 

Romans. 

26 

ibid. 

23 

401  III. 

1-11. 

318  IV. 

10. 16 

354 

18.  4 

397 

1.  1 

367 

30 

145 

6 

334 

7 

361 

11.  5 

399 

7 

325 

19—25 

313 

6—12 

125 

572 


INDEX  OF  PASSAGES  ILLUSTRATED. 


1  Corinthians. 


Chap,  verse. 

Section. 

11.  10 

127 

11—16 

399 

17—34 

ibid. 

24,  25 

384 

26 

354 

28 

247 

12.  9 

196  II. 

13 

172 

13. 12 

132 

14.  1—33 

399 

34—40 

ibid. 

15.  1 

182 

32 

260  VII. 

55 

52 

55, 56 

203 

16.  1-4 

372  V. 

13 

291 

19 

345 

2  Corinthians. 

1.23 

392 

2.  17 

144 

3.  15 

397 

5.  1 

197  II. 

6—9 

203 

21 

384 

8.  23 

372  V. 

9.  1—15 

399 

11.  8 

298 

22 

324 

24 

245,  255 

24 

372  II. 

12.  7 

190 

7 

196  III. 

21 

402  V.g 

Galatians. 

2.  9 

35 

15—17 

361 

3. 13 

259  II. 

15 

51 

19 

190 

28 

172 

4.  2 

171 

6 

ibid. 

5.  1 

291 

21 

148 

6. 17 

134 

Ephesians. 

Chap.   A'erse.  Section. 


1.  13 

134 

2. 14 

173 

14, 15 

361 

3.  2 

171 

3 

367 

4.11 

42  note 

28 

252 

5.  2 

384 

25—33 

153 

6.  8 

172 

14 

273, 274 

14 

291 

17 

272 

Philippians. 

1.  13 

203 

21 

197  II. 

27 

291 

2.  9 

164 

17 

379, 384 

25 

372  V. 

3.  2 

51 

5 

324 

11—14 

285 

14 

ibid. 

21 

197  II. 

Colossians. 

1.  15—18 

165  III. 

3. 10, 11 

172 

15 

285 

4.  6 

142  note 

15 

345 

1  Thessalonians. 

2. 15 

173 

15, 16 

361 

3.  8 

291 

4. 13 

211  note 

5.  8  273 


2  Thessalonians. 
2. 15  291 
3.  17  89 

1  Timothy. 
1.  20  258  II. 

3.  2  149 


1  Timothy. 

Chap,   verse.  Section. 


3.  8 

84 

15 

35 

4.  4,5 

145 

5.  10 

149  bis 

17 

106 

18 

64 

18 

171  VI. 

2'Timothy. 

1.  10 

314  II. 

2.  4 

298 

5 

285 

19 

39 

3.  8 

403  I. 

4.  6 

203,  379 

6 

384 

7,8 

285 

8 

285  bis 

13 

87  II. 

13 

122  III. 

14 

84 

17 

260  VII. 

Titus. 

1.  7 

84, 171 

Philemon. 

2 

345 

10 

172 

Hebrews. 

1.  4 

164 

2.  2 

190 

5 

318  III. 

9 

203 

14 

ibid. 

14 

318  III. 

7.  5—7 

390 

9.  2 

328 

3—28 

384 

4 

333 

13, 14 

252 

[0.  1—18 

318  IV. 

10-14, 18 

384 

28 

258 

33 

285  note 

1.  5 

203 

13, 15 

ibid. 

INDEX  OF  PASSAGES  ILLUSTRATED. 


573 


Hebrews. 

1  Peter. 

Revelation. 

Chap,  verse. 

Section. 

Chap,  verse.  Section. 

Chap,  verse. 

Section. 

11.35 

260  VI. 

3.  3  125 

17 

164 

37 

122  III. 

7  153 

3.  1,7,14 

372  V. 

12.  1 

285 

4.  3  148 

5 

178 

23 

165  III. 

10  171 

20 

145 

23 

197  II. 

5.  4            42  note 

5.  1 

88 

24 

384 

6.  7 

ibid. 

13.  2 

149 

2  Peter. 

7.  4—8 

134 

15, 16 

384 

2.  4          197  II. 

9 

75, 285 

20 

42  note 

22  51 

9.  7 

23  IV. 

17 

273 

James. 

1  John. 

10.  9 

87  III. 

1.  1 

324 

2.  2  384 

12.  7—9 

196  III. 

25 

172 

4. 10  ibid. 

9 

318  III. 

2.  1—8 

319  III. 

13. 17, 18 

134 

2 

128 

2  John. 

14.  1—5 

ibid. 

3 

345 

11  175 

9 

172 

5.  2 

135 

19, 20 

69 

4 

62 

Jude. 

20 

113  VII. 

7 

21 

6            197 II. 

18. 12 

119 

11 

86 

7  19 

12, 16 

224 

9  203 

19.  17, 18 

148 

1  Peter. 

20 

175 

1.  1 

324 

Revelation. 

20.  2 

318  III. 

2 

384 

1.  3  86 

21.14 

39 

2.  6 

39 

5—11     165  III. 

16 

113  VII. 

24 

384 

10  399 

22.  4 

172 

25 

42  note 

2. 1,8,12,18  372  V. 

9 

175 

END. 


